Training Load, Athlete State, and Training Response in Sports

A special issue of Sports (ISSN 2075-4663).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2026 | Viewed by 258

Editors


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Guest Editor
1. CIDEFES, Centro de Investigação em Desporto, Educação Física e Exercício e Saúde, Universidade Lusófona, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal
2. CIFI2D, Centre of Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
3. COD, Center of Sports Optimization, Sporting Clube de Portugal, 1600-464 Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: training load; athlete monitoring; athlete state; training response; recovery; neuromuscular fatigue; strength and conditioning; high-performance sport; team sports; volleyball; readiness assessment; performance optimization; figure skating

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. CIDEFES, Centro de Investigação em Desporto, Educação Física e Exercício e Saúde, Universidade Lusófona, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal
2. CIFI2D, Centre of Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
3. COD, Center of Sports Optimization, Sporting Clube de Portugal, 1600-464 Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: training load monitoring; athlete state markers; training response; external load; internal load; fatigue management; recovery strategies; physiological adaptations; neuromuscular fatigue; performance optimization; injury risk reduction; youth athlete development

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are pleased to invite you to contribute to this Special Issue entitled “Training Load, Athlete State, and Training Response in Sports”.

Understanding how athletes respond to training remains a central challenge in sports science and applied practice. Although training load is now widely monitored, load alone does not fully explain the substantial variability in athlete responses observed between athletes and across contexts over time. A broader perspective that examines how training load interacts with athlete state to shape training response may improve the understanding of adaptation, fatigue, recovery, readiness, performance, and health in sports.

This Special Issue aims to bring together high-quality research that advances knowledge on the relationships between training load, athlete state, and training response across a range of sporting contexts. Original research articles and review papers are welcome. Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, external and internal load, perceptual and physiological responses, neuromuscular fatigue, recovery, training adaptation, injury risk management, performance optimization, athlete monitoring technologies, longitudinal athlete monitoring, and statistical or practical approaches for interpreting meaningful change over time.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. André Rebelo
Dr. João Valente-dos-Santos
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sports is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • training load
  • athlete monitoring
  • athlete state
  • training response
  • readiness
  • recovery
  • fatigue
  • adaptation
  • performance
  • injury risk
  • sports physiology
  • sports biomechanics
  • wearables

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Published Papers (1 paper)

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Research

17 pages, 3739 KB  
Article
Athlete or Season? Gut Microbiota Variance in Elite Volleyball Players: A Compositional Performance-Based Reanalysis
by Junior Carlone, Giovanni Solarino, Saverio Giampaoli, Eugenio Alladio, Gioele Rosellini, Maurizio Cibba, Attilio Parisi, Alessio Fasano and Antonio Tessitore
Sports 2026, 14(7), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070292 - 9 Jul 2026
Abstract
Background: The gut microbiota is an emerging factor in athletic performance. Methodological limitations persist in longitudinal microbiome studies, particularly regarding the compositional nature of microbiota data and the lack of standardized performance metrics in team sports. The present study applies a Compositional Data [...] Read more.
Background: The gut microbiota is an emerging factor in athletic performance. Methodological limitations persist in longitudinal microbiome studies, particularly regarding the compositional nature of microbiota data and the lack of standardized performance metrics in team sports. The present study applies a Compositional Data Analysis (CoDA) framework with ANOVA-Simultaneous Component Analysis (ASCA) to investigate longitudinal gut microbiota dynamics in elite volleyball athletes and introduces a novel Technical Performance Level (TPL) metric for objective performance quantification. Methods: Seven elite male volleyball athletes from the Italian SuperLega Championship were monitored across four sampling timepoints (T0, T1, T2, T3) during the Regular Season, Rest Period, and Tournament Period. Fecal samples underwent 16S rRNA metabarcoding. CLR-transformed data were analyzed at the Phylum, Family, and Genus level using ASCA with Season, Player, and their interaction. Statistical significance was assessed using the Freedman-Lane permutation test (10,000 iterations). Within-subject associations between TPL and CLR-transformed microbial features were assessed by repeated-measures correlation. Results: Season and Player effects were statistically significant at all taxonomic levels (p ≤ 0.0004), whereas the Season × Player interaction was significant at the Family and Genus levels (p ≤ 0.002) but not at the Phylum level (p = 0.108). The Player effect represented the largest source of variance at the Family (51.31%) and Genus (50.75%) levels. At the Phylum level, the Season × Player interaction accounted for the largest share of variance (36.23%), although it did not reach significance. Within-subject correlation analyses revealed no statistically significant association between microbial features and TPL at any taxonomic level, and none remained significant after correction for multiple comparisons. Conclusions: The application of a compositional data analysis framework modifies the interpretation of gut microbiota dynamics in elite volleyball athletes compared to standard approaches. Individual athlete identity accounted for most of the compositional variance in the microbiota, whereas exploratory within-subject analyses did not reveal statistically significant associations between taxa and TPL. Given the small cohort, any observed trends should be interpreted as exploratory and hypothesis-generating until confirmed in adequately powered cohorts. Longitudinal monitoring of gut microbiota could support individualized surveillance of gut health in elite sport. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training Load, Athlete State, and Training Response in Sports)
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