Sports

17 pages, 3684 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Offensive Performance in 5-A-Side Soccer for the Blind: An Exploratory Study

by Boryi A. Becerra-Patiño, Juan David Paucar-Uribe, Rodrigo Yáñez-Sepúlveda, José Francisco López-Gil and José Pino-Ortega

Sports 2026, 14(7), 312; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070312 - 22 Jul 2026

Viewed by 403

Abstract

Background. Five-a-side soccer for the blind (F5) is a Paralympic sport that has been the subject of research aimed at identifying variables that influence performance. However, despite its growing popularity, there is limited scientific literature on quantitative analyses of offensive performance in [...] Read more.

Background. Five-a-side soccer for the blind (F5) is a Paralympic sport that has been the subject of research aimed at identifying variables that influence performance. However, despite its growing popularity, there is limited scientific literature on quantitative analyses of offensive performance in this sport. Objective. To analyze 164 offensive plays by the Argentine men’s national team during the 2022 International Blind Sports Federation (IBSA) Copa América to determine the spatiotemporal progression and the decline in intra-match offensive performance. Materials and Methods. Each play was reconstructed with its progression vector, its finishing zone, and its absolute game minute. Multivariate logistic regression models and weighted trend analysis (Cochran–Armitage) were applied to examine the relationship between these variables and the offensive outcome (shot on-target and goal). Results. Plays originating from high-pressure recovery showed a favorable trend toward shooting on-target. The goal rate showed an empirical decline from 26.1% in the 6th–10th minutes to 6.7% in the final minutes, without reaching statistical significance. Conclusions. The results of this study suggest that the magnitude of the offensive progression vector and offensive effectiveness show an asymmetry toward the right side, as well as a pattern consistent with an intra-match decline toward the end of games. These variables appear to influence the offensive performance of the Argentine men’s national blind football (F5) in the 2022 Copa América. These findings provide one of the first integrated vector analyses of offensive performance in F5 and propose metrics applicable to coaching staff, the design of specific training programs, and the functional assessment of athletes with visual impairments; therefore, further studies are needed to analyze these metrics in different official competitions and to account for various competitive levels. It is recommended to design training exercises focused on recovery under high pressure near the right side of the offensive zone and maintain the intensity of play in the final minutes of the game. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 3348 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training on Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Cardiometabolic Health in Real-World Settings: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Julijan Stefanovic, Valentina Victoria Werndle and Dejan Reljic

Sports 2026, 14(7), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070311 - 22 Jul 2026

Viewed by 4348

Abstract

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is an effective exercise strategy for improving cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and cardiometabolic health in laboratory settings, yet its effectiveness in real-world conditions remains less clear. This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the effects of real-world HIIT on CRF and [...] Read more.

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is an effective exercise strategy for improving cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and cardiometabolic health in laboratory settings, yet its effectiveness in real-world conditions remains less clear. This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the effects of real-world HIIT on CRF and cardiometabolic outcomes in adults. We searched five major databases (inception to December 2025) for controlled and non-controlled reports of ≥1 cardiorespiratory or cardiometabolic outcome. Random-effects models were used to calculate weighted mean differences (WMD), with subgroup and meta-regression analyses to explore moderators. Thirty-one studies (n = 1119) were included. In the pooled pre–post analyses, HIIT was associated with significant within-group improvements in VO_2max/peak (3.9 mL/kg/min), systolic (−4 mmHg) and diastolic blood pressure (−3 mmHg), triglycerides (−8 mg/dL), total cholesterol (−9 mg/dL), LDL (−10 mg/dL), and waist circumference (−1.7 cm) across interventions. In controlled comparisons, HIIT was superior to passive controls for VO_2max/peak (6.9 mL/kg/min) and waist circumference (−2.9 cm), while superiority over active controls was limited to VO_2max/peak (1.1 mL/kg/min). Moderator analyses revealed larger cardiometabolic benefits in overweight and clinical populations, and greater improvements in fasting glucose and blood pressure with higher exercise volume and longer intervention duration. In conclusion, real-world HIIT can effectively improve CRF and selected cardiometabolic outcomes across diverse adult populations. Specific cardiometabolic benefits appear to be pronounced in overweight, clinical, and previously untrained individuals. Notably, substantial heterogeneity and moderate methodological quality warrant cautious interpretation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Interventions for Health Across the Lifespan)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 1288 KB

Open AccessArticle

Match and Training External Load Ratios in Semi-Professional Male Soccer Players: An Exploratory Study

by Sofia Agra, João Barreira, Ricardo Pimenta, Farzad Yousefian, José Afonso and Fábio Yuzo Nakamura

Sports 2026, 14(7), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070310 - 22 Jul 2026

Viewed by 683

Abstract

This study aimed to quantify and compare the absolute daily and weekly external loads and training-to-match ratios of high-speed running distance (HSRD) and sprint distance (SPD) across the microcycle in semi-professional male soccer players. Twenty-four players from a Portuguese fourth-division team were monitored [...] Read more.

This study aimed to quantify and compare the absolute daily and weekly external loads and training-to-match ratios of high-speed running distance (HSRD) and sprint distance (SPD) across the microcycle in semi-professional male soccer players. Twenty-four players from a Portuguese fourth-division team were monitored across nine standardized microcycles (7 days; 1 match) during the 2024–2025 competitive season using Global Navigation Satellite System devices. Absolute HSRD and SPD values were calculated for each training day and match, and daily and weekly training-to-match ratios were derived. Linear mixed-effects models assessed the effects of weekday, playing position, and their interaction. Match day elicited the highest absolute HSRD and SPD across all positions (p < 0.001). Within the training week, HSRD peaked on MD-3, whereas SPD peaked on MD-2, with the lowest values observed on MD-1. Significant position-by-day interactions were identified for both HSRD and SPD (p < 0.001). Wide defenders and midfielders accumulated greater absolute HSRD during both training and matches, while central defenders exhibited comparatively higher training-to-match ratios despite lower absolute match demands. Notably, in the analyzed team, all playing positions exceeded 100% of match-derived HSRD and SPD during the training week. In conclusion, the semi-professional soccer players investigated herein accumulated weekly high-speed and sprinting loads that exceeded match demands, although their distribution varied by playing position and training day. Confirmatory studies are necessary to further explore training-to-match load ratios across different competitive levels. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 583 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pelvic Floor Distress and Sexual Function Across Self-Reported Primary Exercise Modalities in Physically Active Nulliparous Women

by Elizabeth Templeton, Susan Shirley, Daniela Lopez Berazain and Rob Sillevis

Sports 2026, 14(7), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070309 - 21 Jul 2026

Viewed by 373

Abstract

Background: High-intensity and high-impact exercise may increase intra-abdominal pressure and loading of the pelvic floor. Although pelvic floor dysfunction (PFD) has been reported among physically active women, findings remain inconsistent, particularly in young nulliparous women. This study examined the relationship between exercise modality, [...] Read more.

Background: High-intensity and high-impact exercise may increase intra-abdominal pressure and loading of the pelvic floor. Although pelvic floor dysfunction (PFD) has been reported among physically active women, findings remain inconsistent, particularly in young nulliparous women. This study examined the relationship between exercise modality, pelvic floor distress, and sexual function in physically active nulliparous women. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was completed by 103 physically active nulliparous women aged 18–30 years. Participants completed the Pelvic Floor Distress Inventory-20 (PFDI-20) and Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) and reported their primary exercise modality, exercise frequency, and duration. Statistical analyses included Welch’s ANOVA with effect sizes (ω²) and Spearman correlation analyses. Results: Participants engaged in aerobic training (10%), yoga/Pilates (6%), strength training combined with cardiovascular exercise (57%), powerlifting (14%), and CrossFit (14%). No statistically significant differences were detected across exercise modalities for total PFDI-20 scores (p = 0.209, ω² = 0.05) or total FSFI scores (p = 0.883, ω² = 0.00). Likewise, no significant differences were observed across individual PFDI-20 or FSFI domains (all p > 0.05), with effect sizes ranging from negligible to small (ω² = 0.00–0.07). Weak exploratory correlations were identified between pelvic floor distress and selected sexual function domains (ρ = 0.18–0.23, p < 0.05). Conclusions: No statistically significant differences in pelvic floor distress or sexual function were detected among self-reported exercise modalities in this cohort. These exploratory findings should be interpreted cautiously and warrant confirmation through adequately powered longitudinal studies incorporating objective assessments of pelvic floor function. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Strength, Power Responses and Adaptations to Resistance Training)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 4520 KB

Open AccessArticle

Longitudinal Seasonal Development of Anthropometric and Physical Performance Characteristics in Youth Trained Soccer Players

by Mohamed Amin Selmi, Roland van den Tillaar, Radhouane Haj Sassi and Raouf Hammami

Sports 2026, 14(7), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070308 - 20 Jul 2026

Viewed by 423

Abstract

This study investigated seasonal changes in anthropometric characteristics, vertical and horizontal jump performance, 30 m sprint performance, estimated maximal aerobic capacity, and repeated-sprint ability in competitive youth soccer players across the preparation, mid-season, and end-season phases. A longitudinal repeated-measures design was employed over [...] Read more.

This study investigated seasonal changes in anthropometric characteristics, vertical and horizontal jump performance, 30 m sprint performance, estimated maximal aerobic capacity, and repeated-sprint ability in competitive youth soccer players across the preparation, mid-season, and end-season phases. A longitudinal repeated-measures design was employed over one competitive season. Anthropometric variables, vertical and horizontal jump performance, 30 m sprint performance, estimated VO₂max derived from the Vam-Eval field test, and repeated-sprint sets (2 × 5 × 20 m with 15 s recovery between sprints and 1 min between sets) were assessed at three time points. Significant seasonal changes were observed in anthropometric characteristics, with body mass and height increasing progressively and body fat percentage decreasing throughout the competitive season (F ≥ 12.0, p < 0.001, η_p² ≥ 0.32). Body mass increased from 64.1 ± 6.7 to 66.7 ± 6.8 kg, height from 1.69 ± 0.07 to 1.72 ± 0.07 m, and body fat percentage decreased from 11.3 ± 2.0% to 9.4 ± 1.8%. Peak height velocity (PHV) significantly influenced changes in body mass and height but not body fat percentage. Seasonal improvements were observed in several physical performance measures. Squat jump, standing long jump, 15 s repeated jump performance, 10- and 30 m sprint performance, estimated maximal aerobic speed, estimated VO₂max, and repeated-sprint performance changed significantly across the season (F ≥ 3.28, p ≤ 0.046, η_p² ≥ 0.11), whereas countermovement jump, five-jump test, and flying 20 m sprint performance remained unchanged. Estimated VO₂max and maximal aerobic speed improved from preparation to mid-season and were subsequently maintained. Repeated-sprint performance exhibited set-dependent seasonal adaptations, with significant Time × Set interactions indicating progressive improvements during the second repeated-sprint set, whereas the first set showed only transient improvements at mid-season. Significant PHV and Time × PHV effects were also observed for aerobic capacity and repeated-sprint performance. In conclusion, these seasonal variations likely reflect the combined influence of biological maturation, training exposure, and competitive demands rather than training effects alone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Research on Physical Fitness Profile in Soccer Players: 2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 1474 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physical Activity, Cardiometabolic Health, and Functional Performance Across the Adult Lifespan: An Age-Stratified Real-World Primary Care Study

by Peter Marián Kalanin

Sports 2026, 14(7), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070307 - 20 Jul 2026

Viewed by 732

Abstract

Background: Cardiometabolic risk and physical function are both strongly influenced by physical activity (PA) across the adult lifespan, yet it remains unclear whether this association is uniform across different stages of adulthood in everyday primary care settings, particularly among the oldest patients. [...] Read more.

Background: Cardiometabolic risk and physical function are both strongly influenced by physical activity (PA) across the adult lifespan, yet it remains unclear whether this association is uniform across different stages of adulthood in everyday primary care settings, particularly among the oldest patients. Objective: Using a real-world primary care cohort stratified into four adult lifespan groups, we investigated how self-reported PA category was linked to LDL-C concentration and Timed Up and Go (TUG) performance, and formally tested whether these associations differed by age group. Methods: This cross-sectional analysis included 863 adult primary care patients, divided into four clinically meaningful lifespan groups: young adults (18–39 years, n = 277), middle-aged adults (40–59 years, n = 284), younger older adults (60–74 years, n = 166), and older-old adults (≥75 years, n = 136); PA was classified as low, moderate, or high per WHO recommendations. The primary outcomes were LDL-C and TUG. Between-group differences were evaluated with one-way ANOVA (Bonferroni-corrected post hoc tests) and age-specific multivariable linear regression adjusted for BMI, sex, arterial hypertension (AH), and diabetes mellitus (DM); a pooled PA × age-group interaction term formally tested for effect modification by age. Results: Baseline BMI, LDL-C, TUG, sex distribution, AH prevalence, and PA distribution were similar across the four groups, whereas DM prevalence differed modestly (p = 0.033). In every age group, higher PA categories were linked to significantly lower LDL-C (all p ≤ 0.006) and significantly better TUG times (all p < 0.001); PA was the only independent predictor shared by both outcomes across all groups in multivariable models (all p < 0.01). The standardized effect of PA on TUG was greatest among older-old adults (≥75 years: β = −1.609, 95% CI: −2.114 to −1.104, R² = 0.260). Neither the PA–LDL-C nor the PA–TUG interaction with age group reached statistical significance (p = 0.571 and p = 0.349, respectively). Conclusions: Associations between PA and both cardiometabolic and functional performance outcomes were present across all four adult lifespan groups, including adults aged ≥75 years, with no statistically significant age modification detected in this sample. Given the exploratory nature of the interaction analysis and the limited size of the oldest-old subgroup, these results should be regarded as hypothesis-generating rather than conclusive evidence of age-invariance. The pattern seen among older-old adults (≥75 years) reinforces the clinical value of routine PA assessment for evaluating functional health in advanced age. Taken together, these results point to PA assessment as a candidate age-independent component of cardiometabolic and functional health evaluation across the adult lifespan in primary care, a possibility that larger, adequately powered samples should confirm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Benefits of Physical Activity and Exercise to Human Health: 2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

11 pages, 1518 KB

Open AccessArticle

by Petar Peev, Danail Ivanov and Grigor Gutev

Sports 2026, 14(7), 306; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070306 - 20 Jul 2026

Viewed by 393

Abstract

Muscle strength and bilateral asymmetry of the lower limbs are relevant to injury risk and performance in football, yet their age-related development in adolescent players outside elite Western European cohorts is insufficiently described. This study determined age-related differences in lower-limb strength and muscular [...] Read more.

Muscle strength and bilateral asymmetry of the lower limbs are relevant to injury risk and performance in football, yet their age-related development in adolescent players outside elite Western European cohorts is insufficiently described. This study determined age-related differences in lower-limb strength and muscular balance in Bulgarian male football players. A total of 122 players aged 13 to over 19 years from three clubs were assessed at the end of the competitive season. Maximal concentric knee extension and flexion peak force of both legs was measured at 60°/s using a system with electronically controlled resistance (Kineo); relative strength (force per body mass) was used for the main between-age comparisons to control for growth. Age differences were analysed with ANOVA and Tukey tests (extension) and Kruskal–Wallis with DSCF comparisons (flexion) across seven age groups. Relative strength differed significantly with age (extension η²_p = 0.28–0.36; flexion ε² = 0.43–0.49), rising most up to 16 years and then plateauing. The concentric H/Q balance index ranged from 0.48 to 0.62. The findings provide a descriptive developmental profile relevant to individualised strength programming in youth football. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 5040 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reliability of Between-Session Motor Units Behavior: A Comparison of Analytical Approaches for Intervention Studies

by Daniel Marcos-Frutos, Kevin Méndez-Bouza, David Colomer-Poveda, Amador García-Ramos and Gonzalo Márquez

Sports 2026, 14(7), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070305 - 17 Jul 2026

Viewed by 379

Abstract

Objective: To compare the between-session reliability of motor units (MUs) behavior derived from high-density surface electromyography (HD-sEMG) during isometric knee extension across three analytical approaches: all identified MUs averaged per participant, tracked MUs averaged per participant, and tracked MUs using individual MUs as [...] Read more.

Objective: To compare the between-session reliability of motor units (MUs) behavior derived from high-density surface electromyography (HD-sEMG) during isometric knee extension across three analytical approaches: all identified MUs averaged per participant, tracked MUs averaged per participant, and tracked MUs using individual MUs as the statistical unit. Methods: Seventeen resistance-trained volunteers completed one familiarization and two identical experimental sessions. HD-sEMG signals were assessed in vastus lateralis at 30%, 50%, and 70% of maximum voluntary torque (MVT). Plateau discharge rate, recruitment discharge rate, and recruitment threshold (expressed in %MVT and Nm) were calculated. Reliability was quantified with the Standard error of the measurement (SEM), Coefficient of variation (CV), and Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Results: All identified MUs averaged per participant (CV = 11.7%, ICC = 0.73) yielded comparable reliability than tracked MUs averaged per participant (CV = 13.7%, ICC = 0.68). Using the individual MU as the statistical unit produced the lowest reliability (CV = 16.6%, ICC = 0.58). Conclusions: Averaging all identified MUs per participant achieved reliability comparable to tracking, without the associated sample loss or workload, supporting it as the preferable analytical approach for training interventions. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

30 pages, 854 KB

Open AccessReview

From Exercise Dose to Exercise Architecture: Lifestyle-Congruent Exercise Models for Contemporary Adults

by Mario Muñoz-López, Edgar Simón Sancho-Haro, Aitor Zabaleta-Korta, Alexandra Martín Rodríguez, José Francisco López-Gil, José Francisco Tornero-Aguilera and Rodrigo Yánez-Sepúlveda

Sports 2026, 14(7), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070304 - 17 Jul 2026

Viewed by 613

Abstract

Background: Contemporary adults face fragmented schedules, sedentary digital work, cognitive load, logistical barriers, and unstable routines that can make conventional session-based exercise difficult to sustain. Exercise snacks, vigorous intermittent lifestyle physical activity (VILPA), movement breaks, low-volume high-intensity interval training (HIIT), workplace exercise, and [...] Read more.

Background: Contemporary adults face fragmented schedules, sedentary digital work, cognitive load, logistical barriers, and unstable routines that can make conventional session-based exercise difficult to sustain. Exercise snacks, vigorous intermittent lifestyle physical activity (VILPA), movement breaks, low-volume high-intensity interval training (HIIT), workplace exercise, and digitally mediated physical activity may reflect a broader redesign of exercise for real-world lifestyles. Objective: To develop a conceptual framework for lifestyle-congruent exercise models: approaches that intentionally modify dose, timing, setting, delivery, autonomy, or routine integration to reduce lifestyle-related friction while preserving a plausible physiological or behavioral stimulus. Methods: This evidence-based narrative review purposively identified sources through targeted searches, citation tracking, and manual verification across exercise science, sedentary behavior, workplace health, behavioral medicine, and digital health. Sources were selected for conceptual relevance, model-family representation, evidence-type diversity, and contribution to framework development, and then charted by model family, population, context, exercise architecture, delivery, outcomes, and implementation features. No systematic protocol, formal risk-of-bias assessment, or certainty grading were applied. Results: Thirty-one sources informed the framework. Five design logics were identified: dose compression, temporal distribution, routine embedding, sedentary substitution, and delivery mediation. These logics show that brief or time-efficient models are not interchangeable; they differ in intentionality, context, behavioral demand, safety considerations, implementation logic, and dominant friction addressed. Conclusions: Lifestyle-congruent exercise models are complementary strategies, not replacements for structured aerobic and muscle-strengthening exercise. Their value lies in matching exercise architecture to lifestyle-related friction while supporting progression toward guideline-consistent activity. Future research should test safety, equity, scalability, and long-term maintenance across diverse populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Benefits of Physical Activity and Exercise to Human Health: 2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 1121 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sport- and Side-Specific Postural-Control Profiles in Elite Athletes: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Centre of Pressure Path Length, ML/AP Directionality, and Frequency-Domain Descriptors

by Philipp Floessel, Jan Jens Koltermann, Freya Charlotte Wunderlich, Jil-Justin Funke, Chantal Freudenberg and Alexander C. Disch

Sports 2026, 14(7), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070303 - 16 Jul 2026

Viewed by 396

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Postural control in elite athletes may reflect sport- and side-related balance demands. Conventional Centre of Pressure (CoP) path length alone offers only limited information about directional and frequency-domain sway characteristics. This cross-sectional study described CoP path length, mediolateral/anteroposterior (ML/AP) directionality, and power [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Postural control in elite athletes may reflect sport- and side-related balance demands. Conventional Centre of Pressure (CoP) path length alone offers only limited information about directional and frequency-domain sway characteristics. This cross-sectional study described CoP path length, mediolateral/anteroposterior (ML/AP) directionality, and power spectral density (PSD)-derived frequency-domain descriptors in elite athletes from sports with distinct movement demands. Methods: A total of 116 asymptomatic elite athletes from volleyball, football, short track, ice hockey, and field hockey were assessed during single-leg stance. CoP path length, the ML/AP index, and PSD outcomes were analysed. PSD was calculated in LabVIEW using a fast Fourier transform (FFT) routine from the complete 60 s trial acquired at 1 kHz after removal of the DC component. Spectra were not normalised and are reported as absolute spectral-density values in mm²/Hz. PSD outcomes were summarised in low-frequency (0.02–0.6 Hz) and higher-frequency (1–5 Hz) windows, and the PSD quotient was defined as PSD 0.02–0.6 Hz/PSD 1–5 Hz. Results: Observed sport–sex groups differed in subject-averaged CoP path length (F(5,110) = 22.26, p < 0.001, eta_p² = 0.503), ML/AP index (F(5,110) = 4.07, p = 0.002, eta_p² = 0.156), PSD 0.02–0.6 Hz (F(5,110) = 38.67, p < 0.001, eta_p² = 0.637), PSD 1–5 Hz (F(5,110) = 4.83, p < 0.001, eta_p² = 0.180), and the exploratory PSD quotient (F(5,110) = 3.33, p = 0.008, eta_p² = 0.132). Paired-side comparisons showed greater right-side CoP path length, greater right-side PSD 0.02–0.6 Hz, and a higher right-side ML/AP index, whereas PSD 1–5 Hz and the PSD quotient did not differ significantly between sides. Conclusions: The combined analysis of CoP path length, ML/AP directionality, and PSD-derived descriptors characterised sport-, sex-, and side-specific postural-control profiles in this cohort. Mechanistic interpretations of segmental neuromuscular control remain tentative because the study was cross-sectional and did not include electromyography, kinematics, or prospective injury data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acute and Chronic Effects of Strength Training on Neuromuscular Responses, Adaptations, and Sport Performance)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 404 KB

Open AccessArticle

Running Demands in Sub-Elite Male Rugby Players: Do You Train Like You Play?

by Francesco Chiarello, Corrado Lupo, Damiano Li Volsi, Luca Beratto, Domenico Cherubini, Paolo Riccardo Brustio and Alexandru Nicolae Ungureanu

Sports 2026, 14(7), 302; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070302 - 16 Jul 2026

Viewed by 318

Abstract

This study investigated whether weekly training sessions replicate the running demands of match play in sub-elite rugby union athletes, examining the principle of training specificity across positional roles. A total of 30 male players from a sub-elite rugby union team participated, contributing 306 [...] Read more.

This study investigated whether weekly training sessions replicate the running demands of match play in sub-elite rugby union athletes, examining the principle of training specificity across positional roles. A total of 30 male players from a sub-elite rugby union team participated, contributing 306 training and match data points. External load variables were collected using 18 Hz GNSS devices and analyzed across ten time-motion KPIs, including distance per minute, maximal speed, distance distribution across speed zones, and acceleration–deceleration profiles. Linear mixed models assessed differences between training and match play within forwards, backs, and scrum-halves. Results revealed significant mismatches between training and match running demands, with positional roles exhibiting distinct profiles. Forwards performed substantially lower running volumes and intensities in training, particularly in moderate-speed zones. Backs showed similar total volumes but markedly reduced high-intensity actions, including maximal speed, high-speed running, and severe decelerations. Scrum-halves displayed the greatest alignment, with no major discrepancies across conditions. These findings indicate that game-based training alone does not sufficiently reproduce match play running intensity for any position. Integrating targeted closed-skill blocks and supplementary high-intensity conditioning within predominantly game-based frameworks may help balance representativeness, repetition, and physical overload, supporting more effective preparation for the running demands of competition. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 241 KB

Open AccessArticle

Contributions of Upper- and Lower-Body Power to Countermovement Jump Performance with and Without Arm Swing

by Savanna Spires, Peri Rouillard, Andrew Hatchett, Iris Hatchett, Brock Renicks and Matthew Helms

Sports 2026, 14(7), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070301 - 15 Jul 2026

Viewed by 507

Abstract

The countermovement jump (CMJ) is a common measure of lower-body power and neuromuscular performance. Incorporating an arm swing (AS) enhances CMJ outcomes, yet the contributions of anthropometrics, body composition (BC), and muscular power to performance are not fully understood in recreationally active adults. [...] Read more.

The countermovement jump (CMJ) is a common measure of lower-body power and neuromuscular performance. Incorporating an arm swing (AS) enhances CMJ outcomes, yet the contributions of anthropometrics, body composition (BC), and muscular power to performance are not fully understood in recreationally active adults. This study examined these factors in CMJ trials with and without AS. Thirty adults (15 males, 15 females; 18–25 years) performed CMJs on a force plate. Upper-body power was assessed via an 8 kg medicine ball throw, and lower-body power using a maximal cycling-based power test. Three-dimensional body scanning captured anthropometric data. Descriptive statistics, Pearson correlations, and hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted for the total sample and by sex. Jump height and peak power were significantly greater with AS than without (p < 0.001). Strong positive correlations were observed among jump- and power-related variables (r = 0.73–0.92). Body fat percentage showed moderate-to-strong negative associations with relative peak power, particularly in females. Regression analyses revealed that BC accounted for the largest proportion of variance in AS Peak Power, whereas upper-body power did not provide additional predictive value beyond anthropometrics and BC. These findings indicate that CMJ performance may be influenced primarily by lower-body mechanical capacity and BC, with adiposity consistently reducing relative power output. The results underscore the importance of BC in explosive performance training and support the use of AS-restricted jumps to isolate lower-body power during performance assessments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Biomechanics, Ergonomics and Physiology for Enhanced Sport Performance and Training Optimization)

14 pages, 1382 KB

Open AccessArticle

Time-Course of Recovery Following a Strength–Power Emphasized Crossfit^® Microcycle

by Vinícius Emanoel Leal Pinto, Gisela Arsa, Manoella Regina de Souza Silva, Karine Naves de Oliveira Goulart, Julio Cerca Serrão and Jacielle Carolina Ferreira

Sports 2026, 14(7), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070300 - 14 Jul 2026

Viewed by 417

Abstract

Most studies investigating recovery in CrossFit^® have focused on the effects of a single training session, whereas the cumulative effects of consecutive sessions within a training microcycle remain poorly understood. This study aimed to evaluate perceived recovery and neuromuscular performance, assessed through [...] Read more.

Most studies investigating recovery in CrossFit^® have focused on the effects of a single training session, whereas the cumulative effects of consecutive sessions within a training microcycle remain poorly understood. This study aimed to evaluate perceived recovery and neuromuscular performance, assessed through the countermovement jump (CMJ) and handgrip strength tests, over a 72 h period following a habitual strength–power-emphasized CrossFit^® microcycle. Methods: Fourteen male CrossFit^® practitioners performed CMJ and handgrip strength tests and completed the Total Quality Recovery (TQR) scale before and at 24, 48, and 72 h after completing a strength–power-emphasized training microcycle. Results: Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed significant reductions in all variables 24 h after the microcycle compared with baseline values, followed by recovery to baseline within 48 h. Conclusions: These findings suggest that at least 48 h are required for the recovery of neuromuscular performance and perceived recovery following a habitual strength–power-emphasized CrossFit^® microcycle. Furthermore, the similar temporal responses observed across the three monitoring tools indicate that they may represent practical options for monitoring performance and recovery in CrossFit^® practitioners. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 2125 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Acute Effect of Different Training Protocols on Heart Rate Variability

by Burhan Demirkıran, Tuba Melekoğlu and Grzegorz Żurek

Sports 2026, 14(7), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070299 - 13 Jul 2026

Viewed by 363

Abstract

This study examined the acute effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and prolonged endurance training (ET) on heart rate variability (HRV) in elite Greco-Roman wrestlers and assessed the usefulness of HRV for monitoring post-exercise recovery. Using a longitudinal, within-subject, repeated-measures design, 13 elite [...] Read more.

This study examined the acute effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and prolonged endurance training (ET) on heart rate variability (HRV) in elite Greco-Roman wrestlers and assessed the usefulness of HRV for monitoring post-exercise recovery. Using a longitudinal, within-subject, repeated-measures design, 13 elite male wrestlers completed two training protocols—differing in intensity, duration, modality, and work–rest structure—in a fixed, non-randomized order (ET on Day 7, HIIT on Day 22), separated by a 15-day washout period. HRV was recorded at baseline, pre-exercise, during training, and 24 h post-exercise, and analyzed with a linear mixed model and Bonferroni-adjusted post hoc comparisons. A significant main effect of Timepoint was found for all HRV parameters (SDNN, RMSSD, LF/HF ratio, and the lnRMSSD-derived HRV Score), reflecting marked reductions during exercise and partial recovery by 24 h (e.g., SDNN decreased by approximately 73% in ET and 82% in HIIT). SDNN also differed significantly between training types overall, but heart rate did not differ between protocols during exercise (p = 0.127). No between-protocol difference for any HRV parameter survived Bonferroni correction at any timepoint, despite a large effect size for the HRV Score during exercise (d = 0.79); the corresponding effect for raw RMSSD, the primary time-domain outcome, was small (d = 0.36) and non-significant. Both protocols showed comparable recovery at 24 h. Because protocol order was fixed rather than randomized, these findings should be interpreted as a comparison between two specific field-based conditioning sessions rather than a controlled test of exercise intensity alone. Full article

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

12 pages, 543 KB

Open AccessArticle

Technique-Specific Load–Velocity Profiling and Prediction Equation for the Back Squat in Elite Portuguese Rugby Players

by Gonçalo Rendeiro-Pinho, André Sousa, Antonio P. Veloso and Javier Riscart-López

Sports 2026, 14(7), 298; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070298 - 13 Jul 2026

Viewed by 419

Abstract

This study examined whether barbell velocity can accurately predict relative load during a free-weight parallel squat performed with a deliberate pause between the eccentric and concentric phases in elite Portuguese rugby players. A repeated-measures design was used, in which 25 athletes completed an [...] Read more.

This study examined whether barbell velocity can accurately predict relative load during a free-weight parallel squat performed with a deliberate pause between the eccentric and concentric phases in elite Portuguese rugby players. A repeated-measures design was used, in which 25 athletes completed an incremental loading protocol up to their one-repetition maximum (1-RM) on two occasions separated by four weeks. The relationship between mean propulsive velocity (MPV) and %1-RM was analyzed using polynomial regression, and a second-order prediction equation was developed. The model showed a very strong association between MPV and %1-RM (R² = 0.95) with a standard error of estimate of 6.27 %1-RM, indicating good practical accuracy. Test–retest analyses demonstrated high stability of the load–velocity relationship (mean velocity difference: −0.01 ± 0.02 m·s⁻¹). Compared with values reported in other athletic populations, first-division rugby players displayed distinct load–velocity profiles across the full loading spectrum, underscoring the influence of execution technique and population characteristics on load–velocity behavior. These findings support the use of individualized velocity-based prescriptions rather than generalized equations. In conclusion, this study provides a technique- and population-specific prediction equation for the paused parallel back squat, offering a novel and practical tool for regulating training intensity in elite rugby players. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 571 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

The Influence of the Phases of the Menstrual Cycle on Intrinsic Injury Risk Factors in Eumenorrheic Female Athletes or Physically Active Women—A Systematic Review

by Florent Osmani, Marta Victoria Santiago and Oliver Ramos-Álvarez

Sports 2026, 14(7), 297; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070297 - 10 Jul 2026

Viewed by 427

Abstract

Research in sports science has frequently excluded women due to the complexity of hormonal fluctuations. The overall aim of this study is to systematically analyse the influence of the menstrual cycle (MC) on intrinsic anatomical, biomechanical and neuromuscular injury risk factors in physically [...] Read more.

Research in sports science has frequently excluded women due to the complexity of hormonal fluctuations. The overall aim of this study is to systematically analyse the influence of the menstrual cycle (MC) on intrinsic anatomical, biomechanical and neuromuscular injury risk factors in physically active women or eumenorrheic athletes. Methods: A systematic review was conducted following the guidelines of the PRISMA 2020 statement. Searches were carried out in PubMed, the Cochrane Library, Web of Science and Scopus up to March 2026, including studies that analysed at least three phases of the MC. Methodological quality was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute checklists. Results: Eleven articles were included in the analysis. It was observed that the late follicular and ovulatory phases were associated with improved biomechanical and neuromuscular profiles, thereby reducing certain risk factors. In contrast, the premenstrual and menstrual phases are associated with a more unfavourable effect, slightly increasing the risk of injury. Conclusion: Although phase-specific trends emerge, methodological heterogeneity and limited evidence preclude a definitive consensus on how the menstrual cycle impacts intrinsic injury risk factors. Nevertheless, practitioners should consider that late follicular and ovulatory phases present more favourable neuromuscular and biomechanical profiles than menstrual and premenstrual phases. Future research must utilize standardized phase verification to provide conclusive evidence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 8119 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Supporting the IOC Consensus Statement on Mental Health in Elite Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on the Prevalence of Mental Health Symptoms in Elite Sports

by Vincent Gouttebarge, Sharaisha C. Bilgoe, Paul Gorczynski, Mary E. Hitchcock, Margot Putukian, Claudia L. Reardon and Gino Kerkhoffs

Sports 2026, 14(7), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070296 - 10 Jul 2026

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 909

Abstract

We explored the epidemiological evidence on the prevalence of mental health symptoms among current and former elite athletes as well as among their entourage members. Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted in PubMed, PsycINFO, SportDiscus and Scopus to retrieve original quantitative [...] Read more.

We explored the epidemiological evidence on the prevalence of mental health symptoms among current and former elite athletes as well as among their entourage members. Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted in PubMed, PsycINFO, SportDiscus and Scopus to retrieve original quantitative studies that (i) were written in English, (ii) were conducted exclusively among current or former elite athletes and/or their entourage members, and (iii) presented prevalence rates of mental health symptoms. Results: In total, 72 studies were included, focusing on self-reported mental health symptoms (not on clinically diagnosed mental health disorders). Meta-analyses comprising 2596 to 10,927 current elite athletes showed that the prevalence of mental health symptoms ranged from 4% for drug misuse to 33% for distress. Meta-analyses comprising 2070 to 3405 former elite athletes showed that the prevalence of mental health symptoms ranged from 12% for depression to 28% for alcohol misuse. Because of the considerable heterogeneity among the included studies, the pooled prevalence estimates from these meta-analyses should be interpreted cautiously, as they summarize highly heterogeneous populations. Mental health symptoms were found to also be common among entourage members, with prevalence rates ranging from 5% for depression or anxiety to 53% for alcohol misuse in high-performance staff (including coaches) and reaching up to 36–58% for burnout in healthcare professionals working during the Paralympic games. Conclusions: Showing considerable heterogeneity across included studies, our systematic review and meta-analysis established that mental health symptoms are commonly reported by current and former elite athletes, as well as by their high-performance staff (including coaches) and medical staff. This warrants the implementation of various tailored resources, such as mental health literacy, screening programs and the availability of interdisciplinary medical and psychological support. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Psychology of Sport Performance: Contemporary Research and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 339 KB

Open AccessArticle

Association Between Physical Activity and Mental Health in Primary School Children

by Raúl Lendínez-Conejo, Agustín Aibar-Almazán and María del Carmen Carcelén-Fraile

Sports 2026, 14(7), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070295 - 10 Jul 2026

Viewed by 463

Abstract

Mental health during childhood is a major public health concern, and physical activity has been proposed as a modifiable behaviour associated with psychological well-being and emotional health. This study examined the associations between physical activity and mental health indicators, including psychological well-being, anxiety [...] Read more.

Mental health during childhood is a major public health concern, and physical activity has been proposed as a modifiable behaviour associated with psychological well-being and emotional health. This study examined the associations between physical activity and mental health indicators, including psychological well-being, anxiety symptoms, and everyday stress, in primary school children. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 207 children from two schools in Jaén (Spain). Physical activity, psychological well-being, anxiety, and stress were assessed using validated questionnaires. Pearson correlations and multiple linear regression analyses adjusted for age, sex, and socioeconomic status were performed. Physical activity was positively associated with all dimensions of psychological well-being and with total psychological well-being (r = 0.182, p = 0.009). Significant inverse correlations were observed between physical activity and all anxiety dimensions, as well as total anxiety (r = −0.145, p = 0.037), although the association with total anxiety was not significant after adjustment (β = −0.149, p = 0.112). Physical activity was also negatively associated with all stress dimensions and remained significantly associated with lower total stress after adjustment (β = −0.253, p = 0.007). These findings indicate that higher levels of physical activity are associated with greater psychological well-being and lower everyday stress in primary school children. However, given the cross-sectional design, these associations should not be interpreted as causal relationships. Longitudinal studies are needed to clarify the directionality of these associations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport, Physical Activity and Adolescent Health: Challenges and Opportunities (2nd Edition))

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 12321 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Unified Ranking Model for Evaluating Snatch and Clean and Jerk Performances Across Body Mass and Sex

by Marianne Huebner and Rayleigh Lei

Sports 2026, 14(7), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070294 - 10 Jul 2026

Viewed by 367

Abstract

In Olympic-style weightlifting males outperform females and heavier weightlifters lift more weight than athletes with lighter body mass. Traditional ranking models in weightlifting are based on total weight lifted and do not permit direct comparison of individual lift performances across body mass and [...] Read more.

In Olympic-style weightlifting males outperform females and heavier weightlifters lift more weight than athletes with lighter body mass. Traditional ranking models in weightlifting are based on total weight lifted and do not permit direct comparison of individual lift performances across body mass and sex. The aim of this study was to model performance in the snatch and clean and jerk and to develop a unified ranking system for comparisons across body mass and sex. Data from 3412 performances at IWF Senior World Championships and Olympics (2019–2025) were analyzed. The median sex gap was 30.7% for the snatch and 29.3% for the clean and jerk, with smaller differences at lower body mass. Peak performance occurred at 25.4 years for both lifts. Generalized additive models accounting for location, scale, and shape of the performance distribution were used to estimate standardized scores. Scaling individual lifts onto a common metric allows for meaningful evaluation of athletes even in the presence of unsuccessful attempts in one type of lift and can illustrate performance profiles. This approach supports performance assessment, athlete monitoring, and mixed-team rankings which is particularly relevant in emerging competition formats that emphasize lift-specific contributions and mixed-sex participation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 3497 KB

Open AccessArticle

Associations Between Pre-Quarantine Exercise and Persistent Symptoms After SARS-CoV-2 Infection

by Nikola Schmidt, Kira Engl, Barbara Grüne, Annelene Kossow, Johannes Nießen, Stefanie Wessely, Luis Haberstock, Susanne Rost and Christine Joisten

Sports 2026, 14(7), 293; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070293 - 9 Jul 2026

Viewed by 899

Abstract

Background: Long-term symptoms after SARS-CoV-2 infection such as fatigue, shortness of breath and cognitive impairment represent a major burden on society. Risk factors include female sex, smoking, comorbidities and socioeconomic deprivation. Physical activity (PA) has been suggested as a potential protective factor, although [...] Read more.

Background: Long-term symptoms after SARS-CoV-2 infection such as fatigue, shortness of breath and cognitive impairment represent a major burden on society. Risk factors include female sex, smoking, comorbidities and socioeconomic deprivation. Physical activity (PA) has been suggested as a potential protective factor, although all population groups, including athletes, were affected. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the influence of PA duration and intensity on the odds of the presence of long-term symptoms. Methods: This cross-sectional study included 5413 individuals following acute COVID-19 within the CoCo-Fakt online monitoring study. The type, duration and intensity of exercise in the four weeks before quarantine were recorded, and the odds of the presence of long-term symptoms beyond 12 weeks after infection were determined, adjusted for demographics, health status and acute COVID-19 outcomes. Results: Among participants, 561 (10.4%) reported long-term symptoms. Those with long-term symptoms reported a longer duration (p = 0.019, d = −0.61) of exercise in the four weeks before quarantine compared to those without long-term symptoms. Adjusted for demographics, health status and acute COVID-19 outcomes, higher exercise intensity (MET/day) was associated with 16.7% increased odds of long-term symptoms (Nagelkerke R² = 18.0%). After the Bonferroni–Holm correction, this association did not remain significant. Conclusions: Current data suggests that PA has a protective effect on post-COVID-19 condition when performed at a moderate level. In our study, however, neither PA intensity nor duration emerged as a predictor of long-term symptoms. Future studies must clarify which intensities and types of exercise can help to maintain overall physical and mental health and to prevent or improve the long-term outcomes following SARS-CoV-2 infection, considering individual circumstances. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 3739 KB

Open AccessArticle

Athlete or Season? Gut Microbiota Variance in Elite Volleyball Players: A Compositional Performance-Based Reanalysis

by Junior Carlone, Giovanni Solarino, Saverio Giampaoli, Eugenio Alladio, Gioele Rosellini, Maurizio Cibba, Attilio Parisi, Alessio Fasano and Antonio Tessitore

Sports 2026, 14(7), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070292 - 9 Jul 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 536

Abstract

Background: The gut microbiota is an emerging factor in athletic performance. Methodological limitations persist in longitudinal microbiome studies, particularly regarding the compositional nature of microbiota data and the lack of standardized performance metrics in team sports. The present study applies a Compositional Data [...] Read more.

Background: The gut microbiota is an emerging factor in athletic performance. Methodological limitations persist in longitudinal microbiome studies, particularly regarding the compositional nature of microbiota data and the lack of standardized performance metrics in team sports. The present study applies a Compositional Data Analysis (CoDA) framework with ANOVA-Simultaneous Component Analysis (ASCA) to investigate longitudinal gut microbiota dynamics in elite volleyball athletes and introduces a novel Technical Performance Level (TPL) metric for objective performance quantification. Methods: Seven elite male volleyball athletes from the Italian SuperLega Championship were monitored across four sampling timepoints (T0, T1, T2, T3) during the Regular Season, Rest Period, and Tournament Period. Fecal samples underwent 16S rRNA metabarcoding. CLR-transformed data were analyzed at the Phylum, Family, and Genus level using ASCA with Season, Player, and their interaction. Statistical significance was assessed using the Freedman-Lane permutation test (10,000 iterations). Within-subject associations between TPL and CLR-transformed microbial features were assessed by repeated-measures correlation. Results: Season and Player effects were statistically significant at all taxonomic levels (p ≤ 0.0004), whereas the Season × Player interaction was significant at the Family and Genus levels (p ≤ 0.002) but not at the Phylum level (p = 0.108). The Player effect represented the largest source of variance at the Family (51.31%) and Genus (50.75%) levels. At the Phylum level, the Season × Player interaction accounted for the largest share of variance (36.23%), although it did not reach significance. Within-subject correlation analyses revealed no statistically significant association between microbial features and TPL at any taxonomic level, and none remained significant after correction for multiple comparisons. Conclusions: The application of a compositional data analysis framework modifies the interpretation of gut microbiota dynamics in elite volleyball athletes compared to standard approaches. Individual athlete identity accounted for most of the compositional variance in the microbiota, whereas exploratory within-subject analyses did not reveal statistically significant associations between taxa and TPL. Given the small cohort, any observed trends should be interpreted as exploratory and hypothesis-generating until confirmed in adequately powered cohorts. Longitudinal monitoring of gut microbiota could support individualized surveillance of gut health in elite sport. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training Load, Athlete State, and Training Response in Sports)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 1187 KB

Open AccessArticle

Contribution of Equipment to Performance: Investigating Skate Metrics and Their Relationship to Race Times in Competitive Long Track Speed Skaters

by Colin Dunne, Michael Holmes and Kelly Lockwood

Sports 2026, 14(7), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070291 - 9 Jul 2026

Viewed by 316

Abstract

The relationship between athletes and equipment in the sport of speed skating is critical. A speed skater’s equipment, namely their skates, is an integral part of a dynamic system that facilitates the translation of human motion to on-ice racing. Although it is common [...] Read more.

The relationship between athletes and equipment in the sport of speed skating is critical. A speed skater’s equipment, namely their skates, is an integral part of a dynamic system that facilitates the translation of human motion to on-ice racing. Although it is common practice to customize the setup of long track speed skates, empirical evidence supporting best practices is relatively undocumented. The exploratory nature of this investigation was intended to address two purposes: (i) profiling skate metrics in a competitive cohort of long track speed skaters and (ii) exploring the association between skate metrics and on-ice race times. Two databases were populated for the purpose of analysis: one for skate metrics and another for on-ice race times. Data were linked to the skates of thirty-one provincial-level long track speed skaters (male n = 19; female n = 12). The skate metrics database was populated by a single equipment technician, trained using measurement protocols consistent with the industry’s standards, and the metrics were grouped into three categories: (i) boot dimensions (n = 4), (ii) blade dimensions (n = 7), and (iii) skate setup (n = 5). The on-ice race time database was populated and collated using a secondary data source and included an aggregate time based on the mean of the three fastest race times per athlete by distance (500 m, 1000 m, and 1500 m) collected from the 2019–2023 seasons. Statistical analyses were conducted within and across the databases to (i) determine the variation in skate metrics and race times across athletes, and (ii) explore the association between skate metrics and race times. Analysis of the skate metrics database revealed coefficients of variance (CVs) for all metrics including the following: boot dimensions (6.95–8.69%), blade dimensions (0.00–14.24%), and skate setup metrics (8.63–17.05%). Of significant interest were large CVs for pivot point position (14.54%) and blade offset (8.63–17.05%), suggesting inconsistency and a potential lack of understanding of the impact of skate setup on performance. No significant correlations were revealed between skate setup metrics and race times. Across the three race distances, regression models were not statistically significant and explained only a small proportion of variance, highlighting the limited understanding between skate setup metrics and race times in practice. Profiling skate metrics and understanding their relationship with race times provides equipment technicians, coaches, and athletes with a baseline to inform decisions when customizing skate setup. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 3738 KB

Open AccessArticle

On-Ice and Off-Ice Linear Sprint Performance Across Competitive Levels in Ice Hockey Players: Insights from Continuous Velocity Profiling

by Dominik Jablonka, Aaron Uthoff, Steven Eustace, Rhys Morris, Julian Enrik Smoliga and Dusana Augustovicova

Sports 2026, 14(7), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070290 - 8 Jul 2026

Viewed by 424

Abstract

Linear speed is a key performance determinant in ice hockey, yet no studies have compared continuous on-ice and off-ice velocity profiles across multiple competitive levels. This study examined continuous velocity curves and discrete sprint variables during 20 m on-ice (skating) and off-ice (running) [...] Read more.

Linear speed is a key performance determinant in ice hockey, yet no studies have compared continuous on-ice and off-ice velocity profiles across multiple competitive levels. This study examined continuous velocity curves and discrete sprint variables during 20 m on-ice (skating) and off-ice (running) sprints across three competitive levels. Sixty male ice hockey players (A-Team n = 20, U20A n = 20, U20B n = 20) completed maximal 20 m sprints in both conditions using a motorized resistance device. Bayesian analyses were used to evaluate continuous velocity profiles and discrete variables. Posterior estimates consistently favored greater off-ice velocity profiles than on-ice velocity profiles across all groups, particularly during the early portion of the sprint (P(diff) ~85%), although the practical meaningfulness of these differences remained uncertain. Discrete sprint variables showed stronger and more consistent practically meaningful differences (P(diff > SWC) = 66–99%). Between-group comparisons suggested a competitive hierarchy, with posterior estimates favoring greater velocity values in adults than lower competitive-level late adolescents (P(diff) ~87%). Practitioners should consider potential differences between on-ice and off-ice sprint performance and hierarchical trends across competitive levels when structuring training and assessment. Continuous velocity profiling may provide additional insight into velocity-development patterns, whereas discrete metrics may be more appropriate for routine team-level monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Athlete Assessment and Performance Training)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 313 KB

Open AccessArticle

Associations Between Endocrine Status and Stress, Mood and Psychosomatic Status in Elite Handball Players

by Fanny Zselyke Ratz-Sulyok, Csilla Jang-Kapuy, Peter Bakonyi, Bettina Beres, Tamas Dobronyi, Gergo Simon, Annamaria Zsakai and Tamas Szabo

Sports 2026, 14(7), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070289 - 8 Jul 2026

Viewed by 283

Abstract

Purpose: The assessment of endocrine status in elite athletes is typically linked to training load and perceived stress; however, the relationship between hormonal parameters and psychosomatic and stress indicators remains insufficiently understood. This study aimed to investigate the associations between endocrine status and [...] Read more.

Purpose: The assessment of endocrine status in elite athletes is typically linked to training load and perceived stress; however, the relationship between hormonal parameters and psychosomatic and stress indicators remains insufficiently understood. This study aimed to investigate the associations between endocrine status and stress, mood, and psychosomatic status indicators in elite handball players. Methods: In a cross-sectional study, salivary cortisol (with no strict control over wake-up time), testosterone, and—in female athletes—17-β-estradiol concentrations were assessed in 584 elite handball players aged 14–35 years using ELISA. Psychological variables were evaluated using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), Profile of Mood States (POMS), and the Health Behavior in School-aged Children Symptom Checklist (HBSC-SCL). Associations were examined using non-parametric tests and general linear models adjusted for age. Results: Hormonal and psychological variables demonstrated significant age-related trends. No significant associations were observed between hormonal parameters and perceived stress or mood disturbance (values for the general linear model (GLM) were all p > 0.05). In contrast, psychosomatic symptom severity was significantly associated with cortisol levels in male athletes (GLM, p < 0.001) and testosterone levels in female athletes (GLM, p = 0.009). Multivariate analyses confirmed the relevance of psychosomatic symptoms and indicated interaction effects between stress-related factors. Conclusion: Psychosomatic symptoms were more closely associated with endocrine status than with perceived stress or mood disturbance in elite handball players. However, these associations were characterized by relatively small effect sizes, indicating that psychosomatic symptoms explain only a limited proportion of the variance in hormonal parameters. These findings suggest that psychosomatic indicators may provide a more sensitive reflection of physiological strain and support the use of integrated monitoring approaches combining endocrine and psychosomatic measures in elite sport. In practical terms, routine monitoring of psychosomatic symptoms alongside hormonal measures may help practitioners to identify early signs of physiological strain and support timely adjustments in training load and recovery strategies. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 1965 KB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Match-Related Fatigue in Youth Rugby Players Using a Readiness Index and Clinical Tests

by Pierosario Giuliano, Daniela Vitucci, Daniele Pacini, Stefania Orrù and Annamaria Mancini

Sports 2026, 14(7), 288; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070288 - 8 Jul 2026

Viewed by 331

Abstract

Monitoring athlete readiness in youth rugby players is important for understanding short-term responses to match demands and supporting recovery management. Here, we aimed to investigate short-term readiness by integrating subjective measures, clinically relevant tests, and match load data. This single-team study considered 28 [...] Read more.

Monitoring athlete readiness in youth rugby players is important for understanding short-term responses to match demands and supporting recovery management. Here, we aimed to investigate short-term readiness by integrating subjective measures, clinically relevant tests, and match load data. This single-team study considered 28 male rugby players (17.8 ± 0.2 years), monitored every four consecutive days (match day [MD], MD+1, MD+2, MD+3). Readiness was assessed using four subjective dimensions (fatigue upon waking, mood, sleep quality, and muscle soreness), which were normalized to individual best values and combined into a composite readiness index (4-dRI; 0–1). The Adductor Squeeze Test (AST), Sit-and-Reach Test (SRT), and Global Positioning System-derived metrics (MD only) were also assessed. The 4-dRI decreased by approximately 30% at 24 h post-match (p < 0.001), indicating a substantial reduction in perceived readiness. Athletes exposed to higher GPS-derived match loads reported lower readiness on MD+1. AST showed moderate associations with the 4-dRI (ρ = 0.40, p < 0.05), whereas SRT appeared less responsive to short-term changes in readiness. These findings indicate that both the 4-dRI and AST were responsive to short-term changes in readiness across the competition period. Overall, these integrated data may contribute to athlete-monitoring strategies in team sport settings. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 258 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cardiorespiratory Aerobic Fitness and Repeated Sprint Ability in Elite Ice Hockey Players

by Jan Malecha, Libor Staněk, Vladimir Tuka, Martin Sedlář, Jiří Suchý, Agáta Jeníšová and Aleš Linhart

Sports 2026, 14(7), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070287 - 7 Jul 2026

Viewed by 265

Abstract

Ice hockey represents a sport with predominantly anaerobic efforts best reflected by repeated sprint ability (RSA) testing (5 × 5 s with 10 s recovery). A controversy persists about the usefulness of VO₂max laboratory testing for the assessment of ice hockey [...] Read more.

Ice hockey represents a sport with predominantly anaerobic efforts best reflected by repeated sprint ability (RSA) testing (5 × 5 s with 10 s recovery). A controversy persists about the usefulness of VO₂max laboratory testing for the assessment of ice hockey players. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between laboratory-measured VO_2max and RSA simulated on a supine ergometer and tested on ice. Elite male hockey players (n = 64) were tested in the laboratory (VO_2max and RSA). RSA testing was performed by a modified Wingate test (5 × 5 s sprints with 10 s recovery). In 28 athletes RSA was assessed during on-ice testing (five maximal skating sprints between the goal and the blue line). The decrease in performance was assessed by fatigue indices. In the laboratory setting, VO₂max correlated significantly with maximum workloads of the second, third, fourth and fifth bouts with increasing correlation strength (r = 0.26, p = 0.02; r = 0.48, p < 0.001; r = 0.57, p < 0.001; and r = 0.60, p < 0.001) and with fatigue indices—the percentage workload decrement index (r = 0.44, p < 0.001) and percentage maximum average workload decrement (%) (r = 0.38, p = 0.002). In addition, VO₂max correlated with lactate levels after 10 min of recovery (r = 0.31, p = 0.01). There was no correlation between VO₂max and on-ice testing results. Moreover, the results of RSA measured in the laboratory and on ice did not show any correlation. The lack of relationship between laboratory and on-ice testing further challenges the usefulness of bicycle ergometry laboratory testing in ice hockey. Full article

14 pages, 863 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of a 10-Week Wushu Program on Static, Dynamic, and Dual-Task Balance and Physical Fitness in Preschool Children

by Beibei Luo, Yujie Xu, Yunya Zhang, Rongda Wang, Meifeng Gu, Jingjing Wang, Yanmei Shi, Zhibei Zhou, Rui Li and Xuting Zhu

Sports 2026, 14(7), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070286 - 7 Jul 2026

Viewed by 343

Abstract

Background: As a traditional Chinese exercise, Wushu has been shown to effectively promote balance and postural stability in various populations. Preschoolers’ capacity for balance control, including static, dynamic, and dual-task balance, is linked to the later development of stability skills in adulthood. However, [...] Read more.

Background: As a traditional Chinese exercise, Wushu has been shown to effectively promote balance and postural stability in various populations. Preschoolers’ capacity for balance control, including static, dynamic, and dual-task balance, is linked to the later development of stability skills in adulthood. However, studies of Wushu intervention focusing on balance ability and the related physical fitness in preschool children are limited. Objectives: This study investigated the effects of a 10-week Wushu program on static, dynamic dual-task balance and physical fitness in children 5–6 years old. Methods: Seventy-three participants were randomly divided into an intervention (INT, n = 39) and a control (CON, n = 34) group. The INT group participated in a 10-week Wushu program that included three 30 min sessions per week, while the CON group engaged in unstructured free play with purposely designed materials. The three key primary outcomes were dominant-leg stance for static balance, the balance beam walk for dynamic balance, and the center of pressure (CoP) path length obtained via a force platform during dual-task balance testing, in which the participants were instructed to count numbers backward. The five derived primary outcomes were non-dominant-leg stance, CoP ML path length, CoP AP path length, CoP sway velocity, and CoP sway area. Secondary outcomes were physical fitness indicators, including sit and reach, grip strength, standing long jump (SLJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), 15 m zigzag run, double-leg continuous jump, height and body weight. The analysis of the outcomes was conducted using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and Pearson correlation. Results: At baseline, the CON and INT groups did not differ significantly. The INT demonstrated significant enhancements in comparison with CON in the dominant and non-dominant-leg stance (p = 0.017 and p = 0.005, respectively), the balance beam walk, SLJ, 15 m zigzag run and double-leg continuous jump (all p < 0.05), along with the mediolateral CoP path length (p = 0.012). A strong correlation was found between the balance beam walk and the double-leg continuous jump (r = 0.55, p = 0.001), and between the balance beam walk and the 15 m zigzag run (r = 0.43, p = 0.015). Conclusions: The present study demonstrates that a 10-week Wushu program significantly enhances preschool children’s static balance, dynamic balance, and mediolateral postural control during dual-task condition. The improvements in dynamic balance are correlated with lower-limb coordination and jumping agility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Exercise Interventions on Motor Competence and Health in Children)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 2062 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Dietary Supplements and Oxidative Stress Management in Young Adults Following Intensive Exercise: A Systematic Review

by Vlassios Kakouris, Maria Piagkou, George Triantafyllou and Karolina Akinosoglou

Sports 2026, 14(7), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070285 - 6 Jul 2026

Viewed by 2080

Abstract

Strenuous exercise is a well-established physiological stimulus that enhances muscular strength and hypertrophy but can also increase reactive oxygen species production, leading to oxidative stress (OS). Numerous studies have investigated whether dietary supplements can attenuate exercise-induced OS, yet findings remain inconsistent, and methodological [...] Read more.

Strenuous exercise is a well-established physiological stimulus that enhances muscular strength and hypertrophy but can also increase reactive oxygen species production, leading to oxidative stress (OS). Numerous studies have investigated whether dietary supplements can attenuate exercise-induced OS, yet findings remain inconsistent, and methodological quality varies. This systematic review aimed to synthesize current clinical evidence on dietary supplementation for OS management in young adults undergoing intensive exercise and to evaluate study methodology critically. The review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA 2021 guidelines and the Cochrane Risk of Bias (RoB 2.0) framework and was prospectively registered in PROSPERO. A comprehensive search of MEDLINE (PubMed), Scopus, Cochrane Central, ClinicalTrials.gov, OpenGrey, and ISRCTN identified interventional and observational human studies assessing supplementation and OS biomarkers. Forty-six studies met the inclusion criteria. The analysis revealed substantial heterogeneity in study design and reporting quality. Frequent methodological limitations included incomplete reporting of allocation concealment, participant and investigator blinding, examiner involvement, and deviations from intended interventions. Despite these limitations, several studies reported favorable effects of specific supplements on OS modulation and post-exercise recovery. Overall, the findings highlight widespread methodological shortcomings and emphasize the need for standardized trial designs, consistent biomarker selection, and transparent reporting. Well-designed, long-term randomized controlled trials are required to establish robust, evidence-based guidelines for dietary supplement use in managing exercise-induced OS in young adults. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 233 KB

Open AccessArticle

Intra- and Inter-Rater Reliability of a Systematic Video Analysis of ACL Injuries in Elite Men’s Football

by Sara F. Oliveira, Maria M. Castela, Konstantinos Spyrou, António P. Veloso and João Brito

Sports 2026, 14(7), 284; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070284 - 6 Jul 2026

Viewed by 345

Abstract

While systematic video analysis is widely used to understand anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury mechanisms and contexts, human observation reliability remains a source of concern. This study evaluates the intra- and inter-rater reliability of a systematic video-analysis checklist for assessing ACL injuries in [...] Read more.

While systematic video analysis is widely used to understand anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury mechanisms and contexts, human observation reliability remains a source of concern. This study evaluates the intra- and inter-rater reliability of a systematic video-analysis checklist for assessing ACL injuries in elite men’s football. Twenty-five match-related injuries from the top six European leagues (2020–2024) were randomly selected. Independent observers assessed contextual and situational (sunny weather, match minute, playing phase, field location, injury side, dominant leg, and situational pattern), biomechanical (player contact and anatomical area of player contact), and neurocognitive (attentional inhibition and motor response inhibition) variables. Reliability was calculated using Cohen’s kappa (

κ

) and Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC). Quantitative variables and macro-contextual factors, including injury side, playing phase, and situational pattern (0.810 <

κ

< 1.000) revealed near-perfect to perfect agreement. Biomechanical details exhibited substantial agreement (0.601 <

κ

< 0.784). Neurocognitive variables only reached moderate to substantial agreement (0.503 <

κ

< 0.752), while visual speed estimations proved highly unreliable (−0.106 <

κ

< 0.412). The checklist is a highly reliable tool for evaluating the contextual and situational patterns of ACL injuries, but visual speed estimation should be removed or replaced by objective tracking technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Biomechanics and Neuromuscular Aspects of Lower Limb Sports Injuries)

30 pages, 4166 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Inter-Limb Muscle Asymmetries in Youth Athletes: A Comprehensive Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Single-Leg Jump and Change of Direction Speed Outcomes

by Adam Maszczyk, Mariola Gepfert, Przemysław Pietraszewski, Anna Zwierzchowska and Adam Zając

Sports 2026, 14(7), 283; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070283 - 6 Jul 2026

Viewed by 427

Abstract

The aim of this meta-analysis was to synthesize current evidence on inter-limb asymmetries in youth athletes and to determine their magnitude, developmental determinants, and functional relevance. The review followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines, and the protocol was registered in PROSPERO. Six databases were searched [...] Read more.

The aim of this meta-analysis was to synthesize current evidence on inter-limb asymmetries in youth athletes and to determine their magnitude, developmental determinants, and functional relevance. The review followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines, and the protocol was registered in PROSPERO. Six databases were searched from inception to October 2025. Studies assessing asymmetry as a between-limb difference in athletes aged 6–18 years were included. A total of 25 studies (N = 4125) were included qualitatively, with 24 included in the quantitative analyses. Meta-analyses were conducted for comparable outcomes (single-leg countermovement jump [SLCMJ], change of direction speed [COD], association with sprint performance, and maturation effects) using random-effects models and heterogeneity assessment (I², τ²). Mean asymmetry was 10.8% for SLCMJ (95% CI: 6.7–14.9; I² = 78%) and 7.4% for COD (95% CI: 0.5–14.2; I² = 64%). The association between asymmetry and sprint performance was small and not statistically significant (r = −0.27; 95% CI: −0.55 to 0.07). Maturation analysis showed a moderate effect (d = 0.35; 95% CI: 0.18–0.52), with peak asymmetry around peak height velocity (PHV). Heterogeneity was mainly explained by sport-specific demands and methodological differences. Asymmetries of approximately 10% are commonly observed in youth athletes in single-leg jump and change of direction tests, but their clinical relevance likely depends on sport-specific demands, maturation status, and testing modality, and should not be interpreted as a universal normative threshold. The lack of prospective injury data prevents the establishment of universal clinical thresholds. In conclusion, inter-limb asymmetries are common and developmentally dynamic in youth athletes, with functional relevance depending on biological and sport-specific context. Future research should prioritize methodological standardization and prospective designs. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Sports, Volume 14, Issue 7 (July 2026) – 56 articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI