Metrology

The rapid advancement of materials science is driving the development of emerging advanced materials, such as nanomaterials, composites, biomaterials, and high-performance metals. These materials possess unique properties and offer significant potential for innovative applications across industries. Standardization plays a crucial role in ensuring the reliability, consistency, and comparability of material quality assessments. Although typical material specification standards, which rigidly define allowable characteristic ranges, are well-suited for established materials like steel, they may not be directly applicable to emerging advanced materials due to their novelty and evolving nature. To address this challenge, a distinct approach is required—flexible yet robust testing standards for assessing material quality. This paper introduces scenario-based methodologies, a structured approach to developing such standards, with a particular focus on metrological aspects of measurement methods and procedures. Additionally, self-assessment processes aimed at verifying measurement reliability are integrated into the methodology. These methodologies involve defining target materials and their applications, identifying critical material characteristics, specifying appropriate measurement methods and procedures, and promoting adaptable yet reliable guidelines. To maintain relevance with metrological advancements and evolving market demands, these quality testing standards should undergo periodic review and updates. This approach enhances industrial confidence and facilitates market integration. Full article

Thermal mass flow sensors (TMFS) are used to detect the flow rates of gases. TMFS elements are available in different technologies and, depending on the one used, the material choice of substrate, heater, and temperature sensors can limit their performance. In this work, a sensor element based on the Ensinger Microsystems Technology (EMST) is presented that uses PEEK as the substrate, nickel-chromium as the heater, and nickel as the temperature sensor material. The fabrication process of the element is described, the completion to a flow sensor with a control and readout circuit based on discharge time measurement with picosecond resolution is presented, and measurement results are shown, which are compared to sensors with a commercially available element based on thin film technology on ceramic and an element built with discrete components, all using the same electronics. It is shown that the operation of all sensor elements with the proposed readout circuit was successful, flow-dependent signals were achieved, and the performance of TMFS in EMST improved. Its heater shows better results compared to the commercial element due to material choice with a smaller temperature coefficient of resistance. In its current state, the TMFS in EMST is suitable to detect flow rates > 20 SLPM. The performance needs to be improved further, since the temperature sensors still differ too much from another. Full article

Access to significant amounts of data is typically required to develop structural health monitoring (SHM) systems. In this study, a novel SHM approach was evaluated, with all training data collected solely from a validated finite element analysis (FEA) of a reinforced concrete (RC) beam and the structural health based on the tension side of a rebar under flexural loading. The developed SHM system was verified by four-point bending experiments on three RC beams cast in the dimensions of 4000 mm × 200 mm × 400 mm. Distributed optical fibre sensors (DOFS) were mounted on the concrete surface and on the bottom rebar to maximise sample points and investigate the reliability of the strain data. The FEA model was validated using a single beam and subsequently used to generate labelled SHM strain data by altering the dilation angle and rebar sizes. The generated strain data were then used to train an artificial neural network (ANN) classifier using deep learning (DL). Training and validation accuracy greater than 98.75% were recorded, and the model was trained to predict the tension state up to 90% of the steel yield limit. The developed model predicts the health condition with the input of strain data acquired from the concrete surface of reinforced concrete beams under various loading regimes. The model predictions were accurate for the experimental DOFS data acquired from the tested beams. Full article

Over recent years, ultrasonic atomization, especially with regard to liquid metals, has become an object of increased interest, mainly from industry, for additive manufacturing, but also from investigators, for research purposes. A strong correlation between the average particle size, distribution of particle sizes, and other process parameters like frequency and vibration amplitude was noted based on the analysis of available theoretical studies, simulations and experiments. The influence of parameters of the atomized fluid-like viscosity and surface tension on process parameters was also mentioned. The objective of this study is further research on the feasibility of using ultrasonic atomization to examine the properties of liquids, especially metals in liquid state. It attempts to close a gap in existing knowledge in searching for a new, possibly simple and cost-effective method to study the properties of liquid metals and further clarify the relationship between ultrasonic atomization parameters (amplitude, frequency, characteristics of metal being spilled on a vibrating surface) and obtained atomization results meant by average particle size and atomization time. Using numerical modeling (finite element method and computational fluid dynamics) as a methodology, combined with tests of using ultrasonic atomization as an instrument to determine properties of liquid metals, was considered as an introduction to a series of experiments. These tests were followed by real experiments that are also presented. At the first stage, numerical modeling was applied to a case of a specific liquid being spilled over a vibrating surface of different angles of inclination and specified, constant frequency and amplitude. The results of the simulation are in line with the current state of knowledge about ultrasonic atomization. Moreover, they can provide some more information on scalability, thus easing the comparison of the results of other experiments presented in the available literature. As a result, the relationship between fluid properties and the average size of atomized particles was demonstrated independently of the surface inclination angle. In the same way, the dependence of successful atomization on a sufficiently thin layer of a liquid was demonstrated. Thirdly, a correlation between the aforementioned layer thickness and the value of vibration amplitude has also been shown. Taking all the above into consideration, ultrasonic atomization can also be considered a research method and can be applied to study the properties of liquid metals. Further research, simulations and experimentation will be conducted to verify, develop and describe this method in full. Full article

Slight changes in the local properties of a transmission line, dipped in a liquid, can be used to estimate its level through two different determination techniques, involving the capacitance and electromagnetic wave speed, measured by the time of flight. Indeed, the overall capacitance of a transmission line varies linearly with the liquid level, as well as the time of flight of the electromagnetic wave. Both quantities can be estimated via the measurement of a phase shift at radio frequencies, and the simultaneous measurements can be realized using a compact and low-cost design working at a few megahertz. This paper presents a further improvement in sensitivity to challenge the performance of this kind of level sensor, dealing with liquids with low dielectric constants. To better describe this effect, a study on the overall capacitance of different transmission path segments was conducted in COMSOL Multiphysics. The level measurement was performed experimentally on the realized prototype while considering the measured phase shift as a function of the liquid level, for both an unshielded twisted-pair and magnet wires. As the results showed, with the magnet wires the sensitivity was improved by a factor of about 4, consistently aligning with the simulation results and providing a predictable phase shift response with increasing liquid levels. Consequently, magnet wire is a good choice for precise level measurements through RF phase shifts, especially in the case of low relative permittivity liquids. Full article

In particle physics experiments, fragment separators utilize dipole magnets to distinguish and isolate specific isotopes based on their mass-to-charge ratio as particles traverse the dipole’s magnetic field. Accurate fragment selection relies on precise knowledge of the magnetic field generated by the dipole magnets, necessitating dedicated measurement instrumentation to characterize the field in the constructed magnets. This study presents measurements of the two first-of-series dipole magnets (Type II—11 degrees bending angle—and Type III—9.5 degrees bending angle) for the Superconducting Fragment Separator that is being built in Darmstadt, Germany. Stringent field quality requirements necessitated a novel measurement system—the so-called translating fluxmeter. It is based on a PCB coil array installed on a moving trolley that scans the field while passing through the magnet aperture. While previous publications have discussed the design of the moving fluxmeter and the characterization of its components, this article presents the results of a measurement campaign conducted using the new system. The testing campaign was supplemented with conventional methods, including integral field measurements using a single stretched wire system and three-dimensional field mapping with a Hall probe. We provide an overview of the working principle of the translating fluxmeter system and validate its performance by comparing the results with those obtained using conventional magnetic measurement methods. Full article

The proper usage of a bandwidth-limited imaging bolometer for the measurement of the lateral temperature profile of microstructures in Silicon-Carbide (SiC) is analyzed. The SiC spectral emissivity, ${ϵ}_{SiC}\left(\lambda \right)$, has a dip at $\lambda \sim 12$$\mathsf{\mu }$m, which is in the band of a typical commercially available instrument and complicates the selection of the value of the equivalent emissivity, ${ϵ}_{eq,SiC}$, in the instrument settings. The impact is analyzed by deduction using simulation, and by experimental validation. Membranes of 3C-SiC of 1000 $\mathsf{\mu }$m diameter and 3 $\mathsf{\mu }$m thickness have been fabricated on Si wafers, with integrated poly-SiC resistors for both membrane heating and on-membrane temperature measurement for calibration purposes. The optimum setting was found as ${ϵ}_{eq,SiC}$ = 0.705 ± 0.025 by deduction and as ${ϵ}_{eq,SiC}$ = 0.66 ± 0.06 by experimental validation in the temperature range 120 °C to 400 °C. The apparent temperature coefficient of emissivity, $TCE<$ 2 × 10⁻⁴ °C⁻¹ is due to the shift of the Wien peak wavelength relative to the instrument’s sensitivity band. Full article

Predicting the wear of disc cutters in Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs) is a complex challenge due to the large scale of the machinery and the numerous operational variables involved. Laboratory-scale tests offer a controlled approach to isolating and analyzing specific wear mechanisms. However, the extremely low wear rates observed in such simulations pose challenges for conventional characterization methods, as gravimetric and profilometric techniques often lack the precision and accuracy needed to measure low wear patterns with an uneven morphology. To address this, this study revisited a methodology for quantifying low wear rates in a reciprocating wear test using AISI H13 tool steel disc cutters. This approach integrates spherical indentation marks as reference points with 3D white-light interferometry, enabling high-precision material loss measurements. Eighteen disc samples were subjected to wear testing, with 3 indentations analyzed per sample, for a total of 54 indentations. The statistical validation confirmed the method’s reproducibility and reliability. The proposed approach provides a robust alternative to existing techniques, addressing a critical gap regarding the accurate quantification of low wear rates in controlled laboratory settings. Full article

An Abramson-type oblique-incident interferometer was used for the surface-form measurement of hand-scraped marks consisting of rough surfaces. Although the Abramson interferometer could measure the rough surface of hand-scraped marks under noncontact conditions, the inconsistency in the measurement results was caused by the differences in the incident direction of the measuring light. This study investigated the inconsistency in the measurement results of the Abramson interferometer caused by the oblique incidence of the measuring light. The reproducibility of inconsistencies due to the difference in the incident direction of the measuring light was confirmed, and the relationship between the inconsistency of the measurement results and the incident angle of the measuring light was investigated. Consequently, it was confirmed that the inconsistency of the measurement results due to the difference in the incident direction of the measuring light could be reduced by decreasing the incident angle of the measuring light. To avoid the overcrowding of the interference fringes caused by the reduction in the incident angle of the measuring light, an oblique-incident interferometer with a near-infrared laser was constructed. The validity of the developed oblique-incident interferometer was evaluated by comparison with a commercially available contour measurement instrument. The surface form obtained by the developed oblique-incident interferometer was confirmed to be consistent with the envelope of the cross-sectional profile measured by the contour measurement instrument. Full article

More and more surfaces are required to fulfill functional characteristics that are embodied by their surface topography. In the process of measuring and characterizing the corresponding surfaces, many research activities have been conducted, and a broad variety of measuring principles and evaluation strategies have been developed. However, in industrial practice, there is still a lack of experience and a significant unhinged potential in this field. To predict which techniques will most likely be transferred more commonly into industrial applications, a study to identify the most frequently used measurement principles, methods, and surface texture parameters for characterizing functional surfaces through a systematic literature review of scientific research studies is conducted here. It can be shown that optical measuring instruments have emerged significantly, whereas the analysis is mostly performed using traditional and simple amplitude-based surface texture parameters. Based on the results, untapped potential in functional analysis can be revealed and the use of, e.g., function-oriented parameters or a direct measurement of the angular distribution can be recommended for a wider range of applications. Full article

In Maxillofacial Reconstruction Applications (MRA), nonunion is one of the critical complications after the reconstruction process and fracture treatment, including bone grafts and vascularized flap. Nonunion describes the failure of a fractured bone to heal and mend after an extended period. Different systems and methods have been developed to monitor bone regeneration and fracture healing during and after the treatment. However, the developed systems have limitations and are yet to be used in MRA. The proposed smart reconstruction plate is a microdevice that could be used in MRA for wireless monitoring of fracture healing by measuring the forces applied to the reconstruction plate. The device is wireless and can transmit the acquired data to a human–machine interface or an application. The designed system is small and suitable for use in MRA. The results of finite element analysis, as well as experimental verification, showed the functionality of the proposed system in measuring small changes on the surface strain of the reconstruction plate and determining the corresponding load. By using the proposed system, continuous monitoring of bone regeneration and fracture healing in oral and maxillofacial areas is possible. Full article

Incremental capacity analysis (ICA), where incremental charge (Q) movements associated with changes in potential are tracked, and cyclic voltammetry (CV), where current response to a linear voltage sweep is recorded, are used to investigate the properties of electrochemical systems. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), on the other hand, is a powerful, non-destructive technique that can be used to determine small-signal AC impedance over a wide frequency range. It is frequently used to design battery equivalent-circuit models. This manuscript explores the relationships between ICA, CV and EIS and demonstrates how sweep rate in CV is related to charging (C) rate in ICA. In addition, it shows the connection between observations linked to rate of charge movement in CV and ICA and intermittent, irregular behavior seen in EIS when performed on a battery. It also explains the use of an additional DC stimulus during EIS to ensure reliability of battery impedance data and to facilitate equivalent-circuit modeling, and suggests a method for obtaining data analogous to CV from a whole battery without risking its destruction. Full article

Metal additive manufacturing (AM) techniques such Direct Energy Deposition (DED), Powder Bed Fusion (PBF), and Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) enable the production of complex metal components built at rapid rates. Because of the complexity of the process, including high thermal gradients, residual stress, and parameter optimization, these techniques pose significant challenges necessitating the need for advanced computational modeling. A powerful technique to reduce or, in some cases, eliminate these challenges at a much lower cost compared to trial-and-error experiments, is Finite Element Analysis (FEA). This study provides a comprehensive review of the FEA techniques being used and developed to model metal AM processes focusing on the thermal, mechanical, and coupled thermo-mechanical models in DED, PBF, and WAAM. Key topics include heat transfer, residual stress and distortion prediction, microstructure evolution and parameter optimization. Recent advancements in FEA have improved the accuracy of AM process simulations, reducing the need for costly experimental testing, though there is still room for improvement and further development of FEA in metal AM. This review serves as a foundation for future work in the metal AM modeling field, enabling the development of optimized process parameters, defect reduction strategies and improved computational methodologies for high-fidelity simulations. Full article

This paper presents a Maxwell–Wien bridge for use in the calibration of standard inductances with values between 100 µH and 10 H and frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. The inductances are measured by comparison with a variable standard capacitor, in parallel association with a variable standard resistor, on the bridge modified by a Wagner balance. The variable standards are calibrated after the bridge balance. The other resistors in the bridge are standard resistors, pre-calibrated in AC using an automatic Wheatstone bridge and in DC after the bridge has been balanced using a comparison bridge with standard resistors traceable to the quantum Hall effect standards. PXI modules are used to supply the bridge with two voltages controllable in amplitude and phase. Design details and the uncertainty budget are discussed. For an inductance of 100 mH characterized by an internal resistance of 83 Ω, the expanded uncertainties are less than 6 µH on the inductance and 20 mΩ on the internal resistance. For inductances from 100 µH to 10 H, the relative uncertainties are less than 0.02% of the inductance and 0.2% of the internal resistance from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Full article

Boundary Element Methods (BEMs) can be applied to determine the value of the magnetic field at any point within a domain if the magnetic field components are measured on the surface of the domain. For large magnetic volumes, BEMs provide an attractive alternative to fine three-dimensional Hall probe scans for determining the local shape of the field as the fields can be evaluated inside the volume with an arbitrary position and with a reduced measurement time. BEMs have been applied to the field data measured on the boundary of three-dimensional Hall probe scans for two example magnets, which have been measured at STFC Daresbury Laboratory, UK. The fields reconstructed using BEMs are compared to the fields directly measured during the Hall probe scans. The reconstructed fields can be calculated to within 1 mT rms of the directly measured fields. For the transverse field components greater than 1 mT, the fields can be reconstructed to within 5% rms of the directly measured fields. Full article

Metrology, the science of measurement, is an essential underpinning technology—an infratechnology. The correct functioning of the international measurement system that metrology supports is a prerequisite for the development of technology and wider progress in science. Metrology and the measurement system are at risk of being underappreciated. They potentially face a ‘no-win’ environment: their consistent success, a testament to their effectiveness, ironically leads to invisibility. The public and media tend only to pay attention when things go wrong, resulting in negative headlines. Furthermore, metrology’s emphasis on gradual, incremental improvements, crucial for maintaining long-term stability and safety, is incompatible with the short-term focus of the media. This leaves metrology perpetually struggling to gain recognition for its vital contributions and can lead to a danger that metrology will not receive the recognition or resources that it needs to continue delivering benefits. A different way of explaining the indispensability of metrology is therefore needed. This work takes a novel approach to explaining the benefits of metrology by considering the counterfactual argument—examining the consequences if the international measurement system was to fail. It concludes that a balanced argument demonstrating what benefits metrology provides, challenged with the counterfactual of what would happen if it did not, is likely to be the most effective mechanism to ensure the work of metrology and the indispensability of the international measurement system are properly appreciated. Full article

Several materials widely used in scientific research and industrial applications, including nano-filters and neuromorphic circuits, consist of fiber structures. Despite the fundamental structural similarity, the key feature that should be considered depends on the specific application. In the case of membranes and filters, the main concern has been on the pores among fibers, whereas in neuromorphic networks the main functionality is performed through the junctions of nanowires simulating neuron synapses for information dissemination. Precise metrological characterization of these structural features, along with methods for their effective control and replication, is essential for optimizing performance across various applications. This paper presents a comprehensive metrological framework for characterizing the spatial point patterns formed by pores or junctions within fibrous materials. The aim is to probe the influence of fiber randomness on both the point patterns of intersections (ppi) and pores (ppp). Our findings indicate a strong tendency of ppi toward aggregation, contrasting with a tendency of ppp toward periodicity and consequent pore uniformity. Both patterns are characterized by peculiarities related to collinearity effects on neighboring points that cannot be captured by the conventional anisotropy analysis of point patterns. To characterize local collinearity, we develop a method that counts the number of collinear triplets of nearest neighbor points in a pattern and designs an appropriate parameter to quantify them, also applied to scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of membranes, demonstrating consistency with simulated data. Full article

Metrological traceability is essential for ensuring the accuracy of measurement results and enabling a comparison of results to support decision-making in society. This paper explores a structured approach to modelling traceability chains, focusing on the role of residual measurement errors and their impact on measurement accuracy. This work emphasises a scientific description of these errors as physical quantities. By adopting a simple modelling framework grounded in physical principles, the paper offers a formal way to account for the effects of errors through an entire traceability chain, from primary reference standards to end users. Real-world examples from microwave and optical metrology highlight the effectiveness of this rigorous modelling approach. Additionally, to further advance digital systems development in metrology, the paper advocates a formal semantic structure for modelling, based on principles of Model-Driven Architecture. This architectural approach will enhance the clarity of metrological practices and support ongoing efforts toward the digital transformation of international metrology infrastructure. Full article

Three-dimensional measurement technologies based on computer vision have been developed with the aim of achieving perceptual speeds equivalent to humans (30 fps). However, in a highly mechanized society, there is no need for computers and robots to work slowly to match the speed of human perception. From this kind of circumstance, high-speed 3D vision with speeds far beyond that of humans, such as 1000 fps, has emerged. High-speed 3D measurement has great applicability not only for accurately recognizing a moving and deforming target but also for enabling real-time feedback, such as manipulation of the dynamic targets based on the measurement. In order to accelerate 3D vision and control the dynamic targets in real time, high-speed vision devices and high-speed image processing algorithms are essential. In this review, we revisit the basic strategy, triangulation as a suitable measurement principle for high-speed 3D vision, and introduce state-of-the-art 3D measurement methods based on high-speed vision devices and high-speed image processing utilizing structured light patterns. In addition, we introduce recent applications using high-speed 3D measurement and show that high-speed 3D measurement is one of the key technologies for real-time feedback in various fields such as robotics, mobility, security, interface, and XR. Full article