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Biology

Biology is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal of biological sciences published semimonthly online by MDPI. The Spanish Society for Nitrogen Fixation (SEFIN) and Federation of European Laboratory Animal Science Associations (FELASA) are affiliated with Biology and their members receive discounts on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, PubAg, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Biology) / CiteScore - Q1 (General Agricultural and Biological Sciences)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.8 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 3.5 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 4.0 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2079-7737

Latest Articles

16 pages, 2317 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sublethal Abamectin as a Population Suppressant: Decoding the Transgenerational Impact on the Asian Citrus Psyllid for Sustainable Management

by Qing Han, Min Xiang, Zhaoquan Yuan, Hui Liu, Biya Gong and Zhongxia Yang

Biology 2026, 15(9), 683; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090683 (registering DOI) - 27 Apr 2026

Investigating the effects of sublethal pesticide doses on pest population succession and physiological metabolism is crucial for IPM and resistance delaying. This study evaluated sublethal effects of abamectin on Diaphorina citri using two-sex life tables, population modeling, and measurements of hormone levels, energy [...] Read more.

Investigating the effects of sublethal pesticide doses on pest population succession and physiological metabolism is crucial for IPM and resistance delaying. This study evaluated sublethal effects of abamectin on Diaphorina citri using two-sex life tables, population modeling, and measurements of hormone levels, energy reserves, and gene expression to reveal its transgenerational impacts. Results showed dose-dependent and transgenerational effects: both F₀ and F₁ generations experienced prolonged development and reduced longevity under LC₂₅/LC₅₀ stress. Life-table parameters (r, λ, R₀, GRR, T) declined, and the model predicted a sharp population decrease after 60 days (from 10,357 to 1711 and 372 individuals under LC₂₅ and LC₅₀, respectively). The findings indicated that abamectin suppresses population growth by delaying development and limiting adult recruitment. Following abamectin treatment, hormone levels (20E and JH) showed dynamic fluctuations with delayed peaks in the treated groups, while energy reserves (glycogen and triglycerides) were generally reduced. Vitellogenin gene expression was mostly suppressed, except for a transient increase in Vg-1 and Vg-A1 (LC₂₅, day 9), whereas VgR was generally up-regulated except in the LC₂₅ group. Both LC₂₅ and LC₅₀ treatments suppressed D. citri development and reproduction by disrupting hormone balance and energy metabolism, without inducing hormesis. These findings provide a theoretical basis for optimizing field application strategies and support the use of abamectin in IPM programs to reduce outbreak risk and delay resistance development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicology)

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18 pages, 2220 KB

Open AccessArticle

Heat Shock Affects Amino Acid Metabolism in Bovine Cumulus Cells and Denuded Oocytes During In Vitro Maturation

by Hayder Radhi Hussein Mzedawee, Rasoul Kowsar, Golnaz Manian and Mehdi Hajian

Biology 2026, 15(9), 682; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090682 (registering DOI) - 27 Apr 2026

Increased heat levels can affect follicle development, oocyte maturation, and bovine fertility by disrupting amino acid (AA) metabolism and oocyte competence. This study aimed to explore the effect of heat shock on AA metabolism in bovine cumulus cells (CCs) or denuded oocytes (DOs). [...] Read more.

Increased heat levels can affect follicle development, oocyte maturation, and bovine fertility by disrupting amino acid (AA) metabolism and oocyte competence. This study aimed to explore the effect of heat shock on AA metabolism in bovine cumulus cells (CCs) or denuded oocytes (DOs). CCs and DOs were separately cultured for 24 h in vitro at 38.5 °C (control group), 39.5 °C (moderate heat shock-CC, MHS-CC group), or 40.5 °C (high heat shock-CC, HHS-CC group). AA levels were analyzed in 24-h in vitro maturation media using high-performance liquid chromatography. The findings indicated that the HHS-CC group consumed more AAs than the control (p = 0.04) or MHS-CC group (p = 0.03). Compared with the control and HHS-CC groups, the MHS-CC group exhibited elevated alanine levels (p = 0.02). The MHS-CC (p = 0.03) and HHS-CC (p = 0.03) groups exhibited significantly greater glutamine depletion than the control group. The HHS-DO group exhibited significant lysine depletion (p < 0.01) but produced more tryptophan than the control and MHS-DO groups (p = 0.02). In contrast to the control and MHS-DO groups, the HHS-DO group displayed a notably elevated level of appearance (p = 0.005) and net balance (p = 0.005) for all AAs. The findings imply that heat shock may alter the metabolism of certain AAs in CCs and DOs, thereby affecting the developmental competence of bovine oocytes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Developmental and Reproductive Biology)

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17 pages, 1262 KB

Open AccessArticle

Leech Diversity in the Maghreb (North Africa): A Checklist and a Case Report of Parasitism on a Berber Toad (Sclerophys mauritanica) in Algeria

by Noureddine Rabah-Sidhoum, Mehdi Boucheikhchoukh, Bouthaina Hasnaoui, Mohammed Lamine Bendjeddou, Konstantinos Kostas, Noureddine Mechouk and Michail Kotsyfakis

Biology 2026, 15(9), 681; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090681 (registering DOI) - 26 Apr 2026

Leeches (Hirudinea) are ecologically important annelids that interact with a wide range of aquatic vertebrates, yet their diversity, distribution, and epidemiological relevance remain poorly documented in North Africa. Here, we provide a comprehensive synthesis of freshwater and marine leech species reported from the [...] Read more.

Leeches (Hirudinea) are ecologically important annelids that interact with a wide range of aquatic vertebrates, yet their diversity, distribution, and epidemiological relevance remain poorly documented in North Africa. Here, we provide a comprehensive synthesis of freshwater and marine leech species reported from the Maghreb (Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco), based on an extensive review of the available literature. In total, 21 species belonging to 13 genera and four families (Glossiphoniidae, Erpobdellidae, Hirudinidae, and Piscicolidae) are documented, with updated information on their ecology, host associations, and geographic distribution. In addition to this regional checklist, we report the first confirmed case of Batracobdella algira heavy parasitism on the Berber toad (Sclerophrys mauritanica) in Algeria. A single adult toad was found heavily infested by multiple leeches (n = 17), some of which bore spermatophores attached near the reproductive opercula, suggesting possible in situ mating behavior on the host. The high infestation observed in this single specimen may constitute an outlier, requiring further sampling to assess the effect of leeches on the anuran population in the region. By integrating faunistic data with a novel field observation, this study highlights the overlooked leech biodiversity in the Maghreb and suggests their possible ecological and epidemiological significance. Our findings emphasize the need for further investigations into leech–host interactions, pathogen carriage, and their implications for amphibian conservation and One Health in North Africa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Conservation Biology and Biodiversity)

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54 pages, 1782 KB

Open AccessReview

Emerging Technologies in RNA–Protein Interaction Analysis

by Nishinki T. Muthumuni and Jia Guo

Biology 2026, 15(9), 680; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090680 (registering DOI) - 26 Apr 2026

RNA–protein interactions (RPIs), mediated primarily by RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), are central to post-transcriptional gene regulation and govern RNA splicing, transport, localization, translation, and decay. Dysregulation of RBPs and their associated RNA networks contributes to diverse pathologies, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and viral infections. [...] Read more.

RNA–protein interactions (RPIs), mediated primarily by RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), are central to post-transcriptional gene regulation and govern RNA splicing, transport, localization, translation, and decay. Dysregulation of RBPs and their associated RNA networks contributes to diverse pathologies, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and viral infections. However, profiling RPIs remains a challenge due to their inherent transience, low binding affinity, and shifting spatial dynamics. This review provides a comprehensive and systematic overview of current methodologies for investigating RPIs. We discuss RNA-centric and protein-centric strategies. In addition, imaging-based approaches are evaluated for their capacity to resolve spatial and temporal dynamics of RBP–RNA interactions in situ. We compare these methodologies in terms of resolution, sensitivity, specificity, and biological applicability, emphasizing the importance of integrative strategies for constructing high-resolution, context-dependent RPI maps in physiological and disease settings. Full article

15 pages, 9376 KB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Variation in Zooplankton Community Structure and Its Environmental Drivers in the Coastal Waters of Lanshan Port

by Liang Zhang, Lan Wang, Cong Fang, Yinglu Ji, Sichao Pu, Huihui Tao, Haizhou Zhang and Yumeng Liu

Biology 2026, 15(9), 679; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090679 (registering DOI) - 25 Apr 2026

Coastal port ecosystems serve as critical interfaces between marine environments and anthropogenic activities, yet zooplankton community dynamics in these transitional zones remain poorly understood. This study investigated seasonal variations in zooplankton assemblages and their environmental drivers in the coastal waters surrounding Lanshan Port, [...] Read more.

Coastal port ecosystems serve as critical interfaces between marine environments and anthropogenic activities, yet zooplankton community dynamics in these transitional zones remain poorly understood. This study investigated seasonal variations in zooplankton assemblages and their environmental drivers in the coastal waters surrounding Lanshan Port, northern Yellow Sea, through quarterly field surveys spanning spring to winter. A total of 33 zooplankton species and 16 planktonic larval categories were identified, with Hydromedusa, Copepoda, and planktonic larvae comprising the three dominant groups. Marked seasonal disparities were observed in species richness (spring: 21 species and 11 larvae categories; winter: 8 species and 3 larvae categories), biomass (autumn: 333.7 mg/m³; winter: 34.0 mg/m³), and abundance (spring: 185.3 ind/m³; winter: 25.7 ind/m³). Notably, Aidanosagitta crassa maintained perennial dominance across all seasons. Principal component analysis of dominant zooplankton taxa across seasons indicated that the first two principal components explained 70.05% and 15.97% of the total variance in zooplankton community structure, respectively, with distinct seasonal clustering of sampling sites along PC1 reflecting pronounced seasonal succession in community composition. Redundancy analysis revealed seasonal-specific correlations between dominant taxa and nutrients: nitrate concentration was negatively correlated with the relative abundance of Sergestidae in both spring and summer, whereas ammonium concentration was negatively correlated with Hydromedusa; by contrast, the abundances of Chaetognatha and Tunicata exhibited a significant positive correlation with nitrate. We also found water temperature only drove communities in autumn, while salinity had little effect. These findings elucidate the mechanisms structuring zooplankton communities in temperate coastal port ecosystems and underscore the necessity of seasonally resolved monitoring frameworks for effective marine environmental management. Full article

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18 pages, 1304 KB

Open AccessArticle

Isolation and Identification of Entomopathogenic Fungus GC23620 and Its Virulence and Control Efficacy Against Gynaephora qinghaiensis Larvae

by Zexi Lin, Siyu Liu and Youpeng Lai

Biology 2026, 15(9), 678; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090678 (registering DOI) - 25 Apr 2026

In June 2023, a larva of grassland caterpillar Gynaephora qinghaiensis naturally infected by an entomopathogenic fungus was collected from an alpine rangeland in Gangcha County, Haibei Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Qinghai Province. After laboratory isolation and cultivation, the pathogen was identified as Beauveria bassiana [...] Read more.

In June 2023, a larva of grassland caterpillar Gynaephora qinghaiensis naturally infected by an entomopathogenic fungus was collected from an alpine rangeland in Gangcha County, Haibei Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Qinghai Province. After laboratory isolation and cultivation, the pathogen was identified as Beauveria bassiana (designated as GC23620) based on morphological characteristics and ITS-rDNA sequence similarity analysis. The larvicidal efficacy of B. bassiana GC23620 against fourth-instar larvae of G. qinghaiensis were assessed using two inoculation methods in laboratory conditions. The infection process and pathogenicity were analyzed by simulation and parameter estimation using the Time–Dose–Mortality (TDM) model. The estimated parameters for the concentration effect of strain GC23620 (β) were 0.56 (leaf dipping method) and 0.30 (insect immersion method), respectively. After treatment with conidial suspensions (1.05 × 10⁵ to 1.05 × 10⁹ conidia/mL), the cumulative corrected mortalities were 72.73–100.00% (leaf dipping method) and 42.42–90.91% (insect immersion method) at 8 days after inoculation (DAI), and the median lethal doses (LD₅₀) decreased to 1.74 × 10³ conidia/mL (leaf dipping method) and 1.85 × 10⁴ conidia/mL (insect immersion method), respectively, during the same post-inoculation period. After inoculation with conidial suspension under a concentration of 1.05 × 10⁶ conidia/mL, the median lethal times (LT₅₀) were 2.40 (leaf dipping method) and 4.51 days (insect immersion method). A control efficacy of 84.27% was obtained for G. qinghaiensis larvae on grassland at 21 days post-treatment after spraying the fermentation solution with a low dose of 1.05 × 10⁵ conidia/mL. In conclusion, B. bassiana strain GC23620 exhibited high pathogenic activity against G. qinghaiensis larvae and has strong potential for the green control of grassland pests. Full article

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20 pages, 3705 KB

Open AccessArticle

Gut Microbiota Assembly and Host Phenotypic Variation: Core Adaptive Strategies of Triplophysa yarkandensis (Cypriniformes: Nemacheilidae) to Saline–Alkaline Stress

by Huijie Chen, Weicheng Wang, Xinyuan Ye, Li Feng, Mengbo Wang, Tingyu Xie, Daoquan Ren, Yong Song, Shengao Chen, Chi Zhang and Wentao Zhu

Biology 2026, 15(9), 677; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090677 (registering DOI) - 25 Apr 2026

Triplophysa yarkandensis (Cypriniformes: Nemacheilidae), a rare endemic fish in the Tarim River Basin, Xinjiang, China, plays a pivotal role in maintaining the stability of plateau saline–alkaline aquatic ecosystems, yet its survival is increasingly threatened by habitat salinization. However, the multi-dimensional synergistic adaptation mechanisms [...] Read more.

Triplophysa yarkandensis (Cypriniformes: Nemacheilidae), a rare endemic fish in the Tarim River Basin, Xinjiang, China, plays a pivotal role in maintaining the stability of plateau saline–alkaline aquatic ecosystems, yet its survival is increasingly threatened by habitat salinization. However, the multi-dimensional synergistic adaptation mechanisms linking its phenotypic variation, intestinal structure, and associated microbial communities to extreme saline–alkaline stress remain poorly understood. In this study, we innovatively integrated morphological/intestinal histological characterization, 16S rRNA gene sequencing, and microbial ecological analyses (co-occurrence networks and assembly processes) to systematically decode its adaptive strategies. Results revealed that T. yarkandensis exhibits a streamlined body shape, morphological variability, and elongated intestinal villi that may support locomotion and nutrient/ion uptake under osmotic stress. Its gut exerts a stringent selective filter, driving distinct differentiation between water and gut microbial communities—with gut-enriched core taxa (Aurantimicrobium and Aestuariivirga) and functional pathways (unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis and ABC transporters) specialized for osmoregulation. Notably, the water microbial assembly is dominated by stochastic processes, while the gut assembly relies on host-driven deterministic selection, forming a habitat-specific adaptive pattern. These findings uncover the synergistic adaptation system of host phenotype and gut microbiota for survival in extreme saline–alkaline habitats, advancing our understanding of fish–microbe co-evolution in extreme ecosystems and providing critical theoretical support for the conservation of rare plateau fish, as well as guidance for the utilization of saline–alkaline water resources in aquaculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Novel Insights and Advanced Research in Aquatic Animal Diseases and Immunology)

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17 pages, 314 KB

Open AccessReview

Secretion Systems Used by Bacteria to Counteract Fungal Competitors

by Peishuai Fu, Liya Zhang, Xiaofang Ma, Xihui Shen, Lingfang Zhu and Changfu Li

Biology 2026, 15(9), 676; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090676 (registering DOI) - 25 Apr 2026

Although bacterial secretion systems (BSSs) are well known to mediate antifungal effects, current evidence remains fragmented, and a framework linking antifungal strategies in bacterial–fungal warfare is still absent. In this context, we survey Type I to XI secretion systems, integrating experimentally validated activities [...] Read more.

Although bacterial secretion systems (BSSs) are well known to mediate antifungal effects, current evidence remains fragmented, and a framework linking antifungal strategies in bacterial–fungal warfare is still absent. In this context, we survey Type I to XI secretion systems, integrating experimentally validated activities with mechanism-based predictions of antifungal potential. On this basis, we highlight that the antifungal activity of BSSs operates through two different layers: direct fungicidal attack, via effector-mediated disruption of fungal cellular integrity, and ecological competition, through nutrient competition, physical niche occupation, and coordinated population-level activities. Nevertheless, the mechanistic understanding of bacterial antifungal strategies remains limited by simplified experimental models, incomplete effector repertoires, and poorly characterized regulatory networks and environmental cues. Addressing these gaps will require integrated experimental models, advanced high-throughput platforms, and comprehensive multi-omics-guided analyses to elucidate how bacteria suppress fungi and to support future applications. In addition, BSSs represent versatile and programmable platforms for the development of sustainable antifungal interventions in both agricultural and biomedical settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bacterial Secretion Systems: Mechanisms, Regulation, and Their Roles in Microbe–Microbe and Microbe–Host Interactions)

14 pages, 5717 KB

Open AccessArticle

First Report of Trichinella spiralis in Free-Living Invasive American Mink (Neovison vison) in Lithuania

by Evelina Maziliauskaitė, Ramunė Tamošiūnaitė, Dalius Butkauskas and Petras Prakas

Biology 2026, 15(9), 675; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090675 (registering DOI) - 25 Apr 2026

The genus Trichinella comprises zoonotic nematodes infecting a wide range of carnivorous and omnivorous animals, including humans. Infection occurs through the consumption of raw or undercooked meat containing viable Trichinella larvae. Among the species within this genus, Trichinella spiralis is considered one of [...] Read more.

The genus Trichinella comprises zoonotic nematodes infecting a wide range of carnivorous and omnivorous animals, including humans. Infection occurs through the consumption of raw or undercooked meat containing viable Trichinella larvae. Among the species within this genus, Trichinella spiralis is considered one of the most epidemiologically important due to its high reproductive capacity and its frequent association with infections in domestic animals and humans. In this study, muscle samples from 18 invasive American minks (Neovison vison) were examined for Trichinella larvae using the magnetic stirrer method. Species identification was performed via multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR), while the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) region was amplified to evaluate the intraspecific genetic variability. Trichinella larvae were detected in one of the 18 (5.6%) animals investigated, and all isolates were identified as T. spiralis. Ten ITS1 sequences obtained from individual larvae were 100% identical. Network and principal coordinate analyses revealed that the sequences clustered by geographic origin rather than host species and were more related to isolates from domestic pigs than to wildlife animals. These findings provide the first evidence of T. spiralis in American minks in Baltic and Scandinavian countries and contribute to a better understanding of the epidemiology of trichinellosis in the region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Zoology)

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19 pages, 1785 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Rotary Tillage and Fertilization on Chemical Properties and Microbial Communities of Soil Under Continuous Morchella Mushroom Cultivation

by Wei Qi, Litao Lü, Kai Huang, Jianzhao Qi, Minglei Li, Mingwen Shi and Hong Wang

Biology 2026, 15(9), 674; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090674 - 24 Apr 2026

The severe continuous cropping obstacles in Morchella cultivation, driven primarily by soil microecological imbalance, critically constrain the sustainable development of the industry. To address this challenge, this study evaluated the efficacy of rotary tillage, calcium cyanamide (CaCN₂), and organic fertilizer, applied [...] Read more.

The severe continuous cropping obstacles in Morchella cultivation, driven primarily by soil microecological imbalance, critically constrain the sustainable development of the industry. To address this challenge, this study evaluated the efficacy of rotary tillage, calcium cyanamide (CaCN₂), and organic fertilizer, applied individually and in combination, in mitigating these obstacles and explored the underlying microbial mechanisms. The soil was treated on 5 August 2024, and soil samples were collected on 5 October 2024. Four treatments were established: continuous cropping control (CK), rotary tillage (XGX), rotary tillage combined with calcium cyanamide (MPD), and rotary tillage combined with calcium cyanamide and organic fertilizer (MPX). Soil chemical properties were analyzed in conjunction with metagenomic sequencing to characterize the responses of soil properties and microbial communities, including both eukaryotic and bacterial taxa. The results indicated that the MPD treatment showed a relatively pronounced effect in enhancing key soil fertility indicators, including soil organic matter (OM), total nitrogen (TN), available nitrogen (AN), available potassium (AK), and total phosphorus (TP). All amendments significantly altered microbial community structures. Specifically, the integrated MPX treatment effectively reduced the relative abundance of the pathogenic fungus Olpidium while maintaining higher overall microbial diversity. It also significantly promoted the abundance of Morchella itself and beneficial bacterial phyla such as Actinomycetota and Pseudomonadota. Redundancy analysis identified AN and AK as the primary drivers of eukaryotic community variation, whereas Availa-ble phosphorus (AP) and potential of hydrogen (pH) were the key factors shaping the bacterial community. The results indicated that MPD was the showed relatively pronounced effectiveness in rapidly improving soil fertility and suppressing pathogenic fungi. In contrast, MPX showed relatively better performance in optimizing microbial community structure, enhancing microbial diversity, and strengthening overall ecological stability. These two treatments exhibited distinct advantages in soil chemical improvement and microbial community regulation, respectively, thereby providing alternative practical strategies and a theoretical basis for the ecological management of continuous-cropping obstacles in Morchella cultivation. It should be noted that this study did not include treatments with calcium cyanamide alone, organic fertilizer alone, or their combined application without rotary tillage. This is primarily because rotary tillage is a standard land preparation practice in Morchella cultivation, and the use of soil amendments without accompanying tillage is rarely adopted under practical production conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Microbiology)

41 pages, 2121 KB

Open AccessArticle

Peripheral Transcriptomic Signatures Reveal Convergent Neuroinflammatory, Metabolic, and miRNA Dysregulation in Major Psychiatric Disorders

by Ron Jacob B. Avila, Jhyme Lou O. De La Cerna and Lemmuel L. Tayo

Biology 2026, 15(9), 673; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090673 - 24 Apr 2026

Background/Objectives: Although clinically distinct, bipolar disorder (BP), schizophrenia (SZ), major depressive disorder (MDD), and social anxiety disorder (SAD) share fundamental biology. We mapped these transdiagnostic systemic mechanisms. Methods: Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) of peripheral blood RNA-Seq datasets evaluated module preservation, hub [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Although clinically distinct, bipolar disorder (BP), schizophrenia (SZ), major depressive disorder (MDD), and social anxiety disorder (SAD) share fundamental biology. We mapped these transdiagnostic systemic mechanisms. Methods: Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) of peripheral blood RNA-Seq datasets evaluated module preservation, hub gene disruption, and microRNA (miRNA) networks. Results: Seven modules showed robust cross-disease preservation. Overall, 56 of 105 candidate hub genes exhibited altered expression, with 22 passing the false discovery rate (FDR) correction. Hubs like IL1B, TLR2, and MMP9 dominated networks linked to altered inflammatory signaling and structural remodeling. Downregulated ribosomal hubs characterized systemic metabolic stress. Discussion: These signatures capture extensive systemic dysregulation. Inflammation and metabolic shifts correlate strongly with pathways regulating chronic neuroinflammation, epigenetic control, and dendritic pruning. Computational models suggest these cascades evade miRNA controls, potentially compromising structural neural plasticity. Conclusions: This shared transcriptomic architecture challenges rigid diagnostic boundaries. Identifying systemic immune dysregulation and translational alterations as core pathogenic denominators provides a rationale for transdiagnostic therapies targeting upstream systemic networks to mitigate neural vulnerabilities. Full article

21 pages, 937 KB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Gradients Shape Mammal and Galliform Bird Communities in a Mountain Reserve Through Species Turnover and Niche Differentiation

by Qinlong Dai, Yunqiao Zhang, Liuyang He, Jiahao Zhang, Lifeng Zhu and Qiang Dai

Biology 2026, 15(9), 672; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090672 - 24 Apr 2026

Protected areas are often treated as internally homogeneous conservation units, yet their communities may be structured either as discrete modules or as continuous gradients shaped by environmental heterogeneity and human disturbance. Using camera-trap data from Liziping Nature Reserve, China, we examined the spatial [...] Read more.

Protected areas are often treated as internally homogeneous conservation units, yet their communities may be structured either as discrete modules or as continuous gradients shaped by environmental heterogeneity and human disturbance. Using camera-trap data from Liziping Nature Reserve, China, we examined the spatial organization of mammal and galliform bird communities and tested whether species-level environmental responses help explain community structure. From 109 camera-trap sites surveyed between October 2017 and July 2020, we obtained 6688 independent detections and retained 17 species for analysis. We combined β-diversity decomposition, clustering, NMDS ordination, single-species occupancy models, clustering of environmental response coefficients, and Mantel tests. Community variation was dominated by turnover rather than nestedness, and clustering based on co-occurrence and relative activity patterns did not reveal well-separated discrete modules. Instead, NMDS indicated continuous variation along environmental gradients, with elevation and vegetation productivity as the strongest correlates. Occupancy models showed marked species-specific environmental responses, especially to elevation, habitat structure, and human disturbance, and β-based clustering suggested two broad environmental response groups. Although human influences did not affect all species uniformly, some species showed clear sensitivity to recent disturbance and human-modified landscapes. These results indicate that communities in Liziping are better characterized as continuous gradient structures than as discrete modules, and suggest that conservation should emphasize the maintenance of environmental heterogeneity, habitat continuity, connectivity, and differentiated management of human activities within mountain protected areas. Full article

22 pages, 1596 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Ecological Quality Under Dredging Disturbance Using Multiple Macrobenthic Indices in Shellfish Farming Areas of Gamak Bay, South Korea

by Jian Liang, Shu-Ping Zhang, Xu Tian, Zeng-Feng Zhao, Jiang-Yi Sun, Xiao-Yan Zhang, Se-Hyun Choi, Long-Ying Pei and Chae-Woo Ma

Biology 2026, 15(9), 671; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090671 - 24 Apr 2026

Shellfish aquaculture can alter sediment conditions and affect benthic ecosystem functioning, so dredging is widely applied as a management strategy to mitigate sediment deterioration. However, its ecological effectiveness remains uncertain. This study evaluated ecological quality under the disturbance of dredging in shellfish farming [...] Read more.

Shellfish aquaculture can alter sediment conditions and affect benthic ecosystem functioning, so dredging is widely applied as a management strategy to mitigate sediment deterioration. However, its ecological effectiveness remains uncertain. This study evaluated ecological quality under the disturbance of dredging in shellfish farming areas of Gamak Bay, South Korea, using multiple macrobenthic indices. Macrobenthic samples and environmental data were collected before (May 2025) and after dredging (August 2025). Five macrobenthic indices, including the AZTI Marine Biotic Index (AMBI), BENTIX, Benthic Polychaete/Amphipod ratio (BPA), Benthic Pollution Index (BPI), and Multivariate AMBI (M-AMBI), along with a composite index, were used to assess ecological quality. Temporal changes within groups were tested using Wilcoxon signed-rank tests, and differences between dredged and control stations were examined using Mann–Whitney U tests. Multivariate analyses were used to explore environmental gradients and community responses. Results showed clear seasonal variation in environmental conditions and macrobenthic community structure. Most indices indicated a decline in ecological quality after dredging, with higher AMBI values and lower BENTIX, BPI, and M-AMBI values at dredged stations. However, these changes were not statistically significant (p > 0.05), suggesting limited short-term effects of dredging. The proportion of stations with acceptable ecological status decreased slightly from May to August. Seasonal factors, particularly temperature and salinity, played a dominant role in structuring benthic communities. Overall, the findings indicate that the short-term dredging effects were weaker than seasonal environmental variability. A multi-index approach is recommended for robust ecological assessment, and long-term monitoring is necessary to fully evaluate the effectiveness of dredging in shellfish aquaculture systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Organisms as Powerful Indicators of Climate Change and Human Impact)

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31 pages, 1906 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Profiling Reveals Differential Responses of Soybean Germination to Neutral and Alkaline Salt Stresses

by Yujie Jin, Lijun Pan, Dingkun Qian, Yuntian Zhao, Shengbo Xu, Hongtian Wang, Zhuo Zhang and Jian Wei

Biology 2026, 15(9), 670; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090670 - 24 Apr 2026

Saline–alkali stress severely limits crop production worldwide. Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] is particularly sensitive during seed germination, a stage critical for stand establishment. This complex stress environment encompasses two distinct yet equally critical dimensions: neutral salt stress and alkaline salt stress, [...] Read more.

Saline–alkali stress severely limits crop production worldwide. Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] is particularly sensitive during seed germination, a stage critical for stand establishment. This complex stress environment encompasses two distinct yet equally critical dimensions: neutral salt stress and alkaline salt stress, each eliciting specialized physiological and metabolic responses. Here, a comparative assessment of four genotypes (tolerant: CN16, CN17; sensitive: Williams 82, K18) under 100 mmol/L Na⁺ revealed that alkaline salt stress exerts a significantly more potent inhibitory effect than neutral salt stress. Tolerant cultivars maintained 75–80% germination under alkaline conditions, whereas sensitive ones dropped below 15%, a divergence primarily driven by superior oxidative mitigation capacity. Integrated multi-omics analysis of the tolerant variety CN16 identified stage-specific regulatory shifts: early alkaline salt stress (60 h) triggers extensive transcriptional reprogramming focused on physical barrier reinforcement, including cell walls and lipid remodeling. By 96 h, regulatory modes between the two stress types diverged: neutral salt elicited a transcriptional surge, while alkaline salt transitioned to a metabolically dominant regulation, shifting flux from growth-related isoflavonoids to defense-related anthocyanins. Crucially, this study uncovers the distinct bioenergetic trade-offs governing these responses: whereas adaptation to neutral salt relies on low-energy galactose metabolism, tolerance to alkaline salt demands energy-intensive processes, specifically the active vacuolar compartmentalization of organic acids and anthocyanins for intracellular buffering. This obligatory energy expenditure restricts biomass accumulation, explaining the severe growth penalties observed in complex saline-alkali environments. Finally, the identification of a core regulatory module driven by key genes, including GmPHOT2b, GmLOG, and GmSHMT08, enriches the metabolic regulatory network under saline-alkali stress, providing core targets and a theoretical framework for precisely balancing metabolic expenditure with biomass accumulation in breeding practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Science)

19 pages, 3412 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Circular RNA circSPEF2 Regulates Testis Development in Crucian Carp

by Fang Gou, Yanmei Gao, Rui Wang, Dongmei Zhong, Rong Yang and Shaojun Liu

Biology 2026, 15(9), 669; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090669 - 23 Apr 2026

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) exhibit significant sex- and development stage-specific expression patterns in the gonads of various fish species, yet their functions and regulatory mechanisms in male reproductive development remain largely unexplored in crucian carp (Carassius auratus). In this study, we characterized [...] Read more.

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) exhibit significant sex- and development stage-specific expression patterns in the gonads of various fish species, yet their functions and regulatory mechanisms in male reproductive development remain largely unexplored in crucian carp (Carassius auratus). In this study, we characterized the expression features and biological functions of circSPEF2, a circular RNA derived from the reproduction-related gene spef2. Our results showed that circSPEF2 expression was markedly elevated in mature testes and progressively upregulated during gonadal maturation. Functional studies suggested that circSPEF2 likely does not act through a ceRNA-dependent mechanism. Transcriptome sequencing following circSPEF2 overexpression identified 45 upregulated and 70 downregulated differentially expressed genes, with GO and KEGG enrichment analyses revealing significant alterations in multiple gonadal development-related genes and signaling pathways. Subsequent siRNA-mediated knockdown of circSPEF2, combined with qRT-PCR validation, confirmed that circSPEF2 positively regulates the expression of genes associated with cell maturation and differentiation, including prdm1a, lamc2, and slc25a27, while concurrently suppressing that of proliferation- and apoptosis-related genes such as wnt8b, cpeb3, and bcl2l11. Furthermore, RNA pull-down combined with mass spectrometry identified three candidate circSPEF2-binding proteins, namely, hnRNP A/B, SRSF2, and CFAP263. Collectively, these findings indicate that circSPEF2 plays an important role in male gonadal development in fish and provide new insights into the post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms underlying vertebrate male reproduction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Developmental and Reproductive Biology)

13 pages, 552 KB

Open AccessArticle

Vaginal Microbiota Composition and Its Relationship with Fertility in Repeat Breeder Dairy Cows

by Erika J. Félix-Santiago, Delia X. Vega-Manríquez, Jorge Flores-Sánchez, Carlos A. Eslava-Campos, Ulises Hernández-Chiñas, Andrea García-Mendoza, Milagros González-Hernández and César A. Rosales-Nieto

Biology 2026, 15(9), 668; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090668 - 23 Apr 2026

Milk production in dairy herds is determined by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, with reproductive efficiency serving as a primary determinant. Infectious, nutritional, and management-related challenges can reduce this efficiency. Following parturition, cows are more susceptible to clinical disorders due to a temporary [...] Read more.

Milk production in dairy herds is determined by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, with reproductive efficiency serving as a primary determinant. Infectious, nutritional, and management-related challenges can reduce this efficiency. Following parturition, cows are more susceptible to clinical disorders due to a temporary loss of integrity in the cervix, vagina, and vulva, which allows environmental bacteria to ascend and alter the vaginal microbiota. These microbial changes may disrupt endocrine responses related to conception and contribute to repeat breeder cow syndrome (RBCS), which is defined as failure to conceive after three or more inseminations. This study investigated associations among cultivable vaginal bacteria, circulating progesterone and glucose concentrations, and reproductive performance in 30 fourth-parity Holstein cows with a body condition score of 3.5. Cows were classified by reproductive history as repeat breeders (RBCS; n = 14) or controls (CTL; n = 16). Vaginal mucosal samples were collected at insemination and cultured on blood agar and MacConkey media under aerobic and microaerobic conditions. Bacterial identification was conducted using Gram staining and standard biochemical assays. Blood samples were collected at insemination, on day 5 post-insemination, and every two days thereafter to measure progesterone and glucose concentrations. Fertility outcomes were analyzed using PROC GLIMMIX, and hormonal data were analyzed using mixed models with repeated measures. The bacterial genera identified included Bacillus, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus, Klebsiella, Proteus, Streptococcus, and Actinomyces. Progesterone and glucose concentrations did not differ significantly between groups (p > 0.05). However, the fertility rate (p < 0.05; CTL:87.50% vs. RBCS:57.14%) and number of attempts to conceive (p < 0.001; CTL:2.5 vs. RBCS:6.7) differed statistically between treatments. A higher prevalence of S. hyicus was detected in RBCS cows, and E. coli, S. hyicus, and Proteus spp. were more frequently detected in non-pregnant cows. These findings suggest that the identified cultivable vaginal bacteria are associated with reproductive status in dairy cows. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Host–Microbiome–Environment Interactions in Domestic and Wild Animals)

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22 pages, 4515 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Translational Behavioral Assays in Depression Research

by Ayush Sabherwal, Julianna E. Peña, Anthony T. Lopez and Frederick L. Hitti

Biology 2026, 15(9), 667; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090667 - 23 Apr 2026

Major depressive disorder is a highly prevalent psychiatric disease, and many patients remain symptomatic despite treatment. Rodent models are central to preclinical depression research, but their translational impact is often constrained by the lack of direct human analogs. We conducted a review to [...] Read more.

Major depressive disorder is a highly prevalent psychiatric disease, and many patients remain symptomatic despite treatment. Rodent models are central to preclinical depression research, but their translational impact is often constrained by the lack of direct human analogs. We conducted a review to identify behavioral tasks with direct cross-species analogs between rodents and humans. We focused on tests with comparable assay structures that measure depressive symptoms and related constructs. We followed PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines and included all relevant studies. After screening 9680 studies and applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, 62 studies were included. We identified 10 behavioral tests with comparable human and rodent versions. These tests include assays of positive and negative valence systems, affective bias, and cognitive systems. These cross-species behavioral tests help close the gap between animal and human paradigms and advance the understanding of the neurobiology underlying depression. Each test has distinct strengths and limitations in its implementation across species. These assays offer a promising bridge between human and rodent research, and continued efforts to standardize and develop these tests will help maximize their utility in enhancing the understanding of depression and developing more effective treatments for mood disorders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Behavioural Biology)

17 pages, 1523 KB

Open AccessArticle

Untargeted Metabolomics Reveals Metabolic Reprogramming Associated with Variable Temperature Stratification During Dormancy Release in Zanthoxylum armatum Seeds

by Manyi Fu, Fengjuan Zhou, Chang Liu, Jihong Xiao and Yushan Zheng

Biology 2026, 15(9), 666; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090666 - 23 Apr 2026

The deep physiological dormancy of Zanthoxylum armatum DC. seeds severely limits its seedling propagation efficiency. Variable temperature stratification is an effective treatment for promoting dormancy release; however, the metabolic basis underlying this process remains poorly understood. In this study, we utilized a UPLC-MS/MS-based [...] Read more.

The deep physiological dormancy of Zanthoxylum armatum DC. seeds severely limits its seedling propagation efficiency. Variable temperature stratification is an effective treatment for promoting dormancy release; however, the metabolic basis underlying this process remains poorly understood. In this study, we utilized a UPLC-MS/MS-based untargeted metabolomics approach, coupled with multivariate statistical analyses (PCA and OPLS-DA), to profile metabolic changes in Z. armatum seeds subjected to variable temperature stratification in a moist sand substrate (15 °C in the dark for 10 days, followed by 4 °C for 20 days). A total of 3687 metabolic features were detected, among which 33 structurally annotated differential metabolites were retained for biological interpretation, including 8 upregulated and 25 downregulated metabolites. Pathway enrichment analysis indicated that α-linolenic acid metabolism and linoleic acid metabolism were markedly altered after stratification. In particular, 9-(S)-HPOTE, colneleate, jasmonic acid (JA), and JA-ACC were significantly reduced, suggesting that attenuation of JA-related oxylipin metabolism may be associated with dormancy release in Z. armatum seeds. In addition, coordinated changes in phenylpropanoid- and cutin/wax-related metabolites implied remodeling of seed-coat-associated metabolism, whereas the accumulation of branched-chain amino acids and the alteration of sulfur- and purine-related metabolites suggested reorganization of metabolic reserves during the transition from dormancy to germination. Overall, these results provide metabolomic evidence that variable temperature stratification is associated with extensive metabolic reprogramming in Z. armatum seeds and highlight JA-related lipid metabolism as a candidate pathway involved in dormancy release. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biochemistry and Molecular Biology)

24 pages, 783 KB

Open AccessReview

Probiotics and the Human Microbiome: Classical Functions, Emerging Systemic Roles, and Future Therapeutic Frontiers

by Imen Zalila-Kolsi and Ray Al-Barazie

Biology 2026, 15(9), 665; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090665 - 23 Apr 2026

Probiotics, live microorganisms that confer health benefits when administered in adequate amounts, are increasingly recognized as modulators of interconnected microbiome–host networks that extend beyond gastrointestinal function. This review synthesizes evidence on classical probiotic roles in maintaining gut homeostasis, immune regulation, and infection prevention, [...] Read more.

Probiotics, live microorganisms that confer health benefits when administered in adequate amounts, are increasingly recognized as modulators of interconnected microbiome–host networks that extend beyond gastrointestinal function. This review synthesizes evidence on classical probiotic roles in maintaining gut homeostasis, immune regulation, and infection prevention, while integrating emerging systemic effects across the gut–brain, gut–skin, gut–oral, and metabolic axes. Rather than presenting isolated outcomes, we adopt a systems-level framework that links probiotic actions to shared mechanisms, including microbial metabolite signaling (e.g., SCFAs), competitive exclusion of pathobionts, barrier reinforcement, and immune–neuroendocrine pathway modulation. We further discuss translational advances that enable rational probiotic design, including targeted delivery platforms (encapsulation and protective matrices), engineered/next-generation strains, and postbiotic-inspired strategies, alongside sustainability considerations and regulatory/labeling challenges. Finally, we outline future directions emphasizing precision microbiome-centered interventions, synthetic biology, and AI-assisted multi-omics analysis to support strain- and context-specific probiotic strategies. Collectively, this review provides an integrated, systems-oriented synthesis to guide future research and accelerate safe clinical and industrial applications of probiotics. Full article

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12 pages, 2411 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Stress Induces VEGF Expression and RPE Disruption in Mouse Eyes

by Akira Minamoto, Ji-Ae Ko, Kota Haruyama, Atsushige Ashimori, Kazuhiro Kimura, Yoshiaki Kiuchi and Hirokazu Sakaguchi

Biology 2026, 15(9), 664; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15090664 - 22 Apr 2026

Mechanical stress has been implicated in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) dysfunction and angiogenic signaling in retinal disorders; however, its direct in vivo effects on the RPE–choroid complex remain incompletely understood. Here, we established a mouse model of localized mechanical stress by subconjunctival implantation [...] Read more.

Mechanical stress has been implicated in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) dysfunction and angiogenic signaling in retinal disorders; however, its direct in vivo effects on the RPE–choroid complex remain incompletely understood. Here, we established a mouse model of localized mechanical stress by subconjunctival implantation of glass beads (0.8–1.2 mm in diameter) in eight-week-old C57BL/6J mice to induce transscleral stretching of the RPE. Ocular tissues were analyzed two days after implantation using histological, immunohistochemical, and molecular approaches, and inflammatory mediators were quantified by multiplex cytokine assays. Mechanical stress induced focal serous retinal detachment, elongation of photoreceptor outer segments, and disruption of the RPE tight junction protein ZO-1. VEGF expression in the RPE–choroid complex was significantly upregulated and accompanied by increased levels of inflammatory mediators, including MCP-1. Intravitreal administration of anti-VEGF agents effectively suppressed stress-induced VEGF expression. These findings indicate that mechanical stress is sufficient to induce structural disruption and angiogenic signaling in the RPE in vivo, providing a useful experimental platform for investigating stress-related retinal responses and therapeutic modulation of VEGF signaling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Cell Biology)

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