Sports

14 pages, 441 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effects of Workplace Supervised Exercise on Psychological Capital: An Intervention Study

by Carmen M. Salvador-Ferrer, Pedro A. Diaz-Fúnez, Álvaro Carrera-Ruiz, Montserrat Monserrat-Hernández, Enrique G. Artero and Miguel A. Mañas-Rodríguez

Sports 2025, 13(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010002 - 24 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1052

Abstract

Public employees face a growing array of professional challenges, and psychological capital (PC) has emerged as a valuable resource to address them. Workplace supervised exercise (WSE) programs can improve physical fitness and personal resources, though their adoption in organizations is limited. This study [...] Read more.

Public employees face a growing array of professional challenges, and psychological capital (PC) has emerged as a valuable resource to address them. Workplace supervised exercise (WSE) programs can improve physical fitness and personal resources, though their adoption in organizations is limited. This study examines the impact of a long-term WSE program on the psychological capital of public administration employees. Fifty-five participants completed PC questionnaires and attended at least 40% of the sessions; 49.1% were women, and 40% were over 50 years old (age range: 24–73 years). A quasi-experimental design without a control group was used with a longitudinal design, and a nine-month WSE program (from October to June) was implemented. The data show gender-specific variations in PC patterns. Among men, incremental increases were observed over the three measurement intervals, with statistical significance achieved only in self-efficacy and hope. Among women, an upward trend was observed between October and February without statistical significance, followed by a slight decline. The results suggest that the WSE program may enhance personal resources, particularly hope and self-efficacy, highlighting the importance of tailoring WSE programs to the specific characteristics of the target group. Full article

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13 pages, 259 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Occurrence of Injuries in Different Phases of Judo Matches: Analysis Based on International Competitions

by Wiesław Błach, Dawid Gaweł, Wojciech J. Cynarski, Łukasz Rydzik, Zbigniew Borysiuk and Maciej Kostrzewa

Sports 2024, 12(12), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12120354 - 19 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1197

Abstract

Background: The specificity of the technical actions that are performed in judo may be dependent on and vary during particular phases of the combat, thus possibly impacting injury prevalence. Therefore, towards the betterment of athletes’ safety and considering the importance of the issue [...] Read more.

Background: The specificity of the technical actions that are performed in judo may be dependent on and vary during particular phases of the combat, thus possibly impacting injury prevalence. Therefore, towards the betterment of athletes’ safety and considering the importance of the issue of injury prevention in judo, the main goal of this study was to identify the injury occurrence during respective combat phases, i.e., the (a) first half, (b) second half, (c) last minute, and (d) golden score. Methods: A total of 26,862 elite judo athletes, including 15,571 men and 11,291 women, participated in the study. The subjects competed in 128 international tournaments of the European Judo Union (EJU) in 2005–2020. The EJU medical questionnaire was utilized to gather information from each injured athlete according to the aforementioned inclusion criteria. Results: Several statistically significant relationships were found between the differences in the number of injuries between particular combat phases and the athlete’s sex. Conclusions: A significantly higher number of injuries occurred during the combined second half and the last minute of the judo combat. Males suffered more injuries during the first and second half of the combat compared to females, however, during the last minute of the combat, the number of injuries was greater among women. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning Society 2024: Sports Performance, Injury Prevention, Rehabilitation, and Health Improvement)

22 pages, 2484 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Educational Intervention on Awareness of Health-Damaging Behaviors in Educators

by Valentina Focaroli, Marina Chiaro, Maria Vittoria Battaglia, Laura Guidetti and Andrea Velardi

Sports 2024, 12(12), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12120348 - 18 Dec 2024

Viewed by 879

Abstract

Doping prevention transcends elite sports, highlighting a broader societal challenge where performance enhancement is driven by pressures to increase strength, beauty, and status. This issue extends to adolescents and non-competitive sports participants, where self-optimization pressures are increasingly normalized. Research underscores the need for [...] Read more.

Doping prevention transcends elite sports, highlighting a broader societal challenge where performance enhancement is driven by pressures to increase strength, beauty, and status. This issue extends to adolescents and non-competitive sports participants, where self-optimization pressures are increasingly normalized. Research underscores the need for tailored educational interventions that go beyond punitive measures, fostering ethical decision-making and personal responsibility. The recent literature emphasizes that addressing psychological protective factors, such as self-efficacy and emotional regulation, can effectively mitigate substance use risks. The project “Sport Informa” involved the educational community and adolescents between the ages of 16 and 19, with the goal of providing knowledge about the phenomenon of doping and acquiring tools useful for enhancing self-esteem and self-management skills, in order to prevent the risk of doping by promoting a balanced psychophysical development in young people. A 16 h online training program was delivered to high school teachers. The training provided knowledge about doping, its psychological and social implications, and practical tools for promoting protective factors in students. A longitudinal design was employed, with data collected before and after the intervention using validated psychometric tools, including the Self-Efficacy Scale, the Self-Compassion Scale, and the Emotional Regulation Questionnaire. Results showed significant improvements in teachers’ psychological dimensions, particularly in self-efficacy and emotional regulation, which they subsequently applied in their interactions with students. Finally, a survey was conducted with young participants who took part in the project activities to assess their self-evaluation of key factors relevant to designing future educational interventions and events aimed at preventing doping use. Full article

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10 pages, 878 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Transferability of Exercise Intensity Based on Muscle Oxygenation from Normoxia to Hypoxia in Ski-Mountaineering Athletes—Exploratory Study

by Kinga Rębiś, Tomasz Kowalski, Kamil Michalik and Andrzej Klusiewicz

Sports 2024, 12(12), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12120351 - 18 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1263

Abstract

Frequent changes in altitude and oxygen levels limit the practical application of traditionally derived exercise thresholds or training zones based on heart rate (HR) or blood lactate concentration (bLa). We investigated the transferability of a muscle oxygenation (SmO₂)-based intensity prescription between [...] Read more.

Frequent changes in altitude and oxygen levels limit the practical application of traditionally derived exercise thresholds or training zones based on heart rate (HR) or blood lactate concentration (bLa). We investigated the transferability of a muscle oxygenation (SmO₂)-based intensity prescription between different hypoxic conditions to assess the suitability of real-time SmO₂ measurements for ski-mountaineering (SKIMO) athletes during submaximal endurance exercise. A group of 15 well-trained male SKIMO athletes performed a graded-intensity run test in normoxia (87 m ASL, FiO₂ = 20.8%) to determine the anaerobic threshold (AnT) with the mod-Dmax method, and maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) assessments in acute normobaric hypoxia (3000 m ASL, FiO₂ = 14.4%) with the intensity aligned to 90–105% of SmO₂ at the normoxia-determined AnT. SmO₂, HR, and bLa were monitored during both tests. The number of MLSS assessments without a bLa increase over 1 mmol·L⁻¹ was reported. Paired t-tests with Cohen’s d effect sizes and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) were computed to compare the bLa and HR at the AnT in normoxia and MLSS averages in hypoxia, as both corresponded to equivalent SmO₂. Out of the 15 MLSS assessments, 11 (73.3%) were performed without a bLa increase over 1 mmol·L⁻¹. Significant differences at equivalent SmO₂ in normoxia and hypoxia were found for HR (175 ± 11.7 vs. 160 ± 14.2 bpm, p = 0.005, d = 1.02), but not for bLa (4.9 ± 1.2 vs. 5.1 ± 2.4 mmol·L⁻¹, p = 0.845, d = −0.05). ICC(2,k) for HR and bLa were 0.56 (95% CI: −0.24, 0.85) and 0.40 (95% CI: −0.75, 0.80), respectively. The results indicate a fair transferability of a SmO₂-based intensity prescription between different hypoxic conditions in well-trained SKIMO athletes during submaximal endurance exercise. The practical significance of the observations depends on the required accuracy of the exercise intensity determination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Endurance and Ultra-Endurance: Implications of Training, Recovery, Nutrition, and Technology on Performance and Health)

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11 pages, 1096 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Quantification of Ground Reaction Forces During the Follow Through in Trained Male Cricket Fast Bowlers: A Laboratory-Based Study

by Jeffrey Fleming, Corey Perrett, Onesim Melchi, Jodie McClelland and Kane Middleton

Sports 2024, 12(12), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12120316 - 22 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1324

Abstract

Ground reaction forces (GRFs) are known to be high during front foot contact of fast bowling deliveries in cricket. There is a lack of published data on the GRFs during follow through foot contacts. The aim of this study was to quantify and [...] Read more.

Ground reaction forces (GRFs) are known to be high during front foot contact of fast bowling deliveries in cricket. There is a lack of published data on the GRFs during follow through foot contacts. The aim of this study was to quantify and compare peak GRFs and impulse of the delivery stride and the follow through of fast bowling deliveries. Ten trained male fast bowlers (ball release speed mean ± SD; 32.6 ± 2.3 m/s) competing in the Men’s Victorian Premier League participated in the study. Peak GRF and impulse data were collected using in-ground force plates in a laboratory setting. Linear mixed modelling of GRFs and impulse showed a significant effect of foot strike (p < 0.001). Front foot contact had the greatest magnitude of peak vertical GRF (5.569 ± 0.334 BW) but was not significantly greater than back foot recontact (4.471 ± 0.285 BW) (p = 0.07). Front foot impact had the greatest vertical impulse (0.408 ± 0.018 BW·s) but was similar to back foot (0.377 ± 0.012 BW·s) and front foot (0.368 ± 0.006 BW·s) recontacts (p = 0.070 to 0.928). The high GRF and impulse during the follow through highlights the need for further kinetic and kinematic research on this phase of the fast bowling delivery. Full article

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10 pages, 445 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Beyond Borders and Genders: Unveiling Cultural Influences on Badminton Motivation Among Older Adult Players in Taiwan and the United States

by Wei-Chieh Liao, Yun-Dih Chia-Smith, David Cabello-Manrique, Chia-Min Wang and Li-An Liao

Sports 2024, 12(11), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12110313 - 20 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1147

Abstract

This study explores and compares the motivations behind badminton participation among older adult players from Taiwan and the United States (U.S.), with a specific focus on cultural and gender differences. A total of 139 participants aged 60 and above took part in the [...] Read more.

This study explores and compares the motivations behind badminton participation among older adult players from Taiwan and the United States (U.S.), with a specific focus on cultural and gender differences. A total of 139 participants aged 60 and above took part in the study, with 55 from the United States (24 females, 31 males) and 84 from Taiwan (39 females, 45 males). Utilizing the Exercise Motivations Inventory-2 (EMI-2), this research examines differences in motivations across cultural and gender lines, identifying key factors such as health-related motivations, personal achievement, social interactions, and competition. The results reveal that Taiwanese players are more motivated by health benefits and stress reduction, while U.S. players emphasize personal achievement and recognition. Additionally, gender-specific motivations emerged, with female players from both countries placing greater importance on social interactions compared to their male counterparts. These findings underscore the need for culturally and gender-sensitive approaches to promote sports participation among older adults in diverse settings. Full article

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14 pages, 1345 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Acute Responses to Different Velocity Loss Thresholds during Squat Exercise with Blood-Flow Restriction in Strength-Trained Men

by Juan Sánchez-Valdepeñas, Pedro J. Cornejo-Daza, Luis Rodiles-Guerrero, Jose A. Páez-Maldonado, Miguel Sánchez-Moreno, Beatriz Bachero-Mena, Eduardo Saez de Villarreal and Fernando Pareja-Blanco

Sports 2024, 12(6), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12060171 - 20 Jun 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2629

Abstract

(1) Background: The aim of this paper is to analyze the acute effects of different velocity loss (VL) thresholds during a full squat (SQ) with blood-flow restriction (BFR) on strength performance, neuromuscular activity, metabolic response, and muscle contractile properties. (2) Methods: Twenty strength-trained [...] Read more.

(1) Background: The aim of this paper is to analyze the acute effects of different velocity loss (VL) thresholds during a full squat (SQ) with blood-flow restriction (BFR) on strength performance, neuromuscular activity, metabolic response, and muscle contractile properties. (2) Methods: Twenty strength-trained men performed four protocols that differed in the VL achieved within the set (BFR0: 0% VL; BFR10: 10% VL; BFR20: 20% VL; and BFR40: 40% VL). The relative intensity (60% 1RM), recovery between sets (2 min), number of sets (3), and level of BFR (50% of arterial occlusion pressure) were matched between protocols. Tensiomyography (TMG), blood lactate, countermovement jump (CMJ), maximal voluntary isometric SQ contraction (MVIC), and performance with the absolute load required to achieve 1 m·s⁻¹ at baseline measurements in SQ were assessed before and after the protocols. (3) Results: BFR40 resulted in higher EMG alterations during and after exercise than the other protocols (p < 0.05). BFR40 also induced greater impairments in TMG-derived variables and BFR10 decreased contraction time. Higher blood lactate concentrations were found as the VL within the set increased. BFR0 and BFR10 showed significantly increased median frequencies in post-exercise MVIC. (4) Conclusions: High VL thresholds (BFR40) accentuated metabolic and neuromuscular stress, and produced increased alterations in muscles’ mechanical properties. Low VL could potentiate post-exercise neuromuscular activity and muscle contractile properties. Full article

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15 pages, 2603 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Physical and Physiological Characteristics of Elite CrossFit Athletes

by Bram Sauvé, Magnus Haugan and Gøran Paulsen

Sports 2024, 12(6), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12060162 - 12 Jun 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4561

Abstract

Due to little available research on elite CrossFit athletes, the present investigation was undertaken to provide knowledge about their physical and physiological characteristics. Nineteen international level CrossFit athletes (8 men; 11 women) were tested for maximum oxygen consumption (

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O₂ [...] Read more.

Due to little available research on elite CrossFit athletes, the present investigation was undertaken to provide knowledge about their physical and physiological characteristics. Nineteen international level CrossFit athletes (8 men; 11 women) were tested for maximum oxygen consumption (

\dot{V}

O₂max), Wingate, squat 1 repetition maximum (1RM), countermovement jump (CMJ), lower body force–velocity, and body composition (DXA). To provide perspective, the results were compared to sixteen elite-level Alpinists (8 men; 8 women). There was no significant difference in absolute nor relative

\dot{V}

O₂max between the CrossFit and Alpinist men (p = 0.335 and p = 0.279, respectively). The CrossFit women showed similar absolute but higher relative

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O₂max than the Alpinist women (p = 0.055 and p = 0.005, respectively). Mean anaerobic power was higher in both CrossFit men and women (p = 0.021 and p = 0.008, respectively). There were no significant differences in squat 1RM and CMJ for both men and women (p > 0.05). Both CrossFit men and women showed lesser lower body force production (p = 0.043 and p = 0.034, respectively) but higher power (p = 0.009 and p = 0.003, respectively). The CrossFit men and women had a lower fat mass (p = 0.018 and p = 0.002, respectively) and fat percentage (p = 0.027 and p < 0.001, respectively). These observations show that elite CrossFit athletes possess physical and physiological characteristics comparable to world-class Alpinists. Full article

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16 pages, 4672 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

If You Want to Prevent Hamstring Injuries in Soccer, Run Fast: A Narrative Review about Practical Considerations of Sprint Training

by Pedro Gómez-Piqueras and Pedro E. Alcaraz

Sports 2024, 12(5), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12050134 - 15 May 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 12916

Abstract

Hamstring strain injuries (HSIs) are one of the most common injuries in sprint-based sports. In soccer, the ability to sprint is key, not only because of its relation to performance but also due to its possible protective effect against HSIs. Although many authors [...] Read more.

Hamstring strain injuries (HSIs) are one of the most common injuries in sprint-based sports. In soccer, the ability to sprint is key, not only because of its relation to performance but also due to its possible protective effect against HSIs. Although many authors have focused on the “how”, “when”, and “what” training load should be implemented, there is a lack of practical proposals for sprint training in a high-level professional environment. The objective of this narrative review is, after a deep review of the scientific literature, to present a practical approach for sprint training, trying to answer some of the questions that most strength and conditioning coaches ask themselves when including it in soccer. Once the literature published on this topic was reviewed and combined with the practical experience of the authors, it was concluded that sprint training in soccer, although it presents an obvious need, is not something about which there is methodological unanimity. However, following the practical recommendations from this narrative review, strength and conditioning coaches can have a reference model that serves as a starting point for optimal management of the internal and external training load when they wish to introduce sprint training in the competitive microcycle in professional soccer players, with the aim of reducing HSIs. Full article

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29 pages, 6932 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Metabolomic and Proteomic Profiling of Athletes Performing Physical Activity under Hypoxic Conditions

by Kristina A. Malsagova, Arthur T. Kopylov, Alexander A. Stepanov, Liudmila I. Kulikova, Alexander A. Izotov, Ksenia A. Yurku, Evgenii I. Balakin, Vasiliy I. Pustovoyt and Anna L. Kaysheva

Sports 2024, 12(3), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12030072 - 5 Mar 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3580

Abstract

Proteomic and metabolomic research enables quantitation of the molecular profile of athletes. Multiomic profiling was conducted using plasma samples collected from 18 male athletes performing aerobic activity (running) at high altitude. Metabolomic profiling detected changes in the levels of 4-hydroxyproline, methionine, oxaloacetate, and [...] Read more.

Proteomic and metabolomic research enables quantitation of the molecular profile of athletes. Multiomic profiling was conducted using plasma samples collected from 18 male athletes performing aerobic activity (running) at high altitude. Metabolomic profiling detected changes in the levels of 4-hydroxyproline, methionine, oxaloacetate, and tyrosine during the recovery period. Furthermore, proteomic profiling revealed changes in expression of proteins contributing to the function of the immune system, muscle damage, metabolic fitness and performance, as well as hemostasis. Further research should focus on developing metabolic models to monitor training intensity and athlete adaptation. Full article

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17 pages, 2803 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Basketball Fatigue Impact on Kinematic Parameters and 3-Point Shooting Accuracy: Insights across Players’ Positions and Cardiorespiratory Fitness Associations of High-Level Players

by Dimitrios I. Bourdas, Antonios K. Travlos, Athanasios Souglis, Dimitrios C. Gofas, Dimitrios Stavropoulos and Panteleimon Bakirtzoglou

Sports 2024, 12(3), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12030063 - 20 Feb 2024

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6007

Abstract

This study investigated the impact of basketball-induced fatigue on 3-point jump shooting accuracy, the ball’s entry angle (EA) into the hoop, shot release time (RT), their relationship with player positions in high-level basketball, and the correlation between cardiorespiratory fitness markers and potential shooting [...] Read more.

This study investigated the impact of basketball-induced fatigue on 3-point jump shooting accuracy, the ball’s entry angle (EA) into the hoop, shot release time (RT), their relationship with player positions in high-level basketball, and the correlation between cardiorespiratory fitness markers and potential shooting performance changes. Guards (n = 13), forwards (n = 13), and centers (n = 12) underwent physiological assessments. Sequentially, they performed 15 jump shots (PRE), a basketball exercise simulation (BEST) involving 24 × 30 s circuit activities, and a repeated shooting test (POST). The study design was double-blind. The results revealed significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) in RT, EA, and successful shots (SSs) between PRE and POST in each group. The percentage changes from PRE to POST conditions across guards, forwards, and centers were for RT: 25.34% [95%CI: 1.7–48.98], 19.73% [95%CI: −1.9–41.36], 14.95% [95%CI: −5.23–35.13]; for EA: −3.89% [95%CI: −14.82–7.04], −3.13% [95%CI: −12.9–6.64], −3.47% [95%CI: −14.19–7.25]; and for SS: −14.42% [95%CI: −36.5–7.66], −16.76% [95%CI: −40.81–7.29], −19.44% [95%CI: −46.7–7.82], respectively. Post-test differences (p ≤ 0.05) highlighted greater fatigue impact on RT, EA, and SS from guards to centers. Additionally, significant correlations (p ≤ 0.05) were found between the ventilatory threshold, mean HR during BEST, and changes in RT, EA, and SS. This study highlights the substantial impact of basketball-induced fatigue on 3-point shooting parameters across player positions and the interplay with cardiorespiratory factors post-fatigue. Tailored training, considering heart rate, is crucial to optimizing shooting performance. Full article

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19 pages, 2777 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Effects of Physical and Mental Fatigue on Time Perception

by Reza Goudini, Ali Zahiri, Shahab Alizadeh, Benjamin Drury, Saman Hadjizadeh Anvar, Abdolhamid Daneshjoo and David G. Behm

Sports 2024, 12(2), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12020059 - 15 Feb 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5393

Abstract

The perception of time holds a foundational significance regarding how we elucidate the chronological progression of events. While some studies have examined exercise effects on time perception during exercise periods, there are no studies investigating the effects of exercise fatigue on time perception [...] Read more.

The perception of time holds a foundational significance regarding how we elucidate the chronological progression of events. While some studies have examined exercise effects on time perception during exercise periods, there are no studies investigating the effects of exercise fatigue on time perception after an exercise intervention. This study investigated the effects of physical and mental fatigue on time estimates over 30 s immediately post-exercise and 6 min post-test. Seventeen volunteers were subjected to three conditions: physical fatigue, mental fatigue, and control. All participants completed a familiarization session and were subjected to three 30 min experimental conditions (control, physical fatigue (cycling at 65% peak power output), and mental fatigue (Stroop task)) on separate days. Time perception, heart rate, and body temperature were recorded pre-test; at the start of the test; 5, 10, 20, 30 seconds into the interventions; post-test; and at the 6 min follow-up. Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was recorded four times during the intervention. Physical fatigue resulted in a significant (p = 0.001) underestimation of time compared to mental fatigue and control conditions at the post-test and follow-up, with no significant differences between mental fatigue and control conditions. Heart rate, body temperature, and RPE were significantly (all p = 0.001) higher with physical fatigue compared to mental fatigue and control conditions during the intervention and post-test. This study demonstrated that cycling-induced fatigue led to time underestimation compared to mental fatigue and control conditions. It is crucial to consider that physical fatigue has the potential to lengthen an individual’s perception of time estimates in sports or work environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Neuromuscular Fatigue Mechanisms on Exercise Performance)

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15 pages, 2423 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Training Characteristics, Performance, and Body Composition of Three U23 Elite Female Triathletes throughout a Season

by Sergio Sellés-Pérez, Hector Arévalo-Chico, José Fernández-Sáez and Roberto Cejuela

Sports 2024, 12(2), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12020053 - 7 Feb 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6118

Abstract

(1) Background: There is a lack of data on the long-term training characteristics and performance markers of elite young female endurance athletes. The aim of this study was to present the training load (ECOs), as well as the evolution of the anthropometric values [...] Read more.

(1) Background: There is a lack of data on the long-term training characteristics and performance markers of elite young female endurance athletes. The aim of this study was to present the training load (ECOs), as well as the evolution of the anthropometric values and performance of three elite U23 female triathletes over a season. (2) Methods: General training data and performance data relating to the swimming, cycling, and running legs of the 2021 season were described. The training intensity distribution (TID) was presented using the triphasic model, while the training load was based on the ECO model. An anthropometric analysis was also conducted in accordance with the ISAK standards. (3) Results: Triathletes increased their VO_2max in cycling (6.9–10%) and running (7.1–9.1%), as well as their power and speed associated with the VO_2max (7.7–8.6% in cycling and 5.1–5.3% in running) and their swimming speed associated with the lactate thresholds (2.6–4.0% in LT2 and 1.2–2.5% in LT1). The triathletes completed more than 10 h of weekly average training time, with peak weeks exceeding 15 h. The average TID of the three triathletes was 82% in phase 1, 6% in phase 2, and 12% in phase 3. A decrease in the sum of skinfolds and fat mass percentage was observed during the season in the three triathletes, although the last measurement revealed a stagnation or slight rise in these parameters. (4) Conclusions: The triathletes performed a combination of two training periodization models (traditional and block periodization) with a polarized TID in most of the weeks of the season. Improvements in performance and physiological parameters were observed after the general preparatory period as well as a positive body composition evolution throughout the season, except at the end, where the last measurement revealed stagnation or a slight decline. This study can be useful as a general guide for endurance coaches to organize a training season with female U23 triathletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport Physiology and Physical Performance)

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11 pages, 2688 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Comparison of Leg Muscle Oxygenation, Cardiorespiratory Responses, and Blood Lactate between Walking and Running at the Same Speed

by Alexandros Stathopoulos, Anatoli Petridou, Nikolaos Kantouris and Vassilis Mougios

Sports 2024, 12(2), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12020048 - 1 Feb 2024

Viewed by 2848

Abstract

It is not known whether different gait modes, or movement patterns, at the same speed elicit differences in muscle oxygen oxygenation, expressed as muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂). Thus, the aim of this study was to compare the oxygenation of two leg [...] Read more.

It is not known whether different gait modes, or movement patterns, at the same speed elicit differences in muscle oxygen oxygenation, expressed as muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂). Thus, the aim of this study was to compare the oxygenation of two leg muscles (vastus lateralis and gastrocnemius medialis), as well as the heart rate, respiratory gases, and blood lactate between two gait modes (walking and running) of the same speed and duration. Ten men walked and ran for 30 min each at 7 km/h in a random, counterbalanced order. SmO₂, heart rate, and respiratory gases were monitored continuously. Blood lactate was measured at rest, at the end of each exercise, and after 15 min of recovery. Data were analyzed by two-way (gait mode × time) or three-way (gait mode × muscle × time) ANOVA, as applicable. Heart rate and oxygen consumption were higher when running compared to walking. SmO₂ was lower during exercise compared to rest and recovery, in gastrocnemius medialis compared to vastus lateralis, and in running compared to walking. Blood lactate increased during exercise but did not differ between gait modes. In conclusion, running caused higher deoxygenation in leg muscles (accompanied by higher whole-body oxygen uptake and heart rate) than walking at the same speed (one that was comfortable for both gait modes), thus pointing to a higher internal load despite equal external load. Thus, preferring running over walking at the same speed causes higher local muscle deoxygenation, which may be beneficial in inducing favorable training adaptations. Full article

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21 pages, 2280 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Agreement between Ventilatory Thresholds and Bilaterally Measured Vastus Lateralis Muscle Oxygen Saturation Breakpoints in Trained Cyclists: Effects of Age and Performance

by Karmen Reinpõld, Indrek Rannama and Kristjan Port

Sports 2024, 12(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12020040 - 28 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3030

Abstract

This study focused on comparing metabolic thresholds derived from local muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂) signals, obtained using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), with global pulmonary ventilation rates measured at the mouth. It was conducted among various Age Groups within a well-trained cyclist population. [...] Read more.

This study focused on comparing metabolic thresholds derived from local muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂) signals, obtained using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), with global pulmonary ventilation rates measured at the mouth. It was conducted among various Age Groups within a well-trained cyclist population. Additionally, the study examined how cycling performance characteristics impact the discrepancies between ventilatory thresholds (VTs) and SmO₂ breakpoints (BPs). Methods: Junior (n = 18) and Senior (n = 15) cyclists underwent incremental cycling tests to assess their aerobic performance and to determine aerobic (AeT) and anaerobic (AnT) threshold characteristics through pulmonary gas exchange and changes in linearity of the vastus lateralis (VL) muscle SmO₂ signals. We compared the relative power (Pkg) at ventilatory thresholds (VTs) and breakpoints (BPs) for the nondominant (ND), dominant (DO), and bilaterally averaged (Avr) SmO₂ during the agreement analysis. Additionally, a 30 s sprint test was performed to estimate anaerobic performance capabilities and to assess the cyclists’ phenotype, defined as the ratio of P@VT2 to the highest 5 s sprint power. Results: The P_kg@BP for Avr SmO₂ had higher agreement with VT values than ND and DO. Avr SmO₂ P_kg@BP1 was lower (p < 0.05) than P_kg@VT1 (mean bias: 0.12 ± 0.29 W/kg; Limits of Agreement (LOA): −0.45 to 0.68 W/kg; R² = 0.72) and mainly among Seniors (0.21 ± 0.22 W/kg; LOA: −0.22 to 0.63 W/kg); there was no difference (p > 0.05) between Avr P_kg@BP2 and P_kg@VT2 (0.03 ± 0.22 W/kg; LOA: −0.40 to 0.45 W/kg; R² = 0.86). The bias between two methods correlated significantly with the phenotype (r = −0.385 and r = −0.515 for AeT and AnT, respectively). Conclusions: Two breakpoints can be defined in the NIRS-captured SmO₂ signal of VL, but the agreement between the two methods at the individual level was too low for interchangeable usage of those methods in the practical training process. Older cyclists generally exhibited earlier thresholds in muscle oxygenation signals compared to systemic responses, unlike younger cyclists who showed greater variability and no significant differences in this regard in bias values between the two threshold evaluation methods with no significant difference between methods. More sprinter-type cyclists tended to have systemic VT thresholds earlier than local NIRS-derived thresholds than athletes with relatively higher aerobic abilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Endurance and Ultra-Endurance: Implications of Training, Recovery, Nutrition, and Technology on Performance and Health)

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41 pages, 1724 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Sporting Mind: The Interplay of Physical Activity and Psychological Health

by Alexandra Martín-Rodríguez, Laura Augusta Gostian-Ropotin, Ana Isabel Beltrán-Velasco, Noelia Belando-Pedreño, Juan Antonio Simón, Clara López-Mora, Eduardo Navarro-Jiménez, José Francisco Tornero-Aguilera and Vicente Javier Clemente-Suárez

Sports 2024, 12(1), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12010037 - 22 Jan 2024

Cited by 99 | Viewed by 50561

Abstract

The symbiotic relationship between sports practice and psychological well-being has, in recent times, surged to the forefront of academic and public attention. The aim of this narrative review is to comprehensively explore the intricate pathways linking physical engagement in sports to its subsequent [...] Read more.

The symbiotic relationship between sports practice and psychological well-being has, in recent times, surged to the forefront of academic and public attention. The aim of this narrative review is to comprehensively explore the intricate pathways linking physical engagement in sports to its subsequent impacts on mental health and synthesize the multifarious effects of sports on psychological health, offering insights for integrating physical and psychological strategies to enhance well-being. From neurobiological underpinnings to therapeutic applications, this comprehensive manuscript provides an in-depth dive into the multifaceted world of sports and psychology. Highlighting evidence-based interventions, this review aspires to offer actionable insights for practitioners, athletes, and individuals alike, advocating for a holistic approach to mental well-being. This manuscript highlights the profound impact of sports on mental health, emphasizing its role in emotional regulation, resilience, cognitive function, and treating psychological conditions. It details how sports induce neurochemical changes, enhance brain functions like memory and learning, and aid against cognitive decline. This review also notes the benefits of regular exercise in mood improvement, stress management, and social skill enhancement, particularly when combined with mindfulness practices. It underscores the importance of considering cultural and gender perspectives in sports psychology, advocating for an integrated physical–psychological approach to promote overall well-being. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Edition: Sport Psychology Interventions for Athletes' Performance and Well-Being)

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22 pages, 1220 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

The Influence of Menstrual Cycle Phases on Maximal Strength Performance in Healthy Female Adults: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

by Marc Niering, Nacera Wolf-Belala, Johanna Seifert, Ole Tovar, Jacqueline Coldewey, Jennifer Kuranda and Thomas Muehlbauer

Sports 2024, 12(1), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12010031 - 12 Jan 2024

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 21740

Abstract

Maximal strength is a significant factor in achieving peak performance and injury prevention in athletes. In individualization strategies for the efficient development of athletes, it is necessary to consider the respective components separately. The purpose of this study was to systematically examine the [...] Read more.

Maximal strength is a significant factor in achieving peak performance and injury prevention in athletes. In individualization strategies for the efficient development of athletes, it is necessary to consider the respective components separately. The purpose of this study was to systematically examine the effects of the different cycle phases on isometric, isokinetic, and dynamic maximum strength. A systematic literature review was conducted; databases were searched from January 1960 to September 2023. The included studies focused on the expression of maximal strength in the earlier follicular phase as well as at least one comparative phase. Of the initial 707 articles identified, 22 met the selection criteria and were included. The studies considered a total of 433 subjects. Our results revealed medium effects (weighted mean standardized mean difference (SMD) = 0.60; seven studies) for isometric maximal strength in favor of the late follicular phase, small effects (weighted mean SMD = 0.39; five studies) for isokinetic maximal strength in favor of the ovulation phase, and small effects (weighted mean SMD = 0.14; three studies) for dynamic maximal strength in favor of the late follicular phase. The results indicate that the early follicular phase is unfavorable for all strength classes. Peak performance in isometric strength is seen in the late follicular phase, whereas isokinetic strength peaks during ovulation. Dynamic strength is optimal in the late follicular phase. Full article

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13 pages, 1989 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Follow-Up Weekly Training Distribution and Accumulated Internal Load Effects on Young Football Players’ Well-Being, Physical Fitness, and Technical Performance

by Yutthana Riansoi, Nuntapol Tongnillpant, Sakdarin Thammawong, João Ribeiro, Rodrigo Zacca and Phornpot Chainok

Sports 2024, 12(1), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12010023 - 9 Jan 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3563

Abstract

This study aimed to quantify the relationships among internal training load, wellness, physiological, isokinetic profile, and technical performance and assessed changes before and after a six-week pre-season structured combining physical fitness, small-sided-game and skill-based training program in young soccer players. Forty-five national-level young [...] Read more.

This study aimed to quantify the relationships among internal training load, wellness, physiological, isokinetic profile, and technical performance and assessed changes before and after a six-week pre-season structured combining physical fitness, small-sided-game and skill-based training program in young soccer players. Forty-five national-level young male soccer players (16.8 ± 0.9 years) were evaluated. There were no significant correlations between the wellness index and the physiological, isokinetic, or specific soccer skill parameters. Moderate correlations were observed between fatigue and stress (r = 0.47, moderate, p < 0.01), fatigue and average muscle soreness (r = 0.38, moderate, p = 0.01), and a large correlation between average stress and muscle soreness (r = 0.53, large, p < 0.01) were presented. All physiological, isokinetic, and technical parameters improved after a six-week pre-season training program (0.1 to −61.0%). Significant alterations in the physiological domain were observed after a six-week period, particularly in the fatigue index of the Bangsbo sprint test, YO-YO IR1 performance, and YO-YO peak La^- (p < 0.01; −61.0%, 25.3%, and −19.8%, respectively). As such, the implementation of structured training and the monitoring of stress responses can lead to appropriate adaptation and balancing in the psychological and physical well-being of young national-level soccer players, particularly in the pre-season period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Physical Fitness Profile in Soccer Players)

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8 pages, 467 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Impact of the Menstrual Cycle on Physical Performance and Subjective Ratings in Elite Academy Women Soccer Players

by Etienne Juillard, Tom Douchet, Christos Paizis and Nicolas Babault

Sports 2024, 12(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12010016 - 3 Jan 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 7366

Abstract

Our study aimed to combine psychological and physical factors to explore the impact of the menstrual cycle on performance in elite academy women soccer players through weekly monitoring. Eighteen elite academy women soccer players were monitored. Players reported daily through an online anonymous [...] Read more.

Our study aimed to combine psychological and physical factors to explore the impact of the menstrual cycle on performance in elite academy women soccer players through weekly monitoring. Eighteen elite academy women soccer players were monitored. Players reported daily through an online anonymous survey if they were in menstruation. Players answered the Hooper Questionnaire daily, performed an Illinois Agility Test (IAT) twice a week, and rated their perceived exertion (RPE) after every training session. Tests were associated with a complete menstrual cycle reported through the online anonymous survey to determine the two weeks of the follicular phase and the two weeks of the luteal phase. Of the 18 players, 10 completed all requirements and were retained for analyses. IAT did not show significant differences throughout the menstrual cycle (p = 0.633). Fatigue (p = 0.444), Stress (p = 0.868), Sleep (p = 0.398), DOMS (delayed onset muscle soreness; p = 0.725), and Hooper Index (p = 0.403) did not show significant differences either. RPE was also comparable across the cycle (p = 0.846). Our results failed to demonstrate that hormonal variation during the menstrual cycle influenced psychological and physical markers of performance. Full article

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16 pages, 3354 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Acute Effect of the “Zero Point” Method on Muscle Thickness and Muscle Damage in Trained Men

by Thiago B. Trindade, Ragami C. Alves, Nuno Manuel Frade de Sousa, Charles Lopes, Bruno Magalhães de Castro, Thiago S. Rosa and Jonato Prestes

Sports 2024, 12(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12010006 - 22 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4566

Abstract

The “zero point” method allows for lower intensities for an exercise session without impairing the total training volume. This study aimed to compare the effects of the “zero point” versus the traditional method on muscle responses and muscle damage in trained men. Fifteen [...] Read more.

The “zero point” method allows for lower intensities for an exercise session without impairing the total training volume. This study aimed to compare the effects of the “zero point” versus the traditional method on muscle responses and muscle damage in trained men. Fifteen experienced men (age: 27.7 ± 6.4 years; body mass: 78.4 ± 11.4 kg; height: 174.8 ± 4.9 cm; experience: 5.86 ± 4.7 years; relative bench press strength: 1.38 ± 0.17 kg·kg⁻¹) were subjected to two exercise protocols in a randomized order and separated by a week. The traditional and “zero point” methods were applied in the bench press, with loads of 70% and 50% of one repetition maximum (1RM), respectively, for 10 sets until concentric failure, with 3-min intervals between sets. The zero point method displayed a higher number of repetitions and time under tension than the traditional method, with no difference in the total training volume, echo intensity, algometry, lactate, and myoglobin. For the muscle thickness, no differences between the groups were presented, except for the deltoid muscle thickness, in which a higher post-training volume was observed compared to traditional training. The “zero point” method increases the demand on the deltoid muscles in the bench press exercise, but not on the pectoralis and triceps brachii. Full article

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18 pages, 2403 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

Recovery Methods in Basketball: A Systematic Review

by Mladen Mihajlovic, Dimitrije Cabarkapa, Damjana V. Cabarkapa, Nicolas M. Philipp and Andrew C. Fry

Sports 2023, 11(11), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11110230 - 20 Nov 2023

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 13126

Abstract

Although different strategies have been implemented to manage recovery-fatigue status in athletes, there is still a lack of consensus on which recovery protocols have the greatest impact and effectiveness when implemented with basketball players, including both physiological and psychological recovery methods. Thus, the [...] Read more.

Although different strategies have been implemented to manage recovery-fatigue status in athletes, there is still a lack of consensus on which recovery protocols have the greatest impact and effectiveness when implemented with basketball players, including both physiological and psychological recovery methods. Thus, the purpose of this systematic review is to: (a) determine which recovery methods attain the greatest benefit in restoring the process of attenuating fatigue and (b) provide sports practitioners with guidelines on how some of the most effective recovery strategies can be used to optimize athletes’ recovery and ultimately enhance their performance. Using the PRISMA guidelines, a total of 3931 research reports were obtained through four database searches (i.e., PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane, and Web of Science), from which only 25 met the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The recovery protocols analyzed in this systematic review were: sleep, nutrition, hydration, ergogenic aids, cold-water immersion, compression garments, massage, acupuncture, tapering, mindfulness, and red-light irradiation. The results revealed that all recovery strategies are capable of attenuating fatigue and enhancing recovery in basketball players to a certain degree. However, an individualized approach should be promoted, where a combination of proactive recovery modalities appears to result in the most rapid rates of recovery and athletes’ ability to maintain high-level performance. Recovery should be programmed as an integral component of training regimens. Also, cooperation and communication between coaches, players, and the rest of the team staff members are essential in minimizing the risk of non-functional overreaching or injury and optimizing basketball players’ on-court performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Connecting Health and Performance with Sports Sciences)

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26 pages, 1492 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Pacing Strategies Differ by Sex and Rank in 2020 CrossFit^® Open Tests

by Gerald T. Mangine, Elisabeth K. Zeitz, Joshua D. Dexheimer, Ashley Hines, Brandon Lively and Brian M. Kliszczewicz

Sports 2023, 11(10), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11100199 - 11 Oct 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3157

Abstract

This retrospective study collected video recordings of a random selection of eighty men and women (n = 160) completing all five tests of the 2020 CrossFit^® Open. All competitors were ranked within the top 10,000 overall but were sub-divided based on [...] Read more.

This retrospective study collected video recordings of a random selection of eighty men and women (n = 160) completing all five tests of the 2020 CrossFit^® Open. All competitors were ranked within the top 10,000 overall but were sub-divided based on whether they ranked within the top 10% of their respective divisions. To examine the effect of sex and rank on pacing strategy, video analysis quantified the overall repetition completion rate on each test, as well as per minute (or round) repetition completion rates for each test’s individual exercises, quantity of failed repetitions, break times, and transition times. All per minute (or round) data were aggregated into first- and last-half or total test average, slopes, and coefficient of variation. Sex and rank analyses of variance were performed on averages, slopes, and coefficients of variation for each variable calculated over the first and last halves of each test, except test 5 (total only). The top 10% of men were 17.5% faster (p < 0.001) than everyone else in tests 1, 3, and 5. The top 10% of women and remaining men were ~9.5% faster than remaining women in tests 1 and 3. In test 5, the remaining men were faster than top 10% of women (~11.2%, p < 0.001), and both were faster than the remaining women. In tests 2 and 4, the top 10% of athletes were 9.7% faster (p < 0.001) than remaining athletes, and at the same time, men were 7.7% faster (p < 0.001) than women. Analysis of each test’s components revealed the top 10% of competitors to be faster and more consistent in most areas, while men were generally faster than women in gymnastics components and more consistent with their pace for resistance training exercises. These data provide insight into the differential factors linked to success in the men’s and women’s CFO divisions. Full article

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22 pages, 2308 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Short-Term Effects of Lower-Extremity Heavy Resistance versus High-Impact Plyometric Training on Neuromuscular Functional Performance of Professional Soccer Players

by Michał Boraczyński, José Magalhães, Jacek J. Nowakowski and James J. Laskin

Sports 2023, 11(10), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11100193 - 4 Oct 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4694

Abstract

Background: To compare the effects of short-term 8 week heavy-resistance or plyometric training protocols (HRT or PLY) incorporated into regular soccer practice on measures of neuromuscular functional performance in professional soccer players, a single-blind randomized controlled trial was conducted. Methods: Forty-seven participants aged [...] Read more.

Background: To compare the effects of short-term 8 week heavy-resistance or plyometric training protocols (HRT or PLY) incorporated into regular soccer practice on measures of neuromuscular functional performance in professional soccer players, a single-blind randomized controlled trial was conducted. Methods: Forty-seven participants aged 22.3 ± 3.52 years were assigned to three groups: HRT (n = 15), PLY (n = 15), and control (CON; n = 17). The HRT group performed 3 sets and 10 repetitions twice a week using 80% of their baseline 1-RM (weeks 1–3), followed by 8 repetitions at 85% 1-RM (weeks 4–6), and 6 repetitions at 90% 1-RM (weeks 7–8) of 6 lower-body strength exercises with a 1 min rest period between sets. The PLY protocol involved a preparatory phase (weeks 1–2), followed by two 3-week progressive periods (weeks 3–5 and weeks 6–8). The plyometric sessions consisted of four jump exercises/drills with progressively increasing number of sets and total number of foot contacts. The rest intervals between repetitions and sets were 15 and 90 s, respectively. Outcome measures included tests assessing 10 and 30 m speed (t10m and t30m), one-repetition maximum half-back squat (1-RM squat), isokinetic peak torques for the quadriceps and hamstring muscles (Qcon and Hcon), countermovement jump (CMJ), and squat jump (SJ). Results: Two-way ANOVA detected main effects of time and group×time interactions for all examined variables, except t30m, 1-RM, and relative 1-RM. Post hoc analyses revealed significant increases in the HRT group (t10m: 6.3%, t30m: 7.1%; absolute 1-RM: 29.6%; relative 1-RM: 30.3%, Qcon: 24.5%; Hcon: 14.4%; CMJ: 5.9%; SJ: 7.2%, all p < 0.001) and the PLY group (t10m: 3.1%; t30m: 4.1%; absolute 1-RM:19.1%; relative 1-RM: 20.3%; Qcon: 12.6%; Hcon: 8.7%; CMJ: 3.3%; SJ: 3.5%, all p < 0.001). HRT was superior compared to PLY in relative 1-RM, Qcon and Hcon (all p < 0.001). In addition, we found knee muscular strength imbalance in 70.5% of participants from the total sample (H/Q ratio < 60%). The HRT and PLY protocols resulted in improved neuromuscular functional performance compared to the regular soccer regime. Conclusions: This study showed that during the pre-competitive season, additional HRT and PLY drills/exercises as a substitute for standard soccer training as part of a regular 90 min practice twice a week for 8 weeks, can produce acute physical performance-enhancing effects in professional soccer players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Lower Extremity Biomechanics and Lower Extremity Injury Risk)

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12 pages, 725 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Are Late-Born Young Soccer Players Less Mature Than Their Early-Born Peers, Although No Differences in Physical and Technical Performance Are Evident?

by Eduard Bezuglov, Georgiy Malyakin, Anton Emanov, Grigory Malyshev, Maria Shoshorina, Evgeny Savin, Artemii Lazarev and Ryland Morgans

Sports 2023, 11(9), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11090179 - 8 Sep 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2684

Abstract

The aim of the study was to compare the status of somatic maturity, anthropometry, strength, speed, and soccer-specific technical skills of players from leading youth soccer academies born in different quarters of the same calendar year. A total of 678 young male soccer [...] Read more.

The aim of the study was to compare the status of somatic maturity, anthropometry, strength, speed, and soccer-specific technical skills of players from leading youth soccer academies born in different quarters of the same calendar year. A total of 678 young male soccer players from eight leading Russian soccer academies took part in the study. The following anthropometric measures and physical characteristics were measured: height, weight, body mass index, countermovement jumps (CMJ), 5, 10, and 20 m sprints, speed dribbling, foot and body ball juggling, and short and long pass accuracy. The determination of somatic maturity as a percentage of projected adult height was collected. All subject dates of birth were divided into four quartiles according to the month of birth. The analysis of all data obtained was conducted both within the total sample and by quartiles of birth, according to the age group categories of 12–13 years, 14–15 years, and 16–17 years and the degree of somatic maturity. There was a widespread relative age effect, with 43.5% of early-born players and only 9.6% of late-born players representing the sample. Early-born players were more mature than late-born players (p < 0.001 and p < 0.001) but had no statistically significant differences in strength, speed, or soccer-specific skills. Full article

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15 pages, 3038 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Emotional Intelligence in Spanish Elite Athletes: Is There a Differential Factor between Sports?

by Daniel Mon-López, Cecilia Blanco-García, Jorge Acebes-Sánchez, Gabriel Rodríguez-Romo, Moisés Marquina, Adrián Martín-Castellanos, Alfonso de la Rubia, Carlos Cordente Martínez, Jesús Oliván Mallén and María Garrido-Muñoz

Sports 2023, 11(8), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11080160 - 18 Aug 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3331

Abstract

Emotional intelligence is a determinant factor in sports performance. The present study analysed differences in total emotional intelligence and its four dimensions in 2166 Spanish athletes (25.20 ± 10.17 years) from eight sports (volleyball, track and field, shooting, football, basketball, handball, gymnastics, and [...] Read more.

Emotional intelligence is a determinant factor in sports performance. The present study analysed differences in total emotional intelligence and its four dimensions in 2166 Spanish athletes (25.20 ± 10.17 years) from eight sports (volleyball, track and field, shooting, football, basketball, handball, gymnastics, and judo). A total of 1200 men and 966 women answered anonymously using a Google Forms questionnaire sent via WhatsApp about demographics and psychological variables. A Pearson correlation was conducted to assess the age–emotional intelligence relationship. An independent T-test and One-Way ANOVA were carried out to check for age differences between biological sex and sport and a One-Way ANCOVA to determine differences between sports controlled by age. Age differences were observed by sex and sport (p < 0.001). An association was found between age and emotional intelligence dimensions (p < 0.001), except for other’s emotional appraisal (p > 0.05). Judo was the sport with the highest levels of regulation of emotions, other’s emotional appraisal, use of emotion, and total emotional intelligence (p < 0.05). Generally, emotional intelligence was found to be more developed in individual sports than in team sports, except football. Consequently, psychological skills like emotional intelligence could be critical to achieving high performance, depending on the sport. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sport Psychology)

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8 pages, 598 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Motor Coordination in Children: A Comparison between Children Engaged in Multisport Activities and Swimming

by Dušan Stanković, Maja Horvatin, Jadranka Vlašić, Damir Pekas and Nebojša Trajković

Sports 2023, 11(8), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11080139 - 25 Jul 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4647

Abstract

Motor coordination has a crucial role in various physical activities and sports, highlighting its significance in overall movement proficiency and performance. This study aimed to compare motor coordination in children engaged in multisport versus swimming activities. The participants of this study included 180 [...] Read more.

Motor coordination has a crucial role in various physical activities and sports, highlighting its significance in overall movement proficiency and performance. This study aimed to compare motor coordination in children engaged in multisport versus swimming activities. The participants of this study included 180 boys and girls (girls = 87) aged 8.25 years ± 0.89. A total of three groups were included: group 1 consisted of inactive children, group 2 included children participating in swimming, and group 3 included children enrolled in multisport. Motor coordination was assessed using the Kiphard–Schilling body coordination test, evaluated by motor quotient (MQ): walking backwards, hopping for height, jumping sideways, and moving sideways. Additionally, a total motor quotient (Total MQ) was calculated based on the performance in all four tests. ANOVA revealed a significant difference in Total MQ and all subtests between the groups (p < 0.01). A significant difference in Total MQ was found not only between the inactive and multisport groups (Diff = 19.8000; 95%CI = 13.1848 to 26.4152; p = 0.001) but also between the multisport and swimming groups (Diff = 12.8000; 95%CI = 6.3456 to 19.2544; p = 0.001). In conclusion, the results revealed that children involved in multisport activities exhibited significantly better motor coordination compared to both the swimming group and the inactive group. Therefore, to enhance the growth of motor coordination abilities, it is crucial that parents, instructors, and coaches encourage kids to engage in multisport physical activities on a daily basis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Motor Behavior and Child Health)

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12 pages, 927 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Blood Flow Restriction Is Not Useful as Soccer Competition Recovery in Youth Male National-Level Soccer Players: A Crossover Randomised Controlled Trial

by Christian Castilla-López and Natalia Romero-Franco

Sports 2023, 11(5), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11050099 - 7 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3412

Abstract

In soccer, blood flow restriction (BFR) is used to optimise between-match recovery. However, the benefits are unclear. This study evaluated the effects of BFR as a recovery strategy after a competition on countermovement jump (CMJ) height, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and the [...] Read more.

In soccer, blood flow restriction (BFR) is used to optimise between-match recovery. However, the benefits are unclear. This study evaluated the effects of BFR as a recovery strategy after a competition on countermovement jump (CMJ) height, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and the wellness of soccer players. Forty national-level soccer players were allocated into two conditions: BFR (an active recovery session wearing a BFR device, 24 h after a competition) or NoBFR (the same recovery without BFR). CMJ, RPE and wellness were evaluated the day (CMJ and RPE) or the morning (wellness) before the competition; just after the competition (CMJ and RPE); and 24, 48 (wellness) and 72 h later. After 4 weeks, the players changed conditions. All players showed impaired CMJ (p = 0.013), RPE (p < 0.001) and wellness (p < 0.001) after the match compared with the baseline. The CMJ returned to the baseline 24 h later and wellness returned 48 h later. Only in the BFR condition did the RPE remain impaired 24 h after the match, which was also the moment after finishing the BFR recovery session (p < 0.001). BFR during active recovery does not provide any additional benefits compared with traditional exercise modalities to recover CMJ, RPE and wellness in youth national-level soccer players. BFR could even induce an immediate higher RPE. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Load, Recovery, and Performance in Soccer Players)

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10 pages, 1849 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Professional Athletes Maintain High TNF-Alpha or IFN-Gamma Related Inflammatory Status after Recovering from COVID-19 Infection without Developing a Neutralizing Antibody Response

by Mira Ambrus, Eszter Fodor, Timea Berki, Veronika Müller, Ádám Uhlár, István Hornyák and Zsombor Lacza

Sports 2023, 11(5), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11050097 - 30 Apr 2023

Viewed by 2439

Abstract

Introduction: Professional athletes are endangered by COVID-19 and belong to the high-risk population due to their lifestyle. To obtain information on the behavior of COVID-19 in professional athletes, serological, cytokine, and virus neutralization capacities were analyzed. Materials and methods: Hungarian national teams participated [...] Read more.

Introduction: Professional athletes are endangered by COVID-19 and belong to the high-risk population due to their lifestyle. To obtain information on the behavior of COVID-19 in professional athletes, serological, cytokine, and virus neutralization capacities were analyzed. Materials and methods: Hungarian national teams participated in international sports events during the early phases of the COVID-19 epidemic in 2020. Altogether, 29 professional athletes volunteered to donate plasma. Their serological status was evaluated by IgA, IgM, and IgG ELISAs and the highest virus neutralization titer in an in vitro live tissue assay. Plasma cytokine patterns were analyzed with a Bioplex multiplex ELISA system. Results: Surprisingly, only one athlete (3%) had anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG, while IgA was more common (31%). Neither plasma showed direct virus neutralization in a titer over 1:10; hence, they were not suitable for reconvalescent treatment. The ‘cytokine storm’ markers IL-6 and IL-8 were at baseline levels. In contrast, either the TNF-alpha-related cytokines or the IFN-gamma-associated cytokines were elevated. There was a strong negative correlation between the TNF-alpha- or IFN-gamma-related cytokines. Conclusions: Professional athletes are susceptible to the SARS-CoV-2 infection without developing long-term immunity through neutralizing immunoglobulins. Elevated secretory and cellular immunity markers indicate that these systems are probably responsible for virus elimination in this subpopulation. Full article

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13 pages, 711 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Whole Body Vibration Training Improves Maximal Strength of the Knee Extensors, Time-to-Exhaustion and Attenuates Neuromuscular Fatigue

by Serge S. Colson, Jennifer Gioda and Flavio Da Silva

Sports 2023, 11(5), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11050094 - 25 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2685

Abstract

Whole-body vibration (WBV) training programs were reported to improve knee extensor muscle (KE) strength in healthy participants. Unfortunately, the underlying mechanisms of these strength gains remain unresolved. In addition, WBV training was shown to increase the time-to-exhaustion of a static submaximal endurance task. [...] Read more.

Whole-body vibration (WBV) training programs were reported to improve knee extensor muscle (KE) strength in healthy participants. Unfortunately, the underlying mechanisms of these strength gains remain unresolved. In addition, WBV training was shown to increase the time-to-exhaustion of a static submaximal endurance task. However, the effects of WBV training on neuromuscular fatigue (i.e., a decrease of the maximal voluntary isometric contraction; MVIC) induced by an endurance task is unknown. We, therefore, investigated the influence of WBV training on (i) KE MVIC and neuromuscular function, (ii) the time-to-exhaustion of the KE associated with a submaximal isometric fatiguing exercise, and (iii) KE neuromuscular fatigue and its etiology. Eighteen physically active males were assigned to a WBV group (n = 10) or a sham training group (SHAM; n = 8). The MVIC of the KE, voluntary activation, and electrically evoked responses of the KE were assessed (i) before and after a fatiguing exercise (i.e., submaximal isometric contraction) performed until failure, and (ii) before (PRE) and after a 6-week training (POST) period. At POST, the WBV training increased the KE MVIC (+12%, p = 0.001) and voluntary activation (+6%, p < 0.05) regardless of the fatiguing exercise. The time-to-exhaustion was also lengthened at POST in the WBV group (+34%, p < 0.001). Finally, the relative percentage of MVIC decrease after fatiguing exercises diminished in the WBV group between PRE and POST (−14% vs. −6%, respectively, p < 0.001). Significant neural adaptation enhancements account for the trend in KE strength improvements observed after the WBV training program. In addition, the WBV training was effective at increasing the time-to-exhaustion and attenuating neuromuscular fatigue. Full article

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12 pages, 525 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Relationship between Football-Specific Training Characteristics and Tibial Bone Adaptation in Male Academy Football Players

by Ian Varley, Craig Sale, Julie P. Greeves, John G. Morris, Caroline Sunderland and Chris Saward

Sports 2023, 11(4), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11040086 - 19 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2376

Abstract

We examined the relationship between football-specific training and changes in bone structural properties across a 12-week period in 15 male football players aged 16 years (Mean ± 1 SD = 16.6 ± 0.3 years) that belonged to a professional football academy. Tibial scans [...] Read more.

We examined the relationship between football-specific training and changes in bone structural properties across a 12-week period in 15 male football players aged 16 years (Mean ± 1 SD = 16.6 ± 0.3 years) that belonged to a professional football academy. Tibial scans were performed at 4%, 14% and 38% sites using peripheral quantitative computed tomography immediately before and 12 weeks after increased football-specific training. Training was analysed using GPS to quantify peak speed, average speed, total distance and high-speed distance. Analyses were conducted with bias-corrected and accelerated bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals (BCa 95% CI). There were increases in bone mass at the 4% (mean ∆ = 0.15 g, BCa 95% CI = 0.07, 0.26 g, g = 0.72), 14% (mean ∆ = 0.04 g, BCa 95% CI = 0.02, 0.06 g, g = 1.20), and 38% sites (mean ∆ = 0.03 g, BCa 95% CI = 0.01, 0.05 g, g = 0.61). There were increases in trabecular density (4%), (mean ∆ = 3.57 mg·cm⁻³, BCa 95% CI = 0.38, 7.05 mg·cm⁻³, g = 0.53), cortical dentsity (14%) (mean ∆ = 5.08 mg·cm⁻³, BCa 95% CI = 0.19, 9.92 mg·cm⁻³, g = 0.49), and cortical density (38%) (mean ∆ = 6.32 mg·cm⁻³, BCa 95% CI = 4.31, 8.90 mg·cm⁻³, g = 1.22). Polar stress strain index (mean ∆ = 50.56 mm³, BCa 95% CI = 10.52, 109.95 mm³, g = 0.41), cortical area (mean ∆ = 2.12 mm², BCa 95% CI = 0.09, 4.37 mm², g = 0.48) and thickness (mean ∆ = 0.06 mm, BCa 95% CI = 0.01, 0.13 mm, g = 0.45) increased at the 38% site. Correlations revealed positive relationships between total distance and increased cortical density (38%) (r = 0.39, BCa 95% CI = 0.02, 0.66), and between peak speed and increased trabecular density (4%) (r = 0.43, BCa 95% CI = 0.03, 0.73). There were negative correlations between total (r = −0.21, BCa 95% CI = −0.65, −0.12) and high-speed distance (r = −0.29, BCa 95% CI = −0.57, −0.24) with increased polar stress strain index (38%). Results suggest that despite football training relating to increases in bone characteristics in male academy footballers, the specific training variables promoting adaptation over a 12-week period may vary. Further studies conducted over a longer period are required to fully elucidate the time-course of how certain football-specific training characteristics influence bone structural properties. Full article

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16 pages, 1963 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Resting Blood Pressure in Master Athletes: Immune from Hypertension?

by Mike Climstein, Joe Walsh, Mark DeBeliso, Tim Heazlewood, Trish Sevene, Luke Del Vecchio and Kent Adams

Sports 2023, 11(4), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11040085 - 18 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 6215

Abstract

Ageing is associated with decreased physical activity, obesity and increased risk of hypertension (HTN). Master athletes (MA) have either pursued a physically active lifestyle throughout their life or initiated exercise or sport later in life. We assessed resting blood pressure (BP) in male [...] Read more.

Ageing is associated with decreased physical activity, obesity and increased risk of hypertension (HTN). Master athletes (MA) have either pursued a physically active lifestyle throughout their life or initiated exercise or sport later in life. We assessed resting blood pressure (BP) in male and female World Masters Games (WMG) athletes. This was a cross-sectional, observational study which utilized an online survey to assess the blood pressure (BP) and other physiological parameters. Results: a total of 2793 participants were involved in this study. Key findings included differences between genders with males reporting higher resting SBP (+9.4%, p < 0.001), resting DBP (+5.9%, p < 0.001) and mean arterial pressure (+6.2%, p < 0.001). Significant differences (p < 0.001) were also identified when comparing WMG athletes’ resting BP results (genders combined) to the general Australian population with WMG athletes having a lower SBP (p < 0.001, −8.4%) and DBP (p < 0.001, −3.6%). Additionally, 19.9% of males and 49.7% of female WMG participants were normotensive whereas 35.7% of the general Australian population were normotensive. Only 8.1% of the WMG athletes (genders combined) were found to be HTN compared to 17.2% in the general Australian population. These findings reflect a low prevalence of HTN in WMG participants and support our hypothesis of a low prevalence of HTN in an active, but aged cohort of MA. Full article

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18 pages, 827 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Normative Scores for CrossFit^® Open Workouts: 2011–2022

by Gerald T. Mangine, Nina Grundlingh and Yuri Feito

Sports 2023, 11(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11020024 - 18 Jan 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3840

Abstract

To create normative scores for all CrossFit^® Open (CFO) workouts and compare male and female performances, official scores were collected from the official competition leaderboard for all competitors of the 2011–2022 CFO competitions. Percentiles were calculated for athletes (18–54 years) who completed [...] Read more.

To create normative scores for all CrossFit^® Open (CFO) workouts and compare male and female performances, official scores were collected from the official competition leaderboard for all competitors of the 2011–2022 CFO competitions. Percentiles were calculated for athletes (18–54 years) who completed all workouts within a single year ‘as prescribed’ and met minimum scoring thresholds. Independent t-tests revealed significant (p < 0.05) sex differences for 56 of 60 workouts. In workouts scored by repetitions completed, men completed more repetitions in 18 workouts by small to large differences (d = 0.22–0.81), whereas women completed more repetitions in 6 workouts by small to medium differences (d = 0.36–0.77). When workouts were scored by time to completion, men were faster in 10 workouts by small to large differences (d = 0.23–1.12), while women were faster in 3 workouts by small differences (d = 0.46). In three workouts scored by load lifted, men lifted more weight by large differences (d = 2.00–2.98). All other differences were either trivial or not significant. Despite adjusted programming for men and women, the persistence of performance differences across all CFO workouts suggests that resultant challenges are not the same. These normative values may be useful for training and research in male and female CrossFit^® athletes. Full article

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11 pages, 1727 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Concept of Optimal Dynamic Pedalling Rate and Its Application to Power Output and Fatigue in Track Cycling Sprinters—A Case Study

by Anna Katharina Dunst, Clemens Hesse and Olaf Ueberschär

Sports 2023, 11(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11010019 - 16 Jan 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3411

Abstract

Sprint races in track cycling are characterised by maximal power requirements and high-power output over 15 to 75 s. As competition rules limit the athlete to a single gear, the choice of gear ratio has considerable impact on performance. Traditionally, a gear favouring [...] Read more.

Sprint races in track cycling are characterised by maximal power requirements and high-power output over 15 to 75 s. As competition rules limit the athlete to a single gear, the choice of gear ratio has considerable impact on performance. Traditionally, a gear favouring short start times and rapid acceleration, i.e., lower transmission ratios, was chosen. In recent years, track cyclists tended to choose higher gear ratios instead. Based on a review of the relevant literature, we aimed to provide an explanation for that increase in the gear ratio chosen and apply this to a 1000 m time trial. Race data with continuous measurements of crank force and velocity of an elite track cyclist were analysed retrospectively regarding the influence of the selected gear on power, cadence and resulting speed. For this purpose, time-dependent maximal force-velocity (F/v) profiles were used to describe changes in performance with increasing fatigue. By applying these profiles to a physical model of track cycling, theoretical power output, cadence and resulting speed were calculated for different scenarios. Based on previous research results, we assume a systematic and predictable decline in optimal cadence with increasing fatigue. The choice of higher gear ratios seems to be explained physiologically by the successive reduction in optimal cadence as fatigue sets in. Our approach indicates that average power output can be significantly increased by selecting a gear ratio that minimises the difference between the realised cadence and the time-dependent dynamic optimum. In view of the additional effects of the gear selection on acceleration and speed, gear selection should optimally meet the various requirements of the respective sprint event. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Neuromuscular Fatigue Mechanisms on Exercise Performance)

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17 pages, 1126 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Pyjamas, Polysomnography and Professional Athletes: The Role of Sleep Tracking Technology in Sport

by Matthew W. Driller, Ian C. Dunican, Shauni E. T. Omond, Omar Boukhris, Shauna Stevenson, Kari Lambing and Amy M. Bender

Sports 2023, 11(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11010014 - 5 Jan 2023

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 11036

Abstract

Technological advances in sleep monitoring have seen an explosion of devices used to gather important sleep metrics. These devices range from instrumented ‘smart pyjamas’ through to at-home polysomnography devices. Alongside these developments in sleep technologies, there have been concomitant increases in sleep monitoring [...] Read more.

Technological advances in sleep monitoring have seen an explosion of devices used to gather important sleep metrics. These devices range from instrumented ‘smart pyjamas’ through to at-home polysomnography devices. Alongside these developments in sleep technologies, there have been concomitant increases in sleep monitoring in athletic populations, both in the research and in practical settings. The increase in sleep monitoring in sport is likely due to the increased knowledge of the importance of sleep in the recovery process and performance of an athlete, as well as the well-reported challenges that athletes can face with their sleep. This narrative review will discuss: (1) the importance of sleep to athletes; (2) the various wearable tools and technologies being used to monitor sleep in the sport setting; (3) the role that sleep tracking devices may play in gathering information about sleep; (4) the reliability and validity of sleep tracking devices; (5) the limitations and cautions associated with sleep trackers; and, (6) the use of sleep trackers to guide behaviour change in athletes. We also provide some practical recommendations for practitioners working with athletes to ensure that the selection of such devices and technology will meet the goals and requirements of the athlete. Full article

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10 pages, 1154 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceOpinion

The Recovery Umbrella in the World of Elite Sport: Do Not Forget the Coaching and Performance Staff

by Julio Calleja-González, Stephen P. Bird, Thomas Huyghe, Igor Jukic, Francesco Cuzzolin, Francesc Cos, Diego Marqués-Jiménez, Luka Milanovic, Jaime Sampaio, Isaac López-Laval, Sergej M. Ostojic, Margaret T. Jones, Pedro E. Alcaraz, Xavi Schelling, Anne Delextrat, Meeta Singh, Jonathan Charest, Tomás T. Freitas, Lorena Torres Ronda, Adam Petway, Daniel Medina, Antonio Tramullas, Juan Mielgo-Ayuso, Nicolas Terrados and Chris McLellan Show full author list Hide full author list

Sports 2021, 9(12), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9120169 - 17 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 13546

Abstract

In the field of sports science, the recovery umbrella is a trending topic, and even more so in the world of elite sports. This is evidenced by the significant increase in scientific publications during the last 10 years as teams look to find [...] Read more.

In the field of sports science, the recovery umbrella is a trending topic, and even more so in the world of elite sports. This is evidenced by the significant increase in scientific publications during the last 10 years as teams look to find a competitive edge. Recovery is recognized to be an integral component to assist athlete preparation in the restoration of physical and psychological function, and subsequently, performance in elite team sports athletes. However, the importance of recovery in team staff members (sports coaches and performance staff) in elite sports appears to be a forgotten element. Given the unrelenting intense nature of daily tasks and responsibilities of team staff members, the elite sports environment can predispose coaches to increased susceptibility to psycho-socio physiological fatigue burden, and negatively affect health, wellbeing, and performance. Therefore, the aim of this opinion was to (1) develop an educational recovery resource for team staff members, (2) identify organizational task-specific fatigue indicators and barriers to recovery and self-care in team staff members, and (3) present recovery implementation strategies to assist team staff members in meeting their organizational functions. It is essential that we do not forget the coaching and performance staff in the recovery process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Application of Recovery Techniques and Technology in Sports)

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12 pages, 3184 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Is the Integration of Additional Eccentric, Balance and Core Muscles Exercises into a Typical Soccer Program Effective in Improving Strength and Postural Stability?

by Konstantinos Dafkou, Chrysostomos Sahinis, Athanasios Ellinoudis and Eleftherios Kellis

Sports 2021, 9(11), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9110147 - 25 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5676

Abstract

Soccer teams integrate specific exercises into their typical workout programs for injury prevention. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the incorporation of a brief and supplementary training program that involves eccentric, balance, and core exercises into the weekly soccer schedule [...] Read more.

Soccer teams integrate specific exercises into their typical workout programs for injury prevention. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the incorporation of a brief and supplementary training program that involves eccentric, balance, and core exercises into the weekly soccer schedule can cause positive neuromuscular adaptations. Twenty-one soccer players were randomly allocated to either a training (n = 11) or a control group (n = 10). All players followed their teams’ typical program, consisting of 4–5 soccer-specific sessions plus 1 match, weekly. Training group players additionally performed biweekly, hamstring eccentric, balance, and core stability exercises for 8 weeks. Isokinetic concentric and eccentric peak torque (PT) of the hamstrings and quadriceps, changes in the center of pressure (COP) during a 30 s single-leg stance, and a supine bridge (trunk stability) test were assessed before and after the intervention. After the intervention, a 27% increase in hamstring concentric PT and a 33% reduction in COP sway in the stance test, were observed for the training group only (p < 0.05). These improvements were significant only for the non-dominant leg. Furthermore, the control group displayed an increase in COP sway during the bridge test compared to baseline values (p < 0.05), which reflects a deterioration in postural balance over time. Consequently, incorporating small doses of hamstring eccentric, proprioception, and core stability exercises into a typical training program of youth soccer players improves strength and postural balance in the non-dominant leg, as well as core muscle performance. Full article

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13 pages, 1324 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Relative Training Load and Match Outcome: Are Professional Soccer Players Actually Undertrained during the In-Season?

by Toni Modric, Mario Jelicic and Damir Sekulic

Sports 2021, 9(10), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9100139 - 8 Oct 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6301

Abstract

Previous studies examined training/match ratios (TMr) to determine the training load relative to the match load, but the influence of the relative training load (RTL) on success in soccer is still unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the possible influence of RTL [...] Read more.

Previous studies examined training/match ratios (TMr) to determine the training load relative to the match load, but the influence of the relative training load (RTL) on success in soccer is still unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the possible influence of RTL on final match outcome in soccer (win, draw, and loss). Running performances (RP) of soccer players (n = 21) in the Croatian highest national soccer competition were analyzed during the season 2020–2021. Data were measured by the global positioning system in 14 official matches and 67 training sessions. RTL was assessed by TMr, which were calculated as the ratio of RP during training and match in the same week, evaluating the following measures: TDr (total distance ratio), LIDr (low-intensity distance ratio), RDr (running distance ratio), HIDr (high-intensity distance ratio), ACCr (total accelerations ratio), DECr (total decelerations ratio), HI-ACCr (high-intensity accelerations ratio), HI-DECr (high-intensity decelerations ratio). All TMr were examined separately for each training session within in-season microcycles (categorized as days before the match day, i.e., MD minus). Spearman correlations were used to identify association between match outcome and TMr. The results indicated negative associations between match outcome and TDr, LIDr, ACCr and DECr on MD-1 and MD-2). In contrast, positive associations were evidenced between match outcome, and HIDr on MD-3 and TDr, LIDr, ACCr and DECr on MD-5 (p < 0.05; all moderate correlations). These findings demonstrate that final match outcome in soccer was associated with greater RTL of (i) high-intensity running three days before the match, (ii) total and low-intensity running, accelerations and decelerations five days before the match, and (iii) lower RTL of total and low-intensity running, accelerations and decelerations one and two days before the match. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports)

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13 pages, 249 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparison of High and Low Responders to a Cross-Country Skiing Talent Transfer Program: A Coach’s Perspective

by Stig Arve Sæther, Mats Iversen, Rune Kjøsen Talsnes and Øyvind Sandbakk

Sports 2021, 9(10), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9100138 - 2 Oct 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4364

Abstract

Purpose: To examine how coaches differentiate athletes with successful and non-successful development during a cross-country (XC) skiing talent transfer (TT) program. Methods: We conducted qualitative, semi-structured interviews with seven Norwegian coaches working with a group of 23 Chinese summer endurance athletes transferring from [...] Read more.

Purpose: To examine how coaches differentiate athletes with successful and non-successful development during a cross-country (XC) skiing talent transfer (TT) program. Methods: We conducted qualitative, semi-structured interviews with seven Norwegian coaches working with a group of 23 Chinese summer endurance athletes transferring from running, rowing, and kayaking to the winter endurance sport XC skiing over a six-month training period. The athletes were grouped as either high (n = 9), moderate (n = 3), or low responders (n = 11) based on objective performance development, quantified using laboratory testing. The interview guide contained six sections: physiological development, technical development, psychological characteristics, training and recovery routines, athlete background, and considerations about the effectiveness of TT initiatives in general. Results: The assessments of the coaches revealed that greater development of both physiological and technical capacities among the high-responding TT athletes were associated with higher motivation, as well as superior ability to deal with adversity in the development process. Conclusion: The coaches considered the TT program to be effective; however, successful transfer of athletes to a world class level in a complex sport such as XC skiing requires a multidisciplinary selection process and a longer time frame than the six-month period used in the current project. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Talent Identification and Development in Youth Sports)

16 pages, 717 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Resisted Sled Sprint Kinematics: The Acute Effect of Load and Sporting Population

by Katja M. Osterwald, David T. Kelly, Thomas M. Comyns and Ciarán Ó Catháin

Sports 2021, 9(10), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9100137 - 30 Sep 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5423

Abstract

In this study, we assessed the acute kinematic effects of different sled load conditions (unloaded and at 10%, 20%, 30% decrement from maximum velocity (Vdec)) in different sporting populations. It is well-known that an athlete’s kinematics change with increasing sled load. However, to [...] Read more.

In this study, we assessed the acute kinematic effects of different sled load conditions (unloaded and at 10%, 20%, 30% decrement from maximum velocity (Vdec)) in different sporting populations. It is well-known that an athlete’s kinematics change with increasing sled load. However, to our knowledge, the relationship between the different loads in resisted sled sprinting (RSS) and kinematic characteristics is unknown. Thirty-three athletes (sprinters n = 10; team sport athletes n = 23) performed a familiarization session (day 1), and 12 sprints at different loads (day 2) over a distance of 40 m. Sprint time and average velocity were measured. Sagittal-plane high-speed video data was recorded for early acceleration and maximum velocity phase and joint angles computed. Loading introduced significant changes to hip, knee, ankle, and trunk angle for touch-down and toe-off for the acceleration and maximum velocity phase (p < 0.05). Knee, hip, and ankle angles became more flexed with increasing load for all groups and trunk lean increased linearly with increasing loading conditions. The results of this study provide coaches with important information that may influence how RSS is employed as a training tool to improve sprint performance for acceleration and maximal velocity running and that prescription may not change based on sporting population, as there were only minimal differences observed between groups. The trunk lean increase was related to the heavy loads and appeared to prevent athletes to reach mechanics that were truly reflective of maximum velocity sprinting. Lighter loads seem to be more adequate to not provoke changes in maxV kinematics. However, heavy loading extended the distance over which it is possible to train acceleration. Full article

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13 pages, 636 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Enjoyment of Physical Activity—Not MVPA during Physical Education—Predicts Future MVPA Participation and Sport Self-Concept

by Jared D. Ramer, Natalie E. Houser, Robert J. Duncan and Eduardo E. Bustamante

Sports 2021, 9(9), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9090128 - 10 Sep 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6283

Abstract

There exists a general understanding that physical education (PE) is a means to create a physically healthy population. However, disagreements arise over primary practices within PE to achieve this end. The primary divergence is whether PE facilitators should primarily ensure participants exert a [...] Read more.

There exists a general understanding that physical education (PE) is a means to create a physically healthy population. However, disagreements arise over primary practices within PE to achieve this end. The primary divergence is whether PE facilitators should primarily ensure participants exert a specific level of energy during class or develop their confidence, competence, knowledge, and motivation for meaningful physical activity (PA) participation outside of the PE classroom (referred to as physical literacy (PL)). This study uses structural equation modeling to examine associations between enjoyment of PA and minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in PE class in grade 5 (mean age = 10) and participation in PA and feelings about PA 1 year later, in grade 6 (mean age = 11), in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD, N = 1364). Enjoyment of PA in grade 5 predicted sport self-concept (β = 0.347, p ≤ 0.001), MVPA (β = 0.12, p ≤ 0.001), and enjoyment of PA (β = 0.538, p ≤ 0.001) in grade 6. These associations remained when including weekday MVPA performed in grade 5 as an indirect effect (β = 0.058, p ≤ 0.001). MVPA performed during PE in grade 5 was not associated with any PA outcomes in grade 6. Findings suggest PE instructors should prioritize PL development over maintenance of high energy expenditure during PE class for long-term MVPA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effects of Physical Exercise on Children's Health in a School Context)

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12 pages, 1073 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Turn Fast and Win: The Importance of Acyclic Phases in Top-Elite Female Swimmers

by Dennis-Peter Born, Joris Kuger, Marek Polach and Michael Romann

Sports 2021, 9(9), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9090122 - 31 Aug 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4239

Abstract

The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of start and turn performances on race times in top-elite female swimmers and provide benchmarks for all performance levels, all swimming strokes, and all race distances of the European Short-Course Championships (EC). The [...] Read more.

The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of start and turn performances on race times in top-elite female swimmers and provide benchmarks for all performance levels, all swimming strokes, and all race distances of the European Short-Course Championships (EC). The individual races (n = 798) of all female competitors (age: 20.6 ± 3.9 years, FINA points: 792 ± 78) were video-monitored for subsequent analysis of start and turn performances. Benchmarks were established across all competitors of each event based on the 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, and 90th percentiles. Start and turn performances contributed up to 27.43% and 56.37% to total race time, respectively. Mechanistic analysis revealed that the fastest swimmers had the lowest contribution of the acyclic phases to race time. Therefore, relative to their faster race times, these swimmers were even faster during starts and turns. Multiple linear regression analysis showed large effects of turn performance on 50, 100, 200, 400, and 800 m race times (β = 0.616, 0.813, 0.988, 1.004, and 1.011, respectively), while the effect of start performance continuously decreased the longer the race distance. As turn performance may be the distinguishing factor in modern short-course races, benchmarks should be used to set goals and establish training guidelines depending on the targeted race time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports)

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11 pages, 1058 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Validation of a Smartwatch-Based Workout Analysis Application in Exercise Recognition, Repetition Count and Prediction of 1RM in the Strength Training-Specific Setting

by Katja Oberhofer, Raphael Erni, Mark Sayers, Dominik Huber, Fabian Lüthy and Silvio Lorenzetti

Sports 2021, 9(9), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9090118 - 27 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6043

Abstract

The goal of this study was to assess the validity, reliability and accuracy of a smartwatch-based workout analysis application in exercise recognition, repetition count and One Repetition Maximum (1RM) prediction in the strength training-specific setting. Thirty recreationally trained athletes performed four consecutive sets [...] Read more.

The goal of this study was to assess the validity, reliability and accuracy of a smartwatch-based workout analysis application in exercise recognition, repetition count and One Repetition Maximum (1RM) prediction in the strength training-specific setting. Thirty recreationally trained athletes performed four consecutive sets of barbell deadlift, barbell bench press and barbell back squat exercises with increasing loads from 60% to 80% of their estimated 1RM with maximum lift velocity. Data was measured using an Apple Watch Sport and instantaneously analyzed using an iOS workout analysis application called StrengthControl. The accuracies in exercise recognition and repetition count, as well as the reliability in predicting 1RM, were statistically analyzed and compared. The correct strength exercise was recognised in 88.4% of all the performed sets (N = 363) with accurate repetition count for the barbell back squat (p = 0.68) and the barbell deadlift (p = 0.09); however, repetition count for the barbell bench press was poor (p = 0.01). Only 8.9% of attempts to predict 1RM using the StrengthControl app were successful, with failed attempts being due to technical difficulties and time lag in data transfer. Using data from a linear position transducer instead, significantly different 1RM estimates were obtained when analysing repetition to failure versus load-velocity relationships. The present results provide new perspectives on the applicability of smartwatch-based strength training monitoring to improve athlete performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives in Resistance Training)

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10 pages, 605 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Comparison of Motives by Gender and Age Categories for Training at Norwegian Fitness Centres

by Stian Larsen, Tarron Mozdoorzoy, Eirik Kristiansen, Hallvard Nygaard Falch, Tore Kristian Aune and Roland van den Tillaar

Sports 2021, 9(8), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9080113 - 21 Aug 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5977

Abstract

Examining participatory motives clarifies what engages and keeps individuals participating in exercise. The popularity of training at fitness centres has greatly increased over the last two decades, but individual determinants for motivation remain uncertain. This study compared motives between gender and age categories [...] Read more.

Examining participatory motives clarifies what engages and keeps individuals participating in exercise. The popularity of training at fitness centres has greatly increased over the last two decades, but individual determinants for motivation remain uncertain. This study compared motives between gender and age categories in training and performing physical activity at Norwegian fitness centres. To compare motives, a survey utilising a standardised questionnaire (MPAM-R) was conducted at six different Norwegian fitness centres. It was hypothesised that the intrinsic motive socialisation and extrinsic motive fitness would be more important among the older age categories for both genders, while the extrinsic motive appearance and intrinsic motive enjoyment would be more important among younger age groups. A total response of 183 men and 150 women, aged 14–80 years, was divided into seven categories based on their age and included in the statistical analysis. The main findings after conducting a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures, were that the most important motive for training at fitness centres was increasing fitness, followed by enjoyment, competence, vitality and appearance. The social motive was rated the lowest. Women rated fitness and enjoyment higher compared to men, and men rated the motive for appearance higher than women, but this decreased with age in both genders. With increasing age, the importance of enjoyment and competence decreased in men, while women seemed to place increased importance on vitality with age. The importance of the social motive decreased first as age increased, but then increased again in the age group 41–50 years and older. It was concluded that the motives for participating in exercise at fitness centres was dependent on individual characteristics and that motives about training at fitness centres differed by gender and changed with age. Full article

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9 pages, 570 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Changes in Physical Activity during the COVID-19 Pandemic—An Analysis of Differences Based on Mitigation Policies and Incidence Values in the Federal States of Germany

by Franziska Beck, Michael Mutz, Eliane Stephanie Engels and Anne Kerstin Reimers

Sports 2021, 9(7), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9070102 - 15 Jul 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4904

Abstract

Measures to slow down the spread of coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 have had an impact on the daily life and physical activity (PA) of many people. Nevertheless, in Germany, mitigation policies and incidence values vary widely across the federal states (Länder). Thus, the aim of [...] Read more.

Measures to slow down the spread of coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 have had an impact on the daily life and physical activity (PA) of many people. Nevertheless, in Germany, mitigation policies and incidence values vary widely across the federal states (Länder). Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate regional differences in PA during the coronavirus pandemic. This study is based on the SPOVID project (Examining physical activity and sports behavior in the face of COVID-19 pandemic: a social inequality perspective) that incorporates a large-scale, representative cross-sectional survey representing the German population (≥14 years). Based on the survey that took place in October 2020 (N = 1477), we investigated the relationships between the COVID-19 incidence values as well as the mitigation policies across the federal states in Germany and changes in PA. Pearson correlations indicated a strong negative relationship between PA change and 7-day incidence values (r = −0.688 **, p = 0.009) and a moderate negative relationship between PA changes and an index of mitigation policies (r = −0.444, p = 0.112). Higher 7-day incidence values and stricter mitigation policies were associated with a stronger decline in PA levels. Therefore, it is important to support people to stay active even if there are restrictions. In particular, in federal states and regions with high incidences and stricter mitigation policies, measures to promote health-enhancing PA are necessary. Full article

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8 pages, 238 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

How Relative Age Effects Associate with Football Players’ Market Values: Indicators of Losing Talent and Wasting Money

by Michael Romann, Marie Javet, Stephen Cobley and Dennis-Peter Born

Sports 2021, 9(7), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9070099 - 9 Jul 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7242

Abstract

Background: In football, annual age-group categorization leads to relative age effects (RAEs) in talent development. Given such trends, relative age may also associate with market values. This study analyzed the relationship between RAEs and market values of youth players. Methods: Age category, birthdate, [...] Read more.

Background: In football, annual age-group categorization leads to relative age effects (RAEs) in talent development. Given such trends, relative age may also associate with market values. This study analyzed the relationship between RAEs and market values of youth players. Methods: Age category, birthdate, and market values of 11,738 youth male football players were obtained from the “transfermarkt.de” database, which delivers a good proxy for real market values. RAEs were calculated using odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (95%CI). Results: Significant RAEs were found across all age-groups (p < 0.05). The largest RAEs occurred in U18 players (Q1 [relatively older] v Q4 [relatively younger] OR = 3.1) ORs decreased with age category, i.e., U19 (2.7), U20 (2.6), U21 (2.4), U22 (2.2), and U23 (1.8). At U19s, Q1 players were associated with significantly higher market values than Q4 players. However, by U21, U22, and U23 RAEs were inversed, with correspondingly higher market values for Q4 players apparent. While large typical RAEs for all playing positions was observed in younger age categories (U18–U20), inversed RAEs were only evident for defenders (small-medium) and for strikers (medium-large) in U21–U23 (not goalkeepers and midfielders). Conclusions: Assuming an equal distribution of football talent exists across annual cohorts, results indicate the selection and market value of young professional players is dynamic. Findings suggest a potential biased selection, and undervaluing of Q4 players in younger age groups, as their representation and market value increased over time. By contrast, the changing representations and market values of Q1 players suggest initial overvaluing in performance and monetary terms. Therefore, this inefficient talent selection and the accompanying waste of money should be improved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Talent Identification and Development in Youth Sports)

16 pages, 950 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

“Is It Overtraining or Just Work Ethic?”: Coaches’ Perceptions of Overtraining in High-Performance Strength Sports

by Lee Bell, Alan Ruddock, Tom Maden-Wilkinson, Dave Hembrough and David Rogerson

Sports 2021, 9(6), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9060085 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 11508

Abstract

Optimal physical performance is achieved through the careful manipulation of training and recovery. Short-term increases in training demand can induce functional overreaching (FOR) that can lead to improved physical capabilities, whereas nonfunctional overreaching (NFOR) or the overtraining syndrome (OTS) occur when high training-demand [...] Read more.

Optimal physical performance is achieved through the careful manipulation of training and recovery. Short-term increases in training demand can induce functional overreaching (FOR) that can lead to improved physical capabilities, whereas nonfunctional overreaching (NFOR) or the overtraining syndrome (OTS) occur when high training-demand is applied for extensive periods with limited recovery. To date, little is known about the OTS in strength sports, particularly from the perspective of the strength sport coach. Fourteen high-performance strength sport coaches from a range of strength sports (weightlifting; n = 5, powerlifting; n = 4, sprinting; n = 2, throws; n = 2, jumps; n = 1) participated in semistructured interviews (mean duration 57; SD = 10 min) to discuss their experiences of the OTS. Reflexive thematic analysis resulted in the identification of four higher order themes: definitions, symptoms, recovery and experiences and observations. Additional subthemes were created to facilitate organisation and presentation of data, and to aid both cohesiveness of reporting and publicising of results. Participants provided varied and sometimes dichotomous perceptions of the OTS and proposed a multifactorial profile of diagnostic symptoms. Prevalence of OTS within strength sports was considered low, with the majority of participants not observing or experiencing long-term reductions in performance with their athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives in Resistance Training)

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21 pages, 732 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Training Load Monitoring Considerations for Female Gaelic Team Sports: From Theory to Practice

by John D. Duggan, Jeremy A. Moody, Paul J. Byrne, Stephen-Mark Cooper and Lisa Ryan

Sports 2021, 9(6), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9060084 - 5 Jun 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 9623

Abstract

Athlete monitoring enables sports science practitioners to collect information to determine how athletes respond to training loads (TL) and the demands of competition. To date, recommendations for females are often adapted from their male counterparts. There is currently limited information available on TL [...] Read more.

Athlete monitoring enables sports science practitioners to collect information to determine how athletes respond to training loads (TL) and the demands of competition. To date, recommendations for females are often adapted from their male counterparts. There is currently limited information available on TL monitoring in female Gaelic team sports in Ireland. The collection and analysis of female athlete monitoring data can provide valuable information to support the development of female team sports. Athletic monitoring can also support practitioners to help minimize risk of excessive TL and optimize potential athletic performance. The aims of this narrative review are to provide: (i) an overview of TL athlete monitoring in female team sports, (ii) a discussion of the potential metrics and tools used to monitor external TL and internal TL, (iii) the advantages and disadvantages of TL modalities for use in Gaelic team sports, and (iv) practical considerations on how to monitor TL to aid in the determination of meaningful change with female Gaelic team sports athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports)

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12 pages, 1289 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoicePerspective

Return to Basketball Play Following COVID-19 Lockdown

by Dimitrios I. Bourdas, Emmanouil D. Zacharakis, Antonios K. Travlos and Athanasios Souglis

Sports 2021, 9(6), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9060081 - 3 Jun 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 9488

Abstract

Due to concerns regarding the spread of coronavirus (COVID-19), major sporting events and activities have been temporarily suspended or postponed, and a new radical sports protocol has emerged. For most sports there are few recommendations based on scientific evidence for returning to team-game [...] Read more.

Due to concerns regarding the spread of coronavirus (COVID-19), major sporting events and activities have been temporarily suspended or postponed, and a new radical sports protocol has emerged. For most sports there are few recommendations based on scientific evidence for returning to team-game activities following the lifting of COVID-19 restrictions, the extended duration of lockdown, and self-training or detraining in the COVID-19 environment, and this is especially true for basketball. A post-lockdown return to the basketball court ultimately depends on the teams—coaches, trainers, players, and medical staff. Nevertheless, our current scientific knowledge is evidently insufficient as far as safety and return-to-play timing are concerned. This situation presents a major challenge to basketball competition in terms of organization, prioritization, maintaining physical fitness, and decision-making. While preparing an adequate basketball return program, the players’ health is the major priority. In this article we briefly discuss the topic and propose multiple strategies. Full article

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13 pages, 7071 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Maximum Strength Benchmarks for Difficult Static Elements on Rings in Male Elite Gymnastics

by Christoph Schärer, Sarina Huber, Pascal Bucher, Claudio Capelli and Klaus Hübner

Sports 2021, 9(6), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9060078 - 28 May 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7228

Abstract

On rings, in men’s artistic gymnastics, the general strength requirements for important static elements remain elusive. Therefore, the aim was to describe the relationship between a new conditioning strength test and a maximum strength test of static elements on rings in order to [...] Read more.

On rings, in men’s artistic gymnastics, the general strength requirements for important static elements remain elusive. Therefore, the aim was to describe the relationship between a new conditioning strength test and a maximum strength test of static elements on rings in order to determine the minimal strength level (benchmarks) required to maintain these elements with one’s own body weight. Nineteen elite gymnasts performed a concentric (1RM isoinertial) and eccentric (isokinetic: 0.1 m/s) conditioning strength test for swallow/support scale (supine position) and inverted cross (seated position) on a computer-controlled device and a maximum strength test maintaining these elements for 5 s on rings with counterweight or additional weight. High correlation coefficients were found between the conditioning maximum strength for swallow/support scale (r: 0.65 to 0.92; p < 0.05) and inverted cross (r: 0.62 to 0.69; p > 0.05) and the maximum strength of the elements on rings. Strength benchmarks varied between 56.66% (inverted cross concentric) and 94.10% (swallow eccentric) of body weight. Differences in biomechanical characteristics and technical requirements of strength elements on rings may (inter alia) explain the differences between correlations. Benchmarks of conditioning strength may help coaches and athletes systematize the training of strength elements on rings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports)

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28 pages, 590 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Understanding a Player’s Decision-Making Process in Team Sports: A Systematic Review of Empirical Evidence

by Michael Ashford, Andrew Abraham and Jamie Poolton

Sports 2021, 9(5), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9050065 - 17 May 2021

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 20937

Abstract

Three perspectives were taken to explain decision-making within team sports (information processing, recognition primed decision-making, and ecological dynamics perspectives), resulting in conceptual tension and practical confusion. The aim of this paper was to interrogate empirical evidence to (1) understand the process of decision-making [...] Read more.

Three perspectives were taken to explain decision-making within team sports (information processing, recognition primed decision-making, and ecological dynamics perspectives), resulting in conceptual tension and practical confusion. The aim of this paper was to interrogate empirical evidence to (1) understand the process of decision-making within team sports and (2) capture the characteristics of decision-making expertise in a team sport context. Nine electronic databases (SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, PsycArticles, PsycTests, PubMed, SAGE journals online, Web of Knowledge, Academic Search Complete, and Web of Science) were searched until the final return in March 2021. Fifty-three articles satisfied the inclusion criteria, were analysed thematically, and synthesised using a narrative approach. Findings indicate that the relative absence or presence of mental representation within the decision-making process depends on factors, including complexity, typicality, time available, and contextual priors available in the game situation. We recommend that future research integrate concepts and methodologies prevalent within each perspective to better understand decision-making within team sports before providing implications for practitioners. Full article

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