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Robotics
Volume 14
Issue 11
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Robotics, Volume 14, Issue 11 (November 2025) – 24 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): This paper presents sign gradient descent (SGD) algorithms that accelerate kinetostatic protein folding, a computational tool for designing protein-based nanorobotic mechanisms. By leveraging gradient-sign information rather than full-torque magnitudes, the method reduces costly force-field evaluations and accelerates convergence within the KCM framework. Simulations on α-helices and β-sheets show substantial performance gains, enabling more efficient modeling and development of protein-based nanorobotic components. View this paper
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35 pages, 10368 KB  
Article
Matrix-Guided Safe Motion Planning for Smart Parking Systems
by Dewan Mohammed Abdul Ahad and Dipankar Maity
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110171 - 20 Nov 2025
Viewed by 472
Abstract
This paper presents a matrix-based approach for motion planning of autonomous vehicles in structured parking environments under Temporal Logic (TL) constraints. Instead of relying solely on traditional automaton models, we construct a product automaton matrix by fusing environment connectivity with task-specific logical requirements. [...] Read more.
This paper presents a matrix-based approach for motion planning of autonomous vehicles in structured parking environments under Temporal Logic (TL) constraints. Instead of relying solely on traditional automaton models, we construct a product automaton matrix by fusing environment connectivity with task-specific logical requirements. This formulation captures both spatial feasibility and temporal logic within a unified matrix representation, enabling efficient synthesis of feasible trajectories via graph-based search algorithms. The method supports task updates and traffic-aware replanning by dynamically updating the underlying matrix structures. We demonstrate the approach using representative parking scenarios with realistic constraints, including one-way lanes, static and dynamic obstacles, and mid-mission task changes. The proposed matrix fusion strategy offers a scalable and rigorous framework for mission-critical autonomous navigation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motion Planning for Autonomous and Intelligent Mobile Robots in Unstructured Environments)
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25 pages, 16954 KB  
Article
Novel Kinematically Redundant (3+1)-DOF Delta-Type Parallel Mechanisms
by Pavel Laryushkin, Anton Antonov, Egor Ispolov, Maria Goncharova and Ayşe Ceren Aydil
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110170 - 19 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 613
Abstract
Although parallel mechanisms are used in various fields, their application is often limited by singularities and a restricted workspace. Kinematic redundancy is a promising approach for mitigating these issues while also extending the functionality of the mechanisms. This article contributes to this field [...] Read more.
Although parallel mechanisms are used in various fields, their application is often limited by singularities and a restricted workspace. Kinematic redundancy is a promising approach for mitigating these issues while also extending the functionality of the mechanisms. This article contributes to this field by introducing two novel Delta-type kinematically redundant parallel mechanisms with linear actuators. The moving platform in these mechanisms has three translational degrees of freedom and consists of two parts connected by a prismatic joint, providing an extra translation between the parts. First, we present closed-form solutions to the inverse and forward kinematic problems, accompanied by numerical examples that validate the theoretical derivations. Next, we analyze singular configurations of the mechanisms with a symmetrical design, focusing on parallel singularities. Using an iterative approach, we identify points within the workspace corresponding to these configurations, including finite-motion singularities. Based on this analysis, we changed the geometrical parameters of one mechanism and presented the design where the singularity-free region of the workspace occupies 95% of the total workspace. This study forms the basis for future research on the proposed mechanisms and their prototyping. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Robots and Mechatronics)
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27 pages, 1719 KB  
Review
Cable-Driven End-Effector Robots for Gait Rehabilitation: A Review and Future Research Directions
by Javier Dario Sanjuan De Caro, Jose David Castillo-Blanco, Daniela Charris, Daniel José Romero Martínez, Mohammad H. Rahman and Chadi Nohra
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110169 - 19 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1138
Abstract
Robot-Assisted Gait Training (RAGT) has emerged as a promising approach to improve motor recovery for stroke survivors. Among RAGT devices, exoskeletons offer precise joint actuation, but they are costly, mechanically complex and present risks related to joint misalignment. End-effector systems present a more [...] Read more.
Robot-Assisted Gait Training (RAGT) has emerged as a promising approach to improve motor recovery for stroke survivors. Among RAGT devices, exoskeletons offer precise joint actuation, but they are costly, mechanically complex and present risks related to joint misalignment. End-effector systems present a more affordable and simpler alternative, but face limitations in workspace and adaptability for assist-as-needed therapy. Cable-Driven End-Effector Gait Rehabilitation Robots (CDEGRs) combine the strengths of both approaches, offering low inertia, flexible configurations, and scalable designs. This review systematically examines the current landscape of CDEGRs, encompassing their kinematic classifications, control strategies, and platform configurations. Unlike previous reviews that broadly addressed exoskeletons or upper-limb rehabilitation devices, this work provides a focused and detailed analysis of lower-limb end-effector systems. In doing so, it identifies persistent gaps in design and control frameworks and highlights future research directions toward more efficient and clinically validated CDEGR architectures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development of Biomedical Robotics)
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26 pages, 13255 KB  
Article
Design of an Earthquake Simulator Based on a Cable-Driven Parallel Robot
by Assylbek Jomartov, Marco Ceccarelli, Amandyk Tuleshov, Azizbek Abduraimov and Aziz Kamal
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110168 - 19 Nov 2025
Viewed by 463
Abstract
Due to the fact that earthquakes cannot be predicted, earthquake simulation is of great importance. An earthquake simulator is a device that reproduces the seismic waves generated by an earthquake. The aim of this work is to present the design and prototyping of [...] Read more.
Due to the fact that earthquakes cannot be predicted, earthquake simulation is of great importance. An earthquake simulator is a device that reproduces the seismic waves generated by an earthquake. The aim of this work is to present the design and prototyping of an earthquake simulator that simulates a real long-period ground motion earthquake with vertical displacement, according to the earthquake seismogram. A control interface was designed for a prototype earthquake simulator to reproduce a given earthquake seismogram. The mobile platform of the earthquake simulator prototype performs translational motions in the direction of the X and Y axes due to the use of a cable-driven parallel robot, and the vertical translational motion of the platform along the Z axis is performed by linear screw drives. A prototype earthquake simulator was manufactured and tested, confirming the feasibility of reproducing long-period ground motion during an earthquake. The earthquake simulator implements motions that make a person experience sensations similar to those that occur during real earthquakes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Industrial Robots and Automation)
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20 pages, 5317 KB  
Article
Sign Gradient Descent Algorithms for Accelerated Kinetostatic Protein Folding in Nanorobotics Design
by Alireza Mohammadi and Mohammad Al Janaideh
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110167 - 17 Nov 2025
Viewed by 416
Abstract
Numerical simulations of protein folding enable the design of protein-based nanomachines and nanorobots by predicting folded three-dimensional protein structures with high accuracy and revealing the protein conformation transitions during folding and unfolding. In the kinetostatic compliance method (KCM) for folding simulations, protein molecules [...] Read more.
Numerical simulations of protein folding enable the design of protein-based nanomachines and nanorobots by predicting folded three-dimensional protein structures with high accuracy and revealing the protein conformation transitions during folding and unfolding. In the kinetostatic compliance method (KCM) for folding simulations, protein molecules are represented as ensembles of rigid nano-linkages connected by chemical bonds, and the folding process is driven by the kinetostatic influence of nonlinear interatomic force fields until the system converges to a free-energy minimum of the protein. Despite its strengths, the conventional KCM framework demands an excessive number of iterations to reach folded protein conformations, with each iteration requiring costly computations of interatomic force fields. To address these limitations, this work introduces a family of sign gradient descent (SGD) algorithms for predicting folded protein structures. Unlike the heuristic-based iterations of the conventional KCM framework, the proposed SGD algorithms rely on the sign of the free-energy gradient to guide the kinetostatic folding process. Owing to their faster and more robust convergence, the proposed SGD-based algorithms reduce the computational burden of interatomic force field evaluations required to reach folded conformations. Their effectiveness is demonstrated through numerical simulations of KCM-based folding of protein backbone chains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Robots and Mechatronics)
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21 pages, 2964 KB  
Article
Neuromorphic Control of Robotic Systems with Numerical Simulations
by Abhaya Pal Singh and Antonio Candea Leite
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110166 - 15 Nov 2025
Viewed by 758
Abstract
In this paper, we considered potential benefits of the neuromorphic control technique for solving specific challenges in robotic control. Developing a neuromorphic control system for a robot involves simulating the architecture and dynamics of biological neurons to perform control tasks. This differs from [...] Read more.
In this paper, we considered potential benefits of the neuromorphic control technique for solving specific challenges in robotic control. Developing a neuromorphic control system for a robot involves simulating the architecture and dynamics of biological neurons to perform control tasks. This differs from typical control techniques and frequently employs spiking neural networks (SNNs). SNNs are more closely related to our brains than conventional neural networks, as they incorporate temporal dynamics. Biological neurons transmit information using spikes. Neurons do not fire in each cycle, but rather when the membrane potential reaches a predetermined threshold, as in a binary system. When a neuron fires, it transmits a signal to the synapse. The control strategy presented in this paper is based on the Leaky Integrated-and-Fire (LIF) and Generalized Integrate-and-Fire (GIF) neuron models. We designed neuromorphic control systems and utilized three robotic systems as examples. Numerical simulations were used to demonstrate the stability, robustness, and effectiveness of the neuromorphic robot control system design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue AI for Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses)
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31 pages, 2486 KB  
Article
Design an Adaptive PID Control Based on RLS with a Variable Forgetting Factor for a Reconfigurable Cable-Driven Parallel Mechanism
by Elham Khoshbin, Martin J.-D. Otis and Ramy Meziane
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110165 - 11 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1030
Abstract
This paper proposes a two-layer adaptive proportional–integral–derivative (PID) controller for precise pose control of a six-degree-of-freedom cable-driven parallel robot with eight cables, specifically designed to handle dynamic changes caused by the movement of attachment points. The positions of the attachment points on the [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a two-layer adaptive proportional–integral–derivative (PID) controller for precise pose control of a six-degree-of-freedom cable-driven parallel robot with eight cables, specifically designed to handle dynamic changes caused by the movement of attachment points. The positions of the attachment points on the base are adjusted to avoid collisions between humans and cables, where humans and robots are working in a shared workspace. The inherent nonlinearity of the robot system was addressed using model identification based on the recursive least squares (RLS) algorithm equipped with an adaptive forgetting factor. This method enables real-time updates to the dynamic model of the robot, thereby ensuring accurate parameter estimation as the attachment points move. The combination of the PID controller and RLS algorithm enhances the system’s ability to respond effectively to changing dynamics. Simulation results highlight the superior accuracy, robustness, and adaptability of the proposed approach, making it well suited for applications requiring a reliable performance in dynamic and unpredictable environments. The proposed method can guarantee human safety, while the end effector tracks the desired trajectory. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive and Nonlinear Control of Robotics)
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17 pages, 5821 KB  
Article
Adaptive Gaussian Mixture Models-Based Anomaly Detection for Under-Constrained Cable-Driven Parallel Robots
by Julio Garrido, Javier Vales, Diego Silva-Muñiz, Enrique Riveiro, Pablo López-Matencio and Josué Rivera-Andrade
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110164 - 10 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2474
Abstract
Cable-driven parallel robots (CDPRs) are increasingly used for load manipulation tasks involving predefined toolpaths with intermediate stops. At each stop, where the platform maintains a fixed pose, and the motors keep the cables under tension, the system must evaluate whether it is safe [...] Read more.
Cable-driven parallel robots (CDPRs) are increasingly used for load manipulation tasks involving predefined toolpaths with intermediate stops. At each stop, where the platform maintains a fixed pose, and the motors keep the cables under tension, the system must evaluate whether it is safe to proceed by detecting anomalies that could compromise performance (e.g., wind gusts or cable impacts). This paper investigates whether anomalies can be detected using only motor torque data, without additional sensors. It introduces an adaptive unsupervised outlier detection algorithm based on Gaussian Mixture Models (GMMs) to identify anomalies from torque signals. The method starts with a brief calibration period—just a few seconds—during which a GMM is fit on known anomaly-free data. Real-time torque measurements are then evaluated using the Mahalanobis distance from the GMM, with statistically derived thresholds triggering anomaly flags. Model parameters are periodically updated using the latest segments identified as anomaly-free to adapt to changing conditions. Validation includes 14 long-duration test sessions simulating varied wind intensities. The proposed method achieves a 100% true positive rate and 95.4% average true negative rate, with 1-second detection latency. Comparative evaluation against power threshold and non-adaptive GMM methods indicates higher robustness to drift and environmental variation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section AI in Robotics)
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39 pages, 7583 KB  
Article
Securing Olive Tree Data: Blockchain and InterPlanetary File System Integration for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Operations
by Jorge Cabañas and Jesús Rodríguez-Molina
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110163 - 5 Nov 2025
Viewed by 545
Abstract
The work presented in this document integrates blockchain, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and Interplanetary File System (IPFS) to improve collection, storage and accessibility of aerial imagery transfer, when these technologies are applied to olive oil production. By using blockchain properties, we aim to [...] Read more.
The work presented in this document integrates blockchain, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and Interplanetary File System (IPFS) to improve collection, storage and accessibility of aerial imagery transfer, when these technologies are applied to olive oil production. By using blockchain properties, we aim to provide a renewed perspective on aerial data transmission, ensuring security while optimizing operational efficiency. This manuscript describes the development of a transmission platform using blockchain to log each image captured by the UAV. It also aims to improve data distribution for applications like environmental monitoring and emergency response. This document outlines specific technological specifications, operational details, and performance requirements, emphasizing a structured approach supported by resources like the ARDrone 2.0 from Parrot, a Java-based blockchain implementation and an IPFS deployment. Each of these technologies are combined in an innovative manner so that they create a framework with enhanced security based on decentralization, redundancy and openness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aerospace Robotics and Autonomous Systems)
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20 pages, 22246 KB  
Article
Design and Evaluation of a Dual-Bendable, Compressible Robotic Guide Sheath for Heart Valve Interventions
by Matteo Arena, Weizhao Wang, Carlo Saija, Zhouyang Xu, Aya Mutaz Zeidan, Yixuan Zheng, Richard James Housden and Kawal Rhode
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110162 - 3 Nov 2025
Viewed by 849
Abstract
Structural heart interventions require precise navigation through tortuous and dynamic cardiac anatomies. However, current guide sheaths often lack sufficient maneuverability for positioning additional catheters. To address these limitations, this paper presents the design and evaluation of a robotic guide sheath with a dual-bendable, [...] Read more.
Structural heart interventions require precise navigation through tortuous and dynamic cardiac anatomies. However, current guide sheaths often lack sufficient maneuverability for positioning additional catheters. To address these limitations, this paper presents the design and evaluation of a robotic guide sheath with a dual-bendable, compressible tip. The sheath is capable of navigating complex cardiac anatomies for multiple valve interventions. The system consists of a soft continuum sheath tip driven by tendons, a laser-cut compact motorized actuation bed, and a joystick-controlled tendon actuation mechanism. A constant-curvature kinematic model maps actuation inputs to tip bending in 3D, while a custom software interface enables real-time control. Mechanical evaluation (tension, maximum bending, and contraction tests) demonstrated low actuation tension requirements (0.78 N), a wide bending range (from 80° to 90°), and promising tip compressibility (average 5 mm). Trajectory-following tests showed good accuracy, with an average error of 3.34 mm. Catheter guidance trials further validated the sheath’s ability to navigate to the right atrium and guide additional catheters effectively. This work presents a proof-of-concept robotic guide sheath with enhanced maneuverability and adaptability, establishing a foundation for future integration of sensing, automation, and clinical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Bio-Inspired, Biomedical, Surgical, Social and AI-Integrated Bio-Mechanical Robotics)
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20 pages, 4637 KB  
Article
Lightweight and Low-Cost Cable-Driven SCARA Robotic Arm with 9 DOF
by Yuquan Shi, Wai Tuck Chow, Thomas M. Kwok and Yilong Wang
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110161 - 1 Nov 2025
Viewed by 2235
Abstract
This paper presents the design and testing of a lightweight, low-cost robotic arm with an extended vertical range. The 9-degree-of-freedom (DOF) system comprises a 6-DOF arm and a 3-DOF gripper. To minimize weight, the six wrist and gripper joints are cable-driven, with all [...] Read more.
This paper presents the design and testing of a lightweight, low-cost robotic arm with an extended vertical range. The 9-degree-of-freedom (DOF) system comprises a 6-DOF arm and a 3-DOF gripper. To minimize weight, the six wrist and gripper joints are cable-driven, with all actuators relocated to the shoulder assembly. As a result, the wrist and gripper only weigh 222 g and 113 g, respectively, significantly reducing the inertia on the end effector. The arm utilizes a SCARA-configuration that slides along a tower for extended vertical reach. A key innovation is a closed-section frame that attaches the arm to the tower, in which the bending and torsional loads from the payload can be directly transferred onto the static structure. In contrast to conventional design, this design does not require the shoulder motor to take the bending load directly. Instead, the motor only needs to overcome the rolling friction of the reaction load. Experimental results demonstrate that this approach reduces the required motor torque by a factor of 30. Consequently, the prototype can manipulate a 3 kg payload at a 0.5 m lateral reach while weighing only 4.5 kg, costing USD 1200, and consuming a maximum of 11.1 W of power. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Robots and Mechatronics)
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22 pages, 40050 KB  
Article
Comparative Study on the Suitability of Free-Boundary Parameterization Techniques for 3D Geometry-Aware Path Generation
by Mahrukh Mahrukh, Gianluca Palli, Mattia Gambazza and Claudio Melchiorri
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110160 - 31 Oct 2025
Viewed by 642
Abstract
This paper presents a comparative study on the suitability of free-boundary surface parameterization techniques for generating trajectories on 3D surfaces. The approach maps a 3D surface to a 2D parametric domain through four parameterization methods: Least-Squares Conformal Mapping, Boundary First Flattening, As-Rigid-As-Possible, and [...] Read more.
This paper presents a comparative study on the suitability of free-boundary surface parameterization techniques for generating trajectories on 3D surfaces. The approach maps a 3D surface to a 2D parametric domain through four parameterization methods: Least-Squares Conformal Mapping, Boundary First Flattening, As-Rigid-As-Possible, and Conformal Equivalence of Triangular Meshes. Structured trajectory patterns are generated in the 2D domain and projected back to 3D. We introduce center-to-boundary geodesic deviation measure, which yields a deviation profile over the boundary loop and reflects how well central alignment is preserved under each parameterization method. The results highlight differences in distortion and geodesic preservation, reflecting the suitability of methods for path generation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sensors and Control in Robotics)
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67 pages, 5859 KB  
Review
A Comprehensive Review of Sensing, Control, and Networking in Agricultural Robots: From Perception to Coordination
by Chijioke Leonard Nkwocha, Adeayo Adewumi, Samuel Oluwadare Folorunsho, Chrisantus Eze, Pius Jjagwe, James Kemeshi and Ning Wang
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110159 - 29 Oct 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3764
Abstract
This review critically examines advancements in sensing, control, and networking technologies for agricultural robots (AgRobots) and their impact on modern farming. AgRobots—including Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs), Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs), and robotic arms—are increasingly adopted to address labour shortages, [...] Read more.
This review critically examines advancements in sensing, control, and networking technologies for agricultural robots (AgRobots) and their impact on modern farming. AgRobots—including Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs), Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs), and robotic arms—are increasingly adopted to address labour shortages, sustainability challenges, and rising food demand. This paper reviews sensing technologies such as cameras, LiDAR, and multispectral sensors for navigation, object detection, and environmental perception. Control approaches, from classical PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) to advanced nonlinear and learning-based methods, are analysed to ensure precision, adaptability, and stability in dynamic agricultural settings. Networking solutions, including ZigBee, LoRaWAN, 5G, and emerging 6G, are evaluated for enabling real-time communication, multi-robot coordination, and data management. Swarm robotics and hybrid decentralized architectures are highlighted for efficient collective operations. This review is based on the literature published between 2015 and 2025 to identify key trends, challenges, and future directions in AgRobots. While AgRobots promise enhanced productivity, reduced environmental impact, and sustainable practices, barriers such as high costs, complex field conditions, and regulatory limitations remain. This review is expected to provide a foundation for guiding research and development toward innovative, integrated solutions for global food security and sustainable agriculture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Agriculture with AI and Robotics)
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22 pages, 2145 KB  
Article
Quadrupedal Locomotion with Passive Ventral Wheels: A Data-Driven Approach to Energy Efficiency Analysis
by David Omar Al Tawil, Paolo Arena, Alessia Li Noce and Luca Patanè
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110158 - 29 Oct 2025
Viewed by 865
Abstract
In this paper, a hybrid locomotion approach is proposed and experimentally validated for a quadrupedal robot to enhance energy efficiency on mixed terrains. A mechanical solution was implemented by adding passive wheels on the robot’s abdomen, to allow for gliding on flat portions [...] Read more.
In this paper, a hybrid locomotion approach is proposed and experimentally validated for a quadrupedal robot to enhance energy efficiency on mixed terrains. A mechanical solution was implemented by adding passive wheels on the robot’s abdomen, to allow for gliding on flat portions of the faced terrains. This strategy aims to reduce the use of the legs, decreasing the overall energy consumption. To allow an efficient use of simulations, a data-driven approach was developed to estimate motor power consumption from joint dynamics on the real robot and subsequently applied within the simulation environment. The neural network achieved a coefficient of determination of R2 = 0.97, ensuring accurate estimation of energy consumption under both simulated and real conditions. Experimental and simulated results show that the proposed sliding gait reduces the average Cost of Transport from approximately 4.5–6.0 during trotting to 0.8–1.1 during sliding, corresponding to a four–five-fold improvement in energy efficiency. Overall, the results demonstrate that a simple mechanical upgrade of the robot’s body structure can significantly enhance locomotion efficiency and versatility on flat or slightly descending terrains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Neural Networks in Robot Control)
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27 pages, 5439 KB  
Article
Concurrent Multi-Robot Search of Multiple Missing Persons in Urban Environments
by Zicheng Wang and Beno Benhabib
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110157 - 28 Oct 2025
Viewed by 863
Abstract
Coordinating robotic teams across multiple concurrent search tasks is a critical challenge in search and rescue operations. This work presents a new multi-agent framework designed to manage and optimize search efforts when several missing-person reports occur in parallel. The method extends iso-probability curve-based [...] Read more.
Coordinating robotic teams across multiple concurrent search tasks is a critical challenge in search and rescue operations. This work presents a new multi-agent framework designed to manage and optimize search efforts when several missing-person reports occur in parallel. The method extends iso-probability curve-based trajectory planning to the multi-target case and introduces a dynamic task allocation scheme that distributes search agents (e.g., UAVs) across tasks according to evolving probabilities of success. Overlapping search regions are explicitly resolved to eliminate duplicate coverage and to ensure balanced effort among tasks. The framework also extends the behavior-based motion prediction model for missing persons and the non-parametric estimator for iso-probability curves to capture more realistic search conditions. Extensive simulated experiments, with multiple concurrent tasks, demonstrate that the proposed method tangibly improves mean detection times compared with equal-allocation and individual static assignment strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multi-Robot Systems for Environmental Monitoring and Intervention)
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23 pages, 1535 KB  
Article
Optimizing Automated Battery Demanufacturing Through Simulation-Based Analysis and Genetic Algorithm
by Muhammad Talha Bilal, Doris Siyu Tian, Martin Choux, Lei Jiao and Ilya Tyapin
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110156 - 28 Oct 2025
Viewed by 625
Abstract
The automation of recycling processes for electric vehicle lithium-ion battery packs is crucial for the advancement of green energy transportation. Testing disassembly strategies on real equipment is time consuming, expensive, and poses significant safety risks. This paper presents a novel simulation-based framework that [...] Read more.
The automation of recycling processes for electric vehicle lithium-ion battery packs is crucial for the advancement of green energy transportation. Testing disassembly strategies on real equipment is time consuming, expensive, and poses significant safety risks. This paper presents a novel simulation-based framework that leverages the integration of a high-fidelity virtual environment with a Robot Operating System (ROS) to visualize and accurately calculate the time required for complex robotic disassembly operations. The calculated operation times are then used as input for genetic algorithm optimization to improve process efficiency. The results demonstrate that automation significantly improves the total speed of the disassembly process compared to manual methods. By utilizing this novel simulation and optimization approach, a 25% improvement in performance was achieved for the pack-to-module disassembly stage. This method provides a safe and cost-effective approach for process design, contributing directly to the development of a circular economy and supporting the transition towards sustainable transportation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Industrial Robots and Automation)
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29 pages, 1299 KB  
Article
S-Curve Trajectory Planning for Industrial Robots Based on Curvature Radius
by Roberto Bussola, Giovanni Incerti, Carlo Remino and Monica Tiboni
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110155 - 28 Oct 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2227
Abstract
Motion planning in robotic systems, particularly in industrial contexts, must balance execution speed, precision, and safety. Excessive accelerations, especially centripetal ones in high, curvature regions, can cause vibrations, reduce tracking accuracy, and increase mechanical wear. This paper presents an off-line motion planning method [...] Read more.
Motion planning in robotic systems, particularly in industrial contexts, must balance execution speed, precision, and safety. Excessive accelerations, especially centripetal ones in high, curvature regions, can cause vibrations, reduce tracking accuracy, and increase mechanical wear. This paper presents an off-line motion planning method that integrates curvature-based velocity modulation with jerk- and acceleration-limited S-curve profiles. The approach autonomously adjusts the speed along a predefined path according to local curvature by planning the motion at piecewise constant velocity and ensuring compliance with dynamic constraints on jerk, acceleration, and velocity. A non-linear filter tracks the velocity reference and smooths transitions while maintaining fluid motion, automatically adjusting velocity based on path curvature, ensuring smooth S-curve trajectories without requiring manual intervention. By jointly addressing geometric feasibility and dynamic smoothness, the proposed method reduces execution time while minimizing vibrations in applications involving abrupt curvature variations, as confirmed by its application to planar and spatial trajectories with varying curvature complexity. The method applies to smooth parametric trajectories and is not intended for paths with tangent discontinuities. The simulation results confirm full compliance with the imposed acceleration and jerk limits; nevertheless, future work will include experimental validation on realistic process trajectories and a quantitative performance assessment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Industrial Robots and Automation)
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17 pages, 2369 KB  
Article
Efficient Parallel Computing Algorithms for Robotic Manipulator Kinematics
by Oleg Krakhmalev, Nikita Krakhmalev, Kang Liang, Ekaterina Pleshakova and Sergey Gataullin
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110154 - 27 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1744
Abstract
A method for compiling object schemes is proposed, which allows constructing algorithms for calculating the kinematic parameters of robotic manipulators. Examples of compiling object schemes for calculating the velocities and accelerations of points selected on the links of the robotic manipulator are considered. [...] Read more.
A method for compiling object schemes is proposed, which allows constructing algorithms for calculating the kinematic parameters of robotic manipulators. Examples of compiling object schemes for calculating the velocities and accelerations of points selected on the links of the robotic manipulator are considered. An analysis of the computational complexity of the obtained algorithms is carried out and a method for increasing their computational efficiency is proposed. An increase in computational efficiency is achieved based on the use of the associativity property due to the reduction of additional and multiplication operations performed by the algorithm. Graphs of computational processes illustrating the developed algorithms are presented. The developed algorithms allow parallel calculations; this will further increase the efficiency of calculations when using multiprocessor computing systems. As a result of the study, based on the object approach, an effective universal method for calculating the kinematic parameters of robotic manipulators has been developed. This will improve the quality of robot control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Robots and Mechatronics)
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27 pages, 11871 KB  
Article
Experiences Using MediaPipe to Make the Arms of a Humanoid Robot Imitate a Video-Recorded Dancer Performing a Robot Dance
by Eduard Clotet, David Martínez and Jordi Palacín
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110153 - 26 Oct 2025
Viewed by 2407
Abstract
This paper presents our first results obtained in the direction of using a humanoid robot to perform a robot dance at a level comparable to that of a human dancer. The scope of this first approach is limited to performing an offline analysis [...] Read more.
This paper presents our first results obtained in the direction of using a humanoid robot to perform a robot dance at a level comparable to that of a human dancer. The scope of this first approach is limited to performing an offline analysis of the movements of the arms of the dancer and to replicating these movements with the arms of the robot. To this end, the movements of a dancer performing a static robot dance (without moving the hips or feet) were recorded. These movements were analyzed offline using the MediaPipe BlazePose framework, adapted to the mechanical configuration of the arms of the humanoid robot, and finally reproduced by the robot. Results showed that MediaPipe has some inaccuracies when detecting sudden movements of the dancer’s arms that appeared blurred in the images. In general, the humanoid robot was capable of replicating the movement of the dancer’s arms but was unable to follow the original rhythm of the robotic dance due to acceleration limitations of its actuators. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Humanoid and Human Robotics)
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20 pages, 4530 KB  
Article
Development of an Anthropometric Soft Pneumatic Gripper with Reconfigurable Fingers for Assistive Robotics
by Francesco Buonamici, Michele Cerruti, Lorenzo Torzini, Luca Puggelli, Yary Volpe and Lapo Governi
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110152 - 26 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1400
Abstract
This study presents the development of a prototype anthropomorphic soft robotic gripper intended for applications in rehabilitation and assistive robotics, where safe and adaptive interaction with humans is required. The device consists of three elastomeric fingers, fabricated in TPU via FFF 3D printing [...] Read more.
This study presents the development of a prototype anthropomorphic soft robotic gripper intended for applications in rehabilitation and assistive robotics, where safe and adaptive interaction with humans is required. The device consists of three elastomeric fingers, fabricated in TPU via FFF 3D printing and actuated through pneumatic soft actuators that ensure compliant contact with both biological tissue and rigid objects. A custom 3D-printed pneumatic rotary actuator enables finger reconfiguration, thereby extending the range of grasping modalities. The actuation system comprises six 2/2 solenoid valves controlled by an Arduino Uno and integrated into a dedicated pneumatic circuit. Experimental characterization demonstrated a peak grasping force exceeding 17 N on rigid targets, while functional tests in table-picking scenarios confirmed adaptability to objects of varying shapes and sizes. Owing to its anthropomorphic configuration, mechanical compliance, and ease of fabrication and control, the proposed gripper represents a versatile solution for rehabilitation-oriented devices as well as assistive robotic end-effectors in pick-and-place tasks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development of Biomedical Robotics)
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31 pages, 8926 KB  
Review
A Review of Mechanical Design Approaches for Balanced Robotic Manipulation
by Yash J. Vyas, Volkert van der Wijk and Silvio Cocuzza
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110151 - 26 Oct 2025
Viewed by 2132
Abstract
Robot manipulators are suitable for many industrial tasks, such as assembly and pick-and-place operations. However, high-acceleration motions result in shaking forces and moments to the base, which can cause vibration of the manipulator and instability in the case of a mobile base. Furthermore, [...] Read more.
Robot manipulators are suitable for many industrial tasks, such as assembly and pick-and-place operations. However, high-acceleration motions result in shaking forces and moments to the base, which can cause vibration of the manipulator and instability in the case of a mobile base. Furthermore, gravity compensation of the manipulator links requires additional motor torque, which can increase energy consumption. Balanced manipulators address these problems by employing a mechanical design that results in the balancing of gravity and other static forces, or the removal of shaking forces and/or moments. This review paper provides an overview of mechanical design approaches for balanced robotic manipulation, with an emphasis on experimentally prototyped designs. We first define the types of balancing according to the literature. We then provide an overview of different approaches to the mechanical design of balanced manipulators, along with simple examples of their implementation. Experimental prototypes in this field are then comprehensively presented and summarized to allow readers to compare their development maturity. At the end of the paper, we outline challenges and future directions of research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Industrial Robots and Automation)
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30 pages, 3032 KB  
Article
High Fidelity Real-Time Optimization of Multi-Robot Lines Processing Shared and Non-Deterministic Material Flows
by Paolo Righettini and Filippo Cortinovis
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110150 - 24 Oct 2025
Viewed by 554
Abstract
Multi-robot ensembles comprising several manipulators are commonly used in industrial settings to process non-deterministic flows of items loaded by an upstream source onto a shared transportation system. After the execution of a given task, the robots regularly deposit the items on a common [...] Read more.
Multi-robot ensembles comprising several manipulators are commonly used in industrial settings to process non-deterministic flows of items loaded by an upstream source onto a shared transportation system. After the execution of a given task, the robots regularly deposit the items on a common output flow, which conveys the semi-finished material towards the downstream portion of the plant for further processing. The productivity and reliability of the entire process, which is affected by the plant layout, by the quality of the adopted scheduling and task assignment algorithms, and by the proper balancing of the input and output flows, may be degraded by random disturbances and transient conditions of the input flow. In this paper, a highly accurate event-based simulator of this kind of system is used in conjunction with a rollout algorithm to optimize the performance of the plant in all operating scenarios. The proposed method relies on a simulation of the plant that comprehensively considers the dynamic performance of the manipulators, their actual motion planning algorithms, the adopted scheduling and task assignment methods, and the regulation of the material flows. The simulation environment is built upon computationally efficient maps able to predict the execution time of the tasks assigned to the robots, considering all the determining factors, and on a representation of the manipulators themselves as finite state automata. The proposed formalization of the line balancing problem as a Markov Decision Process and the resulting rollout optimization method are shown to substantially improve the performance of the plant, even in challenging situations, and to be well suited to real-time implementation even on commodity hardware. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Robots and Mechatronics)
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40 pages, 33004 KB  
Article
Sampling-Based Path Planning and Semantic Navigation for Complex Large-Scale Environments
by Shakeeb Ahmad and James Sean Humbert
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110149 - 24 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1026
Abstract
This article proposes a multi-agent path planning and decision-making solution for high-tempo field robotic operations, such as search-and-rescue, in large-scale unstructured environments. As a representative example, the subterranean environments can span many kilometers and are loaded with challenges such as limited to no [...] Read more.
This article proposes a multi-agent path planning and decision-making solution for high-tempo field robotic operations, such as search-and-rescue, in large-scale unstructured environments. As a representative example, the subterranean environments can span many kilometers and are loaded with challenges such as limited to no communication, hazardous terrain, blocked passages due to collapses, and vertical structures. The time-sensitive nature of these operations inherently requires solutions that are reliably deployable in practice. Moreover, a human-supervised multi-robot team is required to ensure that mobility and cognitive capabilities of various agents are leveraged for efficiency of the mission. Therefore, this article attempts to propose a solution that is suited for both air and ground vehicles and is adapted well for information sharing between different agents. This article first details a sampling-based autonomous exploration solution that brings significant improvements with respect to the current state of the art. These improvements include relying on an occupancy grid-based sample-and-project solution to terrain assessment and formulating the solution-search problem as a constraint-satisfaction problem to further enhance the computational efficiency of the planner. In addition, the demonstration of the exploration planner by team MARBLE at the DARPA Subterranean Challenge finals is presented. The inevitable interaction of heterogeneous autonomous robots with human operators demands the use of common semantics for reasoning across the robot and human teams making use of different geometric map capabilities suited for their mobility and computational resources. To this end, the path planner is further extended to include semantic mapping and decision-making into the framework. Firstly, the proposed solution generates a semantic map of the exploration environment by labeling position history of a robot in the form of probability distributions of observations. The semantic reasoning solution uses higher-level cues from a semantic map in order to bias exploration behaviors toward a semantic of interest. This objective is achieved by using a particle filter to localize a robot on a given semantic map followed by a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process (POMDP)-based controller to guide the exploration direction of the sampling-based exploration planner. Hence, this article aims to bridge an understanding gap between human and a heterogeneous robotic team not just through a common-sense semantic map transfer among the agents but by also enabling a robot to make use of such information to guide its lower-level reasoning in case such abstract information is transferred to it. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Autonomous Robotics for Exploration)
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25 pages, 1260 KB  
Review
Enhancing Emergency Response: The Critical Role of Interface Design in Mining Emergency Robots
by Roya Bakzadeh, Kiazoa M. Joao, Vasileios Androulakis, Hassan Khaniani, Sihua Shao, Mostafa Hassanalian and Pedram Roghanchi
Robotics 2025, 14(11), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110148 - 24 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1665
Abstract
While robotic technologies have shown great promise in enhancing productivity and safety, their integration into the mining sector, particularly for search and rescue (SAR) missions, remains limited. The success of these systems depends not only on their technical capabilities, but also on the [...] Read more.
While robotic technologies have shown great promise in enhancing productivity and safety, their integration into the mining sector, particularly for search and rescue (SAR) missions, remains limited. The success of these systems depends not only on their technical capabilities, but also on the effectiveness of human–robot interaction (HRI) in high-risk, time-sensitive environments. This review synthesizes key human factors, including cognitive load, situational awareness, trust, and attentional control, that critically influence the design and operation of robotic interfaces for mine rescue missions. Drawing on established cognitive theories such as Endsley’s Situational Awareness Model, Wickens’ Multiple Resource Theory, Mental Model and Cognitive Load Theory, we identified core challenges in current SAR interface design for mine rescue missions and mapped them to actionable design principles. We proposed a human-centered framework tailored to underground mine rescue operations, with specific recommendations for layered feedback, multimodal communication, and adaptive interfaces. By contextualizing cognitive science in the domain of mining emergencies, this work offers a structured guide for designing intuitive, resilient, and operator-supportive robotic systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Industrial Robots and Automation)
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