Sports

14 pages, 1466 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness of Specific Professional Training in Male Elite Adolescent Team Handball Players

by Wagner Herbert, Radic Vanja and Hinz Matthias

Sports 2025, 13(6), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060193 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 410

Professional training in elite team handball academies is key to developing top players, yet its direct impact on physical performance remains unclear. This study aimed to (1) provide professional training to elite adolescent players and (2) assess performance improvements using a team handball-specific [...] Read more.

Professional training in elite team handball academies is key to developing top players, yet its direct impact on physical performance remains unclear. This study aimed to (1) provide professional training to elite adolescent players and (2) assess performance improvements using a team handball-specific test. Thirty elite male players (six goalkeepers, 24 field players) participated in an 11-week program, with nine under-19 (17.2 ± 1.3 years) and nine under-17 (15.6 ± 0.9 years) field players completing at least 80% of sessions. All underwent pre- and post-testing using the game-based performance test. A two-way ANOVA analyzed differences between tests and age groups as well as playing positions. Significant improvements (p < 0.05) were found in defense and offense time and body weight for both groups. Under-17 players also showed a significant increase in peak oxygen uptake (+9%), ball velocity (+7%), and jump height (+20%). Agility in defense and offense improved in under-19 (+3%) and under-17 (+6%) players, aligning with training goals. Positional differences were observed between backcourt players and wings (p < 0.01) in the ball velocity, while all players showed improvements in both defense and offense performance. We suggest that professional and targeted specific training at this age has a significant impact on the long-term development of adolescent team handball players and is the basis for a professional handball career. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth)

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13 pages, 716 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Carbohydrate Ingestion on Performance and Indices of Fatigue in Adolescent Soccer Players During a Simulated Game

by Panagiotis G. Miliotis, Spyridoula D. Ntalapera, Dimitriοs C. Stergiopoulos, Athanasios C. Zavvos, Panagiota Klentrou, Ifigeneia Giannopoulou and Nickos D. Geladas

Sports 2025, 13(6), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060192 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 260

Abstract

We examined the effects of carbohydrate ingestion on endurance performance and fatigue during a soccer simulation in adolescent soccer players and evaluated the protocol’s reliability. Nine (13.5 ± 0.4 years pre-PHV) soccer players performed two soccer simulation intermittent exercise sessions on the treadmill [...] Read more.

We examined the effects of carbohydrate ingestion on endurance performance and fatigue during a soccer simulation in adolescent soccer players and evaluated the protocol’s reliability. Nine (13.5 ± 0.4 years pre-PHV) soccer players performed two soccer simulation intermittent exercise sessions on the treadmill (60 min) while consuming 4 boluses of either a CHO or PLC beverage in random, counterbalanced order. Before and immediately after each exercise session, MVC was measured for the quadriceps and the hand. Participants also performed a TTE on a cycle ergometer on three occasions, after each simulation exercise session (CHO and PLC), and on another day in a rested state (CON). The simulation protocol produced an ICC of 0.96 ([0.77–0.98 95%CI], p = 0.01) for VO₂, with 2.24%CV between trials, suggesting strong reliability. TTE was higher (p = 0.01) in the CHO condition (123 ± 33 s) compared to PLC (85 ± 5 s) by 29%. The relative reduction in MVC_LEG was more pronounced in the PLC (22 ± 11%) condition than in CHO (14 ± 6%) (p = 0.05). Compared to the PLC, CHO resulted in lower RPE_local during the second half of the simulation protocol (p < 0.05). Carbohydrate ingestion can improve endurance performance and reduce peripheral fatigue during a reliable soccer simulation that resembles the physiological demands of a youth soccer match. Full article

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12 pages, 1004 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Power–Load Relationship of Bench Press, Ballistic Bench Press, and Prone Bench Pull in International Medal-Winning Canoeists and Kayakers

by Oscar Crisafulli, Matteo Fortunati, Tiziano Gemelli, Massimiliano Febbi, Patrik Drid, Stefano Ramat and Giuseppe D’Antona

Sports 2025, 13(6), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060191 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 375

Abstract

Paddler athletes use resistance training (RT) to optimize power output (PO) during competitions. Understanding the power–load relationship (P–Lr) is essential for effective RT prescription. Moreover, the push-to-pull ratio (PU/PR)—the one-repetition maximum (1RM) of a pulling exercise divided by the one of a pushing [...] Read more.

Paddler athletes use resistance training (RT) to optimize power output (PO) during competitions. Understanding the power–load relationship (P–Lr) is essential for effective RT prescription. Moreover, the push-to-pull ratio (PU/PR)—the one-repetition maximum (1RM) of a pulling exercise divided by the one of a pushing exercise—has been suggested as a metric associated with sprint kayak performance. This study aimed to describe P–Lr in three guided exercises (bench press (BP), ballistic bench press (BBP), and prone bench pull (PBP)), along with PU/PR in international-level canoeing and kayaking athletes. Nine male athletes (21.0 ± 1.5 years) were monitored during two sessions of an incremental testing protocol. Load ranged from 30 to 100 kg in BP, 30 to 95 kg in PBP, and 20 to 60 kg in BBP. Instantaneous displacement was measured using a linear position transducer, and PO was computed for each repetition and exercise. PU/PR was calculated upon PBP and BP. A two-way repeated-measures ANOVA was used to explore differences among exercises and relative load from 20% to 90% 1RM. PBP displayed a higher PO between 40% and 90% 1RM compared to BP and BBP), while no statistical difference was found between BP and BBP at any relative load. Additionally, mean PU/PR resulted 0.96. This study provides preliminary values regarding P–Lr and PU/PR in elite paddlers, which may assist in designing training programs for those targeting major competitions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth)

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16 pages, 908 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Melatonin Supplementation Enhances Next-Day High-Intensity Exercise Performance and Recovery in Trained Males: A Placebo-Controlled Crossover Study

by Nourhène Mahdi, Slaheddine Delleli, Arwa Jebabli, Khouloud Ben Maaoui, Juan Del Coso, Hamdi Chtourou, Luca Paolo Ardigò and Ibrahim Ouergui

Sports 2025, 13(6), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060190 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 1068

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Sleep and recovery are critical for optimising exercise performance. However, the efficacy of melatonin supplementation in improving sleep quality and next-day physical performance remains unclear. This study examined the effects of melatonin ingestion on sleep and performance-related outcomes the following day in [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Sleep and recovery are critical for optimising exercise performance. However, the efficacy of melatonin supplementation in improving sleep quality and next-day physical performance remains unclear. This study examined the effects of melatonin ingestion on sleep and performance-related outcomes the following day in trained males. Methods: In a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study, 12 trained males (age: 21.92 ± 2.84 years) ingested 6 mg of melatonin (MEL) or a placebo (PLA) the night before performing the 5 m shuttle test (5mSRT). Before and after the 5mSRT, blood samples were collected. Peak heart rate (HR_peak) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded throughout the test. Perceived recovery status (PRS) and delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) were measured before, 5 min, 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h after the test. The sleep/wake cycle was monitored during the night after ingestion. Results: Data were analysed using paired t-tests, Wilcoxon tests, and two-way ANOVAs, with significance set at p < 0.05. Compared to PLA, MEL did not modify any sleep parameters or blood markers (all p > 0.05). However, MEL improved total distance, fatigue index, the percentage decrement between sprints, and HR_peak (all p < 0.05) in the 5mSRT compared to PLA. MEL also enhanced PRS values up to 72 h post-exercise and reduced DOMS (all p < 0.05). Conclusion: In summary, 6 mg of melatonin taken at night enhanced next-day high-intensity exercise performance and improved perceived recovery up to 72 h post-exercise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research in Applied Sports Nutrition)

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14 pages, 269 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterising and Comparing the Sleep Characteristics and Behaviours of Female and Male Soccer Players: A Cross-Sectional Survey of an Elite Soccer Club

by Nicole Sanders, Rebecca K. Randell, Craig Thomas, Stephen J. Bailey and Tom Clifford

Sports 2025, 13(6), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060189 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 385

Abstract

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to evaluate the sleep characteristics and behaviours of senior male, senior female, and under 21 (U21) male elite soccer players using athlete-specific questionnaires. During the preseason/early season period, 74 players from the English Premier League (n [...] Read more.

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to evaluate the sleep characteristics and behaviours of senior male, senior female, and under 21 (U21) male elite soccer players using athlete-specific questionnaires. During the preseason/early season period, 74 players from the English Premier League (n = 26, age 26 ± 5 y), Women’s Super League (n = 22, age 25 ± 5 y), and English Premier League 2 (n = 26, age 19 ± 1 y) completed the validated Athlete Sleep Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ) to obtain a sleep difficulty score (SDS) and the Athlete Sleep Behaviour Questionnaire (ASBQ) to obtain a global score and individual behaviours. We found that sleep difficulty scores were higher in senior females (5.9 ± 1.9) than senior males (4.1 ± 1.7) and U21 males (4.3 ± 1.2) (p ≤ 0.006), but no severe clinical problems were noted. Global sleep behaviour scores from the ASBQ were worse in senior males (37.9 ± 6.5) and senior females (40.6 ± 7.1) than male U21 players (33.6 ± 4.7) (p ≤ 0.021). Senior players consumed more alcohol and stimulants and felt that travel disrupted sleep; females went to bed thirstier, woke more for the bathroom, and ruminated more prior to sleep (all p < 0.05). In conclusion, senior female players reported more sleep difficulties than male senior and male U21 players. Behaviours such as pre-bed rumination, nutrition, and travel plans could be targeted to improve sleep quality in soccer players. Study limitations include data drawn from a single club in the off-season. Full article

16 pages, 1218 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Effects of Static Stretching Duration on a Single-Leg Balance Task

by Takamasa Mizuno

Sports 2025, 13(6), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060188 - 18 Jun 2025

Viewed by 326

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of static stretching (SS) duration on balance. Twenty-two participants performed passive dorsiflexion measurements and balance tests before and after SS. Passive dorsiflexion measurements determined the maximal dorsiflexion angle, passive torque, displacement of the [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of static stretching (SS) duration on balance. Twenty-two participants performed passive dorsiflexion measurements and balance tests before and after SS. Passive dorsiflexion measurements determined the maximal dorsiflexion angle, passive torque, displacement of the muscle–tendon junction, and electromyography amplitude during passive dorsiflexion. In the balance test, the participant stood on a single leg with their eyes open while the postural sway evaluated in the center of pressure (COP), standing duration, and electromyography amplitude were measured. The ankle and metatarsophalangeal joints underwent SS for 30 s × one set, two sets, and four sets. There were significant increases in COP displacement and COP velocity after two sets of SS but not after one and four sets. Standing duration and electromyography during balance tests were not changed after SS. No gender differences were found in changes in balance. Maximal dorsiflexion angle and passive torque were increased after SS, but the displacement of the muscle–tendon junction and electromyography during passive dorsiflexion were not changed. There was no significant correlation between changes in maximal dorsiflexion angle or passive torque and changes in COP variables after two sets of SS. These results therefore revealed that SS duration affects COP displacement and COP velocity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Stretching on Performance)

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17 pages, 237 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Time–Motion Analysis of the 2023 Women’s World Boxing Championships Finals

by Francesca Martusciello, Andrea Perazzetti, Arben Kaçurri, Marco Consolati and Antonio Tessitore

Sports 2025, 13(6), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060187 - 17 Jun 2025

Viewed by 904

Abstract

Background: This study investigated boxers’ activity profiles during the final matches (3 × 3 min format) of the IBA 2023 Women’s World Boxing Championships. Methods: Footage of the 12 finals was used to analyse the frequency and duration of fighting (F), punching (P), [...] Read more.

Background: This study investigated boxers’ activity profiles during the final matches (3 × 3 min format) of the IBA 2023 Women’s World Boxing Championships. Methods: Footage of the 12 finals was used to analyse the frequency and duration of fighting (F), punching (P), clinching (C), no-fighting (NF), and arbitral interruption (AI) phases. The analysis was conducted both for weight categories and divisions (lightweight (LWC): 48, 50, 52, 54, 57, and 60 kg; middleweight (MWC): 63, 66, 70, and 75 kg; heavyweight (HWC): 81 and 81+ kg). Results: Pooled data per round revealed significant differences for P (<0.001), C (p = 0.002), NF (p < 0.001), and AI (p < 0.001) phases, as well for P mean duration across rounds (p < 0.001). The MWC division showed significantly shorter F duration compared with the LWC (p = 0.007) and MWC divisions (<0.001). The F/NF total time ratio showed a prevalence of F in the 48, 50, 63, and 81+ kg categories, while NF prevailed in the 54, 57, 60, and 75 kg categories. Conclusions: While HWC primarily relied on C actions, the 54, 57, 60, and 75 kg categories showed higher NF frequency. This fact explains a different strategic match management approach with deliberate rhythm, controlled pauses, and opponent analysis, which coaches should consider for enhancing athletes’ performance by considering weight categories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

12 pages, 880 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Workplace-Integrated Exercise Snacks on Cognitive Performance in Sedentary Middle-Aged Adults—A Randomized Pilot Study

by Jonas P. Mues, Stefan Flohr and Nicolas Kurpiers

Sports 2025, 13(6), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060186 - 13 Jun 2025

Viewed by 903

Abstract

Sedentary behavior is increasingly recognized as a risk factor for various health issues, including cognitive decline. Objectives: This pilot study examined the acute and chronic effects of workplace-integrated exercise snacks—short, vigorous bouts of exercise—on cognitive performance in middle-aged adults. Methods: Twenty-five sedentary but [...] Read more.

Sedentary behavior is increasingly recognized as a risk factor for various health issues, including cognitive decline. Objectives: This pilot study examined the acute and chronic effects of workplace-integrated exercise snacks—short, vigorous bouts of exercise—on cognitive performance in middle-aged adults. Methods: Twenty-five sedentary but healthy office workers (51.4 ± 5.3 years; 6 m/19 f) participated. The intervention group (n = 12) performed three 1 min bouts of vigorous exercise (running on the spot) daily, four days a week, for four weeks, while the control group (n = 13) maintained their usual routine. Cognitive performance was assessed pre-intervention, shortly following the first exercise bout (acute effects), and post-intervention (chronic effects) using the Trail Making Test and the Stroop Color–Word Test. Results: Significant acute improvements (p ≤ 0.05) were observed across all cognitive outcomes following a single bout of exercise. Significant interaction effects (p ≤ 0.05) were found across all cognitive outcomes after four weeks, indicating sustained cognitive benefits. Conclusion: These findings suggest that workplace-integrated brief, vigorous exercise may lead to both immediate and sustained enhancement in executive functions such as working memory, processing speed, and inhibitory control. They highlight the potential cognitive health benefits of incorporating exercise snacks into sedentary workplace environments. Full article

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15 pages, 2547 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Heart Rate Variability Measurements Across the Menstrual Cycle and Oral Contraceptive Phases in Two Olympian Female Swimmers: A Case Report

by Marine Dupuit, Kilian Barlier, Benjamin Tranchard, Jean-François Toussaint, Juliana Antero and Robin Pla

Sports 2025, 13(6), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060185 - 12 Jun 2025

Viewed by 998

Abstract

The heart rate variability (HRV), influenced by female sex hormone fluctuations, is an indicator of athletes’ adaptation. This case study explores HRV responses over 18 months across a natural menstrual cycle (MC) and during oral contraceptive (OC) use in two Olympic female swimmers. [...] Read more.

The heart rate variability (HRV), influenced by female sex hormone fluctuations, is an indicator of athletes’ adaptation. This case study explores HRV responses over 18 months across a natural menstrual cycle (MC) and during oral contraceptive (OC) use in two Olympic female swimmers. HRV measurements—including mean heart rate (HR); root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD); and frequency-domain indices—were collected at rest in supine (SU) and standing (ST) positions across two competitive seasons. Nocturnal HR and RMSSD were assessed using the Ōura^® ring. MC and OC phases were identified through specific tracking, and training load was controlled. In both athletes, resting HR was lower during bleeding phases, increasing from menstruation to the luteal phase (MC) and from withdrawal to active pill phases (OC). In the ST position, RMSSD was higher but decreased throughout the phases. Nocturnal measurements confirmed these trends. Overall, findings suggest a phase-related parasympathetic overactivity shift. This study provides novel insights into HRV responses across hormonal cycles in elite female athletes, which present unique characteristics. Such monitoring tools may support a data-informed approach to guide and periodize training more effectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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20 pages, 1241 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Hormonal, Inflammatory, Muscle Damage and Oxidative Stress Biomarkers Changes in Response to High-Intensity Interval, Circuit and Concurrent Exercise Bouts

by Francisco Javier Martínez-Noguera, Linda H. Chung, Amelia Guadalupe-Grau, Silvia Montoro-García and Pedro E. Alcaraz

Sports 2025, 13(6), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060184 - 12 Jun 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1319

Abstract

Purpose: Although chronic resting hormonal changes were traditionally considered to modulate muscle tissue remodeling and growth, our knowledge of exercise on the acute post-exercise hormonal response is limited. Moreover, the type of exercise protocol may trigger different hormonal profiles. The aim of this [...] Read more.

Purpose: Although chronic resting hormonal changes were traditionally considered to modulate muscle tissue remodeling and growth, our knowledge of exercise on the acute post-exercise hormonal response is limited. Moreover, the type of exercise protocol may trigger different hormonal profiles. The aim of this study was to evaluate changes in muscle damage, as well as hormonal and inflammatory markers following the response to three different resistance training protocols. Methods: A crossover study was conducted in which 33 recreationally active men were randomly assigned to three different training groups: high-intensity interval training (HIIT), concurrent training (CT), and high-intensity resistance circuit (HRC) training. Blood biomarkers were measured by standard procedures at rest, after exercise (P0), 30 min (P1), 24 h (P24), and 48 h (P48) after exercise. Results: Regarding testosterone, the Friedman test detected a significant time × group interaction (p = 0.004), and Durbin–Conover showed higher levels in HRC compared to HIIT at P1 (p = 0.006) and P48 (p = 0.021). However, CT showed higher levels than HIIT (p = 0.008) at P1. Concerning myostatin, there was a trend in the time × group interaction (p = 0.056) with lower values in HRC compared to CT in P1 (p = 0.003), and a trend between HRC and HIIT in P1 (p = 0.056). Conclusions: HRC generates higher levels of testosterone than HIIT in the acute (P1) and late (P48) phases of recovery and produces lower levels of myostatin than CT and HIIT (P1) in the acute phase of recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effects of High-Intensity Training Variations on Biomechanics, Physiology, Biochemistry and Performance in Athletes)

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13 pages, 1349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Rating of Perceived Exertion in the First Repetition (RPE-1) on Post-Activation Performance Enhancement in Trained Individuals: A Pilot Study

by Iván Chulvi-Medrano, Fernando Martín, Javier Gene-Morales, Álvaro Juesas, Pablo Jiménez-Martínez and Juan C. Colado

Sports 2025, 13(6), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060183 - 11 Jun 2025

Viewed by 1114

Abstract

(1) Background: Limited research has examined elastic resistance preconditioning effects on post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) using the rate of perceived exertion (RPE) as an intensity indicator. This pilot study aimed to evaluate the application of RPE to the elastic resistance push-press (ERPP) exercise [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Limited research has examined elastic resistance preconditioning effects on post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) using the rate of perceived exertion (RPE) as an intensity indicator. This pilot study aimed to evaluate the application of RPE to the elastic resistance push-press (ERPP) exercise performed at maximum velocity for its effects on PAPE. (2) Methods: Twenty-four trained, healthy young adults participated in this study and performed both a conventional warm-up and a warm-up combined with six repetitions of an elastic resistance push-press (ERPP) at 85% 1RM/RPE of the first repetition (RPE-1) of 6 out of 10. The pre-post variables assessed were push-ups, a countermovement jump (CMJ), and 10 and 20 m sprints. A repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted. Additionally, between-subject variability was adjusted for individual performance. (3) Results: In the push-up, a significant improvement (p ≤ 0.05) of 20.41% in mean propulsive velocity was observed among the less strong participants. A medium effect size improvement (d = 0.47; p = 0.13) was observed in CMJ performance (7.93%) among the less strong participants. Significant improvements were noted in sprint performance over 10 m (8.07%) and 20 m (6.23%) in the ERPP group compared with the standard warm-up, particularly in the less strong participants. The stronger participants exhibited no significant changes in either variable. (4) Conclusions: We concluded that ERPP effectively induced PAPE in the less strong participants. Additionally, RPE-1 is proposed as a tool to monitor intensity in elastic band resistance to induce PAPE. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuromuscular Performance: Insights for Athletes and Beyond)

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30 pages, 4666 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Protein and Amino Acid Supplementation on Muscular Strength and Endurance in Recreational Gym-Goers During 8-Week Resistance Training

by Sandor-Richard Nagy, Magdalena Mititelu, Ruxandra-Cristina Marin, Violeta Popovici, Annamaria Pallag and Tünde Jurca

Sports 2025, 13(6), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060182 - 11 Jun 2025

Viewed by 3140

Abstract

Objective: Most recreational gym-goers independently consume nutritional supplements (NSs) without physician advice and a personalized diet. The present study examines the preference for nutritional supplements (NSs) based on protein and amino acids of 218 recreational gym-goers (males and females aged 18–60). It also [...] Read more.

Objective: Most recreational gym-goers independently consume nutritional supplements (NSs) without physician advice and a personalized diet. The present study examines the preference for nutritional supplements (NSs) based on protein and amino acids of 218 recreational gym-goers (males and females aged 18–60). It also investigates the NS’s impact on resistance training (RT) performance. Methods: All participants (n = 218) were regular members of two gym centers in Oradea. Baseline data and information about daily diet and supplement preferences were obtained through face-to-face interviews. At the same time, RT performance was assessed by measuring 1RM in six exercises three times (W0, W4, and W8). Results: Our findings reveal that 24.3% of participants did not consume NSs, while the majority (75.6%, p < 0.05) used them to improve their physical condition; men were more likely to consume NSs than women (83.3% vs. 63.9%, p < 0.05). Gym-goers were grouped based on their NS consumption: L-carnitine, creatine, whey protein (WP), and triple combination; the non-supplemented group was the control. The combination substantially correlated with a balanced diet, 3001–3500 and >3500 calories/day; creatine was appreciably associated with 2001–2500 calories/day; L-carnitine was associated with 151–200 g protein/day, while control was considerably linked with a vegetarian diet and <1000 calorie/day (r > 0.900, p < 0.05). The results showed that almost all participants exhibited progressive muscle strength improvements. As an overview, 1RM substantially varied with NS consumed, body weight status, and gender (p < 0.0001), except for the pull-up count, which varied with NS and gender (p < 0.0001). Additionally, 1RM significantly varied with age (deadlift and pull-ups), daily protein consumption (back squats, biceps, and triceps), daily calories (back squats), and diet type (biceps, triceps, and pull-up exercises), p < 0.05. On the other hand, most NSs associated with RT exercises led to a general increase in body weight. Only L-carnitine decreased it. Conclusions: Resistance training records of recreational athletes are significantly influenced by age, gender, body weight status, NS type, and daily diet features (p < 0.05). Our findings highlight the essential role of professional guidance in nutritional supplementation associated with a suitable diet for optimal RT performance of recreational athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Performance and Promoting Health Through Nutrition)

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15 pages, 698 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physiological Benchmarks and Player Profiling in Elite Football: A Role-Specific Analysis Using T-Scores

by Vincenzo Manzi, Daniele A. Cardinale, Marco Alfonso Perrone, Antonio Bovenzi, Ferdinando Iellamo, Cristian Savoia, Giuseppe Caminiti and Francesco Laterza

Sports 2025, 13(6), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060181 - 10 Jun 2025

Viewed by 1786

Abstract

Physiological characteristics such as VO_2max, running economy (RE), maximal aerobic speed (MAS), maximal sprinting speed (MSS), anaerobic speed reserve (ASR), and player profiling (based on MSS and MAS) have been proven to be important for training prescriptions in football. However, previous [...] Read more.

Physiological characteristics such as VO_2max, running economy (RE), maximal aerobic speed (MAS), maximal sprinting speed (MSS), anaerobic speed reserve (ASR), and player profiling (based on MSS and MAS) have been proven to be important for training prescriptions in football. However, previous studies on player profiling have neglected the absolute values of MSS and MAS. The objectives of this study were to compare the aforementioned physiological variables among player roles, create benchmarks, and provide normative data to help coaches categorize players, ultimately proposing a new player profiling method. We analyzed 195 male professional football players (50 forwards, 59 midfielders, 44 full-backs, and 42 center-backs). Multivariate analysis of variance with Tukey’s post hoc tests revealed positional differences. Center-backs exhibited lower VO_2max than midfielders and full-backs. Both center-backs and forwards showed poorer RE and MAS compared to midfielders and full-backs. Full-backs achieved higher MSS than midfielders and center-backs, and forwards outperformed center-backs. Finally, midfielders demonstrated lower ASR than all other positions. Benchmarks based on T-scores for all variables were provided. Finally, in the new profiling method proposed—also based on T-scores—players were classified as “speed”, “endurance”, or “hybrid” if their MAS and/or MSS T-score exceeded 60, “in development” if both were below 45, and “average” if both scores were between 45 and 60 without any value above 60. The normative data provided can assist coaches in identifying specific areas for improvement in players’ physical conditioning—particularly valuable for youth athletes or those returning from injury. Additionally, the new profiling method offers insights into individual player characteristics, enabling more tailored and effective training interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

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15 pages, 1836 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Body Composition and Cardiac Sports Adaptation in Elite Water Polo Players

by Mark Zamodics, Mate Babity, Gusztav Schay, Agnes Bucsko-Varga, Eva Kovacs, Marton Horvath, Kinga Grebur, Marcell Janos Laszlo, Alexandra Fabian, Balint Karoly Lakatos, Szilvia Herczeg, Hajnalka Vago, Attila Kovacs, Bela Merkely and Orsolya Kiss

Sports 2025, 13(6), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060180 - 9 Jun 2025

Viewed by 391

Abstract

The effects of physical activity on skeletal muscle mass and cardiac function are well-documented, but there is limited information on the relationship between the two. Furthermore, differentiating between the ‘athlete’s heart’ and pathological cardiac conditions often presents challenges. We aimed to analyze resting [...] Read more.

The effects of physical activity on skeletal muscle mass and cardiac function are well-documented, but there is limited information on the relationship between the two. Furthermore, differentiating between the ‘athlete’s heart’ and pathological cardiac conditions often presents challenges. We aimed to analyze resting echocardiographic parameters in elite water polo athletes, considering sex, anthropometrics, and body composition. We examined 161 youth and adult athletes (age: 19.7 ± 5.6 years, male: 50.9%). Data analysis was performed with R software (version 4.2), using multivariate linear regression models. Confounders besides the main predictor were sex, age, and height. Male players had higher weight (87.55 ± 12.83 vs. 69.77 ± 9.8 kg), height (188.59 ± 6.82 vs. 173.47 ± 6.76 cm), skeletal muscle mass (SMM, 43.87 ± 5.50 vs. 30.38 ± 3.95 kg), and fat-free mass (FFM, 76.60 ± 9.23 vs. 54.52 ± 6.68 kg) and lower percentage of body fat values (12.14 ± 4.00.vs 21.51 ± 4.76%) compared to the female players. Youth players had lower height (178.51 ± 9.53 vs. 186.74 ± 9.27 kg) and weight (74.34 ± 12.12. vs. 88.23 ± 14.66 kg) compared to adults. Left ventricular end-diastolic and end-systolic diameters correlated positively with SMM (Est: 0.38, StE: 0.08, p < 0.001 and Est: 0.42, StE: 0.11, p < 0.001) and FFM (Est: 0.25, StE: 0.05, p < 0.001 and Est: 0.25, StE: 0.06, p < 0.001). Right ventricular end-diastolic diameter correlated positively with SMM (Est: 0.18, StE: 0.08, p < 0.05) and FFM (Est: 0.12, StE: 0.05, p < 0.05). Interventricular septal wall thickness showed positive correlation with SMM (Est: 0.16, StE: 0.04, p < 0.001) and FFM (Est: 0.10, StE: 0.02, p < 0.001). Left ventricular posterior wall thickness correlated with SMM, with a stronger correlation in females (Est: 0.17, StE: 0.05, p < 0.001) than in males (Est:0.7, StE: 0.04, p < 0.05). The close relationship between body composition and cardiac dimensions provides an opportunity for professionals to distinguish between athlete’s heart and pathological conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological Effects of Sports on the Cardiopulmonary System)

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12 pages, 486 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding External Peak Demands in Elite vs. Non-Elite Male Basketball Players

by Yoel Antoranz, Enrique Alonso-Pérez-Chao, Carlos Mª Tejero-González, Hugo Salazar, Juan del Campo-Vecino and Sergio L. Jiménez-Sáiz

Sports 2025, 13(6), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060179 - 9 Jun 2025

Viewed by 554

Abstract

Background: Understanding the physical demands of basketball at different competitive levels is essential for optimizing training and performance. While elite players are often assumed to experience the highest physical loads, evidence comparing peak external demands (PDs) between elite and non-elite athletes using time-window [...] Read more.

Background: Understanding the physical demands of basketball at different competitive levels is essential for optimizing training and performance. While elite players are often assumed to experience the highest physical loads, evidence comparing peak external demands (PDs) between elite and non-elite athletes using time-window analysis is limited. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine how player level (Elite vs. Non-Elite) influences the external PDs experienced by male basketball players. Methods: This study examined PlayerLoad™ (PL) PDs in elite (n = 10) and non-elite (n = 11) male basketball players during the 2023–2024 season. Players were monitored using inertial measurement units (IMUs) during official and friendly matches (elite = 8 games; non-elite = 29 games). Peak PL values were computed using rolling averages across 30-s, 1-min, and 3-min time windows. Linear mixed-effects models were employed to examine differences between groups, adjusting for age and match nature. A secondary analysis was carried out including only friendly matches. Results: Non-elite players exhibited significantly higher PL PDs across all the time windows (p < 0.001), with effect sizes ranging from small to very large in the main analysis (ES = −0.41 to −2.11) and from very large to extremely large in the secondary analysis (ES = −2.68 to −5.06). Differences were more pronounced in longer durations. These results suggest that non-elite athletes sustain higher physical loads, possibly due to less efficient movement patterns and lower tactical regulation. Conclusions: Elite players display lower peak external loads than their non-elite counterparts, likely due to superior cognitive, tactical, and perceptual abilities that enhance movement economy. Training programs should incorporate tasks that combine physical intensity with decision-making demands to foster efficiency and potentially reduce injury risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies to Improve Modifiable Factors of Athletic Success)

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13 pages, 552 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Association Between Physical Activity Level and Training Volume in Adolescent Athletes

by Sebastian Sitko, Alejandro Legaz-Arrese, Joaquín Reverter-Masia, Diego Moliner-Urdiales, Vicenç Hernández-González, Saül Aixa-Requena, Enric Conesa-Milian and Carmen Mayolas-Pi

Sports 2025, 13(6), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060178 - 6 Jun 2025

Viewed by 776

Abstract

Organized sports are assumed to boost overall physical activity, but evidence suggests structured training does not always increase general activity outside formal sessions. This study explores the link between physical activity levels and weekly training hours in adolescent athletes across sports and competition [...] Read more.

Organized sports are assumed to boost overall physical activity, but evidence suggests structured training does not always increase general activity outside formal sessions. This study explores the link between physical activity levels and weekly training hours in adolescent athletes across sports and competition levels. A total of 10,196 participants aged 11 to 19 were included in the analyses. Participants were classified into seven groups: inactive, somewhat active, non-competitive athletes, and athletes competing at the local, regional, national, or international level. They completed the Spanish version of the Physical Activity Questionnaire and answered questions regarding their performance level, training volume, and socioeconomic status. Girls exhibited lower physical activity levels than boys, even at higher competition levels where both sexes had comparable training hours. Competitive athletes reported the highest physical activity levels. In competitive athletes, physical activity levels decreased with age despite a substantial increase in weekly training hours. They were similar across athletes competing in different sports and at different levels, despite significant differences in training hours. Many athletes, including those at the national and international levels, displayed low physical activity levels, and no clear relationship was found between physical activity level and weekly training hours. The current study provides valuable insights into adolescent physical activity patterns by sex, age, sport, and competition level. Girls showed lower physical activity than boys, even with similar training hours. Physical activity levels declined with age despite increasing training volumes, and no strong association was observed between physical activity and weekly training hours. These results reveal a discrepancy between structured training and overall activity levels, challenging assumptions about the impact of sports participation on daily physical activity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Competition and Sports Training: A Challenge for Public Health)

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24 pages, 3996 KiB

Open AccessReview

Visualization of the Research Panorama of Decision-Making in Soccer: Bibliometric Analysis with VOSviewer and Review of the Most Cited Studies of the Last 15 Years (2010–2024)

by Juan David Paucar Uribe, Boryi A. Becerra-Patiño, Jorge Olivares-Arancibia, Rodrigo Yáñez-Sepúlveda, Aldo Vasquez-Bonilla, Daniel Rojas-Valverde, José Francisco López-Gil and Guilherme Machado

Sports 2025, 13(6), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060177 - 3 Jun 2025

Viewed by 1707

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Various studies have investigated the importance of perceptual–cognitive skills in decision-making and the expert performance of athletes. However, bibliometric study has yet to identify research trends on this topic. The objective of this study was to perform a bibliometric review to identify [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Various studies have investigated the importance of perceptual–cognitive skills in decision-making and the expert performance of athletes. However, bibliometric study has yet to identify research trends on this topic. The objective of this study was to perform a bibliometric review to identify the research trends in the study of soccer decision-making. Method. A total of 172 studies were included in the databases. Results. The year 2021 was the year with the highest number of published studies (n = 23), and 2016 was the year with the highest number of citations (n = 692). The average number of citations per document was 19.79. The concepts that have the greatest occurrence in the investigations are performance (n = 68), decision-making (n = 54), expertise (n = 32), skill (n = 23), and anticipation (n = 22). The journals with the highest number of published documents are the Journal of Sport Sciences (10 documents and 437 citations) and PLoS One (11 documents and 349 citations). The countries with the highest number of published documents and citations are England (n = 46 documents and 996 citations), Germany (n = 32 documents and 749 citations), and Spain (n = 38 documents and 597 citations). German Sport University Cologne is the organization that has the most publications and citations (n = 19 and 531). Conclusions. Existing knowledge production on decision-making in soccer has a preference for the study of two major categories: one related to the analysis of the factors associated with perceptual–cognitive skills, mental fatigue, anticipation, creativity, and memory, whereas the second is more related to the study that has decision-making in the manifestations of specific game performance, between experts and novices, in the precision of technical actions, such as the pass, as well as in a methodology for the selection of athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Research on Physical Fitness Profile in Soccer Players)

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15 pages, 744 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Acute and Chronic Load on Perceived Wellbeing, Neuromuscular Performance, and Immune Function in Male Professional Football Players

by Alastair Harris, Tim J. Gabbett, Rachel King, Stephen P. Bird and Peter Terry

Sports 2025, 13(6), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060176 - 31 May 2025

Viewed by 1404

Abstract

Objectives: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between acute and chronic loads, and the fatigue response within male elite professional football players. Design: 40-week longitudinal study across the 2021–2022 season in the English Championship. Methods: Twenty-three outfield football [...] Read more.

Objectives: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between acute and chronic loads, and the fatigue response within male elite professional football players. Design: 40-week longitudinal study across the 2021–2022 season in the English Championship. Methods: Twenty-three outfield football players had workload measured using global positioning system (Distance, High-Intensity Distance and Sprint Distance) and perceived exertion. Load-response was measured via a perceived wellbeing questionnaire, counter-movement jump (CMJ) and salivary immunoglobulin A. Results: General estimating equation models identified 18 significant interactions between workload and load-response markers. Thirteen significant interactions were found between acute and chronic workloads and CMJ variables, jump height, eccentric duration and flight contraction time. A poor CMJ was observed when acute sprint workload was >+1 standard deviation and chronic distance increased. However, when chronic perceived exertion increased, and acute sprint workload was >+1 standard deviation an advantageous response was detected on counter movement jump variables. The S-IgA response to acute and chronic workload was more variable; when chronic loads were >+1 standard deviation above mean values and acute workload increased, salivary immunoglobulin A was both suppressed and elevated depending on the interacting acute variable. Higher chronic workload was associated with better perceived wellbeing, even when acute workload was >+1 standard deviation above the mean. Conclusion: In general, low chronic workloads and acute spikes in workload were associated with poorer neuromuscular and immune function. Furthermore, CMJ performance and perceived wellbeing improved when chronic workloads were higher, despite the occurrence of acute spikes in workload. Full article

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19 pages, 361 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Monitoring to Prediction: Velocity-Based Strength Training in Female Floorball Athletes

by Basil B. Achermann, Naire Regazzi, Rahel Heynen, Dennis Lüdin, Julia Suter, Anna Drewek and Silvio R. Lorenzetti

Sports 2025, 13(6), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060175 - 31 May 2025

Viewed by 1185

Abstract

This study examined the use of linear regression models for predicting the outcomes of a six-week velocity-based training (VBT) intervention in female floorball players. The intervention was integrated into regular training and consisted of brief 30-min sessions focused on back squats and trap [...] Read more.

This study examined the use of linear regression models for predicting the outcomes of a six-week velocity-based training (VBT) intervention in female floorball players. The intervention was integrated into regular training and consisted of brief 30-min sessions focused on back squats and trap bar deadlifts. Key performance metrics included neuromuscular adaptation, sprint speed, jump performance, stop-and-go (SAG) performance, and load-velocity profiles. Seventeen participants completed 12 training sessions, a strength block set (Sessions 1–6) and a power block set (Sessions 7–12). The predictive models explained 54% to 79% (

R^{2}

= 0.54–0.79) of the performance improvement in the strength-related tests. Significant gains were observed in neuromuscular metrics, including estimated one-repetition maximum (1

{RM}_{e s t}

) and average mean concentric velocity for both exercises. These findings underscore the predictive potential of VBT in enhancing strength and power while highlighting the need to integrate task-specific exercises to optimize sport-specific performance. This study provides valuable insights for tailoring VBT strategies for female athletes in high-demand team sports such as floorball. Full article

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18 pages, 764 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Mediating Role of Mental Toughness in the Relationship Between Burnout and Perceived Stress Among Hungarian Coaches

by Eszter Bíró and László Balogh

Sports 2025, 13(6), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060174 - 31 May 2025

Viewed by 1225

Abstract

This study aimed to explore the relationship between perceived stress, burnout, and mental toughness, and investigate how mental toughness mediates the relationship between perceived stress and burnout among Hungarian coaches. Three hundred and thirty-three active coaches completed anonymous self-report questionnaires assessing burnout (CBQ), [...] Read more.

This study aimed to explore the relationship between perceived stress, burnout, and mental toughness, and investigate how mental toughness mediates the relationship between perceived stress and burnout among Hungarian coaches. Three hundred and thirty-three active coaches completed anonymous self-report questionnaires assessing burnout (CBQ), mental toughness (SMTQ), and perceived stress (PSS). In the international comparison, Hungarian coaches indicated significantly higher burnout levels than those investigated in previous international research. PLS-SEM results showed that coaches with higher stress levels are less likely to experience burnout. Furthermore, mental toughness serves as a buffer between stress and burnout; however, the buffering effects of its various subfactors on different dimensions of coaching burnout vary. Consequently, further research is necessary to fully understand the mitigating effects of mental toughness, particularly by analyzing coping strategies, motivation, and success. Our research unequivocally indicates that the integration of targeted stress management training into coaching education is crucial for effectively addressing the emotional challenges inherent in the profession. By incorporating workshops that focus on self-awareness and emotion regulation strategies, coaching programs can substantially reduce the risk of burnout and promote the well-being of coaches. These findings underscore the vital importance of embedding practical stress management interventions within coach development initiatives to cultivate more resilient and effective coaching professionals. Full article

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16 pages, 1504 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Motor Skill Performance of 13-Year-Old Japanese Boys and Girls: A Cross-Sectional Study over Six Decades (1964–2023)

by Yukitomo Yogi

Sports 2025, 13(6), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060173 - 31 May 2025

Viewed by 1190

Abstract

This study examines six decades (1964–2023) of changes in motor skills and body dimensions among Japanese 13-year-old students, analyzing grip strength, handball throwing, 50 m dash, endurance running, and composite scores. National Physical Fitness and Motor Skills Survey data were analyzed alongside School [...] Read more.

This study examines six decades (1964–2023) of changes in motor skills and body dimensions among Japanese 13-year-old students, analyzing grip strength, handball throwing, 50 m dash, endurance running, and composite scores. National Physical Fitness and Motor Skills Survey data were analyzed alongside School Health Examination Survey measurements to identify trends and correlations between performance metrics and anthropometric variables. The results revealed distinct developmental patterns, with motor skills peaking in the 1980s for both genders, followed by decline until 2000, after which boys experienced stagnation while girls showed improvement until 2019. Both genders demonstrated marked decreases following 2020, coinciding with the COVID-19 pandemic. Notably, while height increased significantly over the study period, only boys’ 50 m dash performance showed strong positive correlations with height (r = 0.779) and BMI (r = 0.854). This longitudinal analysis demonstrates how interdisciplinary factors—including educational policy shifts, reduced physical education curriculum hours, changes in urban park design, diminished outdoor play opportunities, and increased sedentary behaviors—collectively impact children’s motor development. These findings hold significant implications for public health initiatives and sports education strategies aimed at reversing concerning trends in youth physical capabilities and addressing the substantial post-pandemic decline in motor performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fostering Sport for a Healthy Life)

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16 pages, 492 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Stakeholder Evaluation of a Walking Football Group for People with Dementia Developed in Partnership with a Premier League Club

by Marie Poole, Alison Killen and Louise Robinson

Sports 2025, 13(6), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060172 - 30 May 2025

Viewed by 948

Abstract

Dementia-friendly walking football offers a way of helping people who are less likely to engage with traditional services to participate in physical activity and support their physical, mental and social wellbeing. This addresses a gap in the current provision of post-diagnostic dementia support [...] Read more.

Dementia-friendly walking football offers a way of helping people who are less likely to engage with traditional services to participate in physical activity and support their physical, mental and social wellbeing. This addresses a gap in the current provision of post-diagnostic dementia support in the UK. However, there is a lack of evidence around such models of service provision. Through the evaluation of a newly established dementia-friendly walking football initiative provided by a Premier League charitable foundation, we explored the social, physical and mental benefits of dementia-friendly walking football for older males from underserved communities. Using a qualitative, exploratory approach, we held focus groups with service providers and service users to understand their views and experiences of delivering and attending dementia-friendly walking football sessions. A thematic analysis of the focus groups revealed three main themes relating to the importance of football to cultural and individual identity, namely, ‘for the love of the game’, ‘team players’ and ‘a game changer’. We also highlight how a multi-disciplinary, research-based approach to the evaluation of a service and identification of service improvements can both involve and benefit people living with dementia and their families. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Walking Football: A Strategy for Promoting Physical Activity Among Older People)

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9 pages, 678 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

A Battery of Jump Tests Helps Discriminating Between Subjects With and Without Chronic Ankle Instability

by Claudio Legnani, Matteo Saladini, Martina Faraldi, Giuseppe M. Peretti and Alberto Ventura

Sports 2025, 13(6), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060171 - 30 May 2025

Viewed by 612

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to assess whether a simple and reproducible battery of jump tests can distinguish between patients affected by chronic ankle instability (CAI) and control subjects. The hypothesis was that patients with CAI would demonstrate lower performance compared to [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was to assess whether a simple and reproducible battery of jump tests can distinguish between patients affected by chronic ankle instability (CAI) and control subjects. The hypothesis was that patients with CAI would demonstrate lower performance compared to healthy subjects during jumping tasks. Twenty-one young, active adults aged 18 to 45 years affected by CAI were matched for sex, age, and body mass index (BMI) to a control group of 21 healthy subjects without history of lower limb pathology. Jumping ability was instrumentally assessed by an infrared optical acquisition system using a test battery, including mono- and bipodalic vertical squat jumps, countermovement jumps (CMJs), a drop jump (DJ), and a side-hop test. Patients with CAI had significantly worse monopodalic CMJ, DJ, and side-hop test scores in their involved limb compared to the non-dominant limb of healthy individuals. Pathological limbs of CAI patients reported inferior results compared to non-dominant limbs of healthy individuals while performing monopodalic CMJs, DJs, and side-hop tests (p < 0.05). No statistically significant differences were found between the two groups in the limb symmetry index (LSI) while performing monopodalic CMJs and DJs (p = 0.072 and p = 0.071, respectively), while a difference was found between the two groups, in favor of healthy subjects, while performing monopodalic side-hop tests (p < 0.01). A reproducible battery of jump tests performed with a simple and low-cost instrument can be applied in the clinical setting allowing for reliable measurements of functional ability of subjects with CAI. Our findings support the idea that side-hop tests could be more accurate than vertical jump tests for detecting functional deficits in patients suffering from CAI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuromuscular Control Analysis for Injury Prevention)

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23 pages, 698 KiB

Open AccessReview

Air Pollution and Its Impact on Health and Performance in Football Players

by George John, Ekaterina A. Semenova, Dana Amr Mohamed, Tiffany Georges Abi Antoun, Rinat A. Yusupov and Ildus I. Ahmetov

Sports 2025, 13(6), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060170 - 30 May 2025

Viewed by 1252

Abstract

Air pollution is an escalating global concern with significant implications for human health and athletic performance. This narrative review synthesizes and critically compares the current literature on the impact of air pollution on health and football performance, elucidates the physiological mechanisms involved, and [...] Read more.

Air pollution is an escalating global concern with significant implications for human health and athletic performance. This narrative review synthesizes and critically compares the current literature on the impact of air pollution on health and football performance, elucidates the physiological mechanisms involved, and evaluates available mitigation strategies. Comparative studies consistently demonstrate that football players—who frequently engage in high-intensity outdoor exercise—are particularly susceptible to the harmful effects of airborne pollutants such as particulate matter (PM), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), ozone (O₃), and carbon monoxide (CO). These pollutants bypass natural respiratory defenses due to increased pulmonary ventilation during exercise, reaching deeper lung regions and triggering oxidative stress, inflammation, and impaired lung function. Evidence across studies indicates that poor air quality is associated with decreased football performance, including reduced distance covered, fewer high-intensity efforts, elevated physiological strain, and diminished training adaptation. Long-term exposure exacerbates respiratory conditions, suppresses immune function, and heightens the risk of illness and injury. Furthermore, comparative genetic research highlights inter-individual variability in pollution sensitivity, with specific gene variants conferring either increased vulnerability or resilience to adverse effects. This review also explores practical and emerging mitigation strategies—such as timing training to avoid peak pollution, utilizing air quality monitoring and antioxidant-rich diets, and promoting sustainable infrastructure—to safeguard athlete health and optimize performance. Novel approaches including respiratory training, anti-smog masks, indoor sessions, and personalized recovery protocols offer additional protection and recovery support. Full article

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12 pages, 1271 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reticulocyte Count and Exercise Performance in Elite Athletes: A Retrospective Study

by Kohei Ashikaga, Marco Alfonso Perrone, Antonio Gianfelici, Davide Ortolina, Simone Crotta, Alessandro Spinelli, Sara Monosilio, Giuseppe Di Gioia, Viviana Maestrini, Maria Rosaria Squeo and Antonio Pelliccia

Sports 2025, 13(6), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060169 - 30 May 2025

Viewed by 624

Abstract

Athletes engaged in dynamic sports experience a shortened red blood cell (RBC) lifespan and accelerated turnover due to RBC destruction. This accelerated RBC turnover might have a positive impact on exercise performance by increasing the number of young red blood cells with a [...] Read more.

Athletes engaged in dynamic sports experience a shortened red blood cell (RBC) lifespan and accelerated turnover due to RBC destruction. This accelerated RBC turnover might have a positive impact on exercise performance by increasing the number of young red blood cells with a high oxygen-carrying capacity. However, accelerated turnover might also be a result of intravascular haemolysis caused by RBC destruction during exercise, impairing RBC function and oxygen transport. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the relationship between reticulocyte count as an indicator of short-term RBC profile changes and exercise capacity. We retrospectively evaluated elite Italian athletes engaged in endurance or mixed sports disciplines selected for the 2023 European Games or 2024 Olympic Games. Athletes underwent blood tests, echocardiography, and cardiopulmonary exercise tests. We assessed the relationship between reticulocytes and the peak value of VO₂ (peak VO₂) and anaerobic threshold (AT). In addition, the effects of age, sex, haemoglobin concentration, stroke volume, peak heart rate, and reticulocytes on peak VO₂ and AT were assessed using multiple linear regression. Of the 105 athletes, reticulocyte count (0.059 ± 0.024 × 10¹²/L) negatively correlated with peak VO₂ (45.5 ± 9.1 mL/min/kg) (p = 0.022) and AT (27.6 ± 7.9 mL/min/kg) (p = 0.040). Using multivariate linear regression analysis, reticulocytes were independent predictors of peak VO₂ and AT (95% confidence interval: −192.3 to −45.9; p = 0.001; 95% confidence interval: −143.4 to −13.8: p = 0.018, respectively). Our findings indicated a negative relationship between reticulocyte count and peak VO₂ or AT. The life span of reticulocytes was close to the period of transient decline in RBC function that occurred after high-intensity exercise; therefore, the changes in reticulocytes might be related to the decline in exercise performance owing to this decline in RBC function. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological Effects of Sports on the Cardiopulmonary System)

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30 pages, 3782 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Evaluating the Effects of Exercise on Inflammation Markers in Musculoskeletal Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Chi Ngai Lo, Nicole Elizabeth Jing Wen Wong, Shina Ho, Elicia Jia Hui Ang and Bernard Pui Lam Leung

Sports 2025, 13(6), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060168 - 29 May 2025

Viewed by 2141

Abstract

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to investigate the effectiveness of exercise interventions in regulating inflammatory biomarkers among individuals with musculoskeletal pain. A comprehensive search of MEDLINE, CINAHL, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar was conducted from inception to November 2024. [...] Read more.

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to investigate the effectiveness of exercise interventions in regulating inflammatory biomarkers among individuals with musculoskeletal pain. A comprehensive search of MEDLINE, CINAHL, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar was conducted from inception to November 2024. Only randomized controlled trials (RCTs) published in English that examined the effects of exercise on inflammatory markers—such as C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukins (ILs), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)—were included. Twenty-three RCTs involving 1128 participants met the inclusion criteria. Meta-analysis of four studies indicated that isokinetic exercise significantly reduced CRP (MD = −0.40, 95% CI: −0.44 to −0.36, p < 0.01, I² = 0%), IL-6 (MD = −1.59, 95% CI: −2.61 to −0.56, p < 0.01, I² = 97%), and TNF-α (MD = −4.24, 95% CI: −5.13 to −3.36, p < 0.01, I² = 90%) levels compared to general exercise. These findings suggest that exercise, particularly isokinetic exercise, may reduce systemic inflammation in patients with musculoskeletal pain and provide therapeutic effects beyond mechanical improvement. The review followed PRISMA guidelines and was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42024500081). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muscle Metabolism, Fatigue and Recovery During Exercise Training)

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14 pages, 2259 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physiological Correspondence Between Different Indexes of High-Intensity Endurance Exercise in Young Male Runners

by Danilo A. Massini, Renato A. C. Caritá, Tiago A. F. Almeida, Anderson G. Macedo, Víctor Hernández-Beltrán, José M. Gamonales, Mário C. Espada and Dalton M. Pessôa Filho

Sports 2025, 13(6), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060167 - 29 May 2025

Viewed by 361

Abstract

Critical speed (CS), the respiratory compensation point (RCP), and the midpoint between gas exchange threshold and maxial oxygen uptake (VO_2max) (i.e., 50%Δ) have been considered indexes able to demarcate the boundary between the heavy and severe exercise domains. However, the agreement [...] Read more.

Critical speed (CS), the respiratory compensation point (RCP), and the midpoint between gas exchange threshold and maxial oxygen uptake (VO_2max) (i.e., 50%Δ) have been considered indexes able to demarcate the boundary between the heavy and severe exercise domains. However, the agreement between these indexes—and therefore the validity of using them reciprocally—remains to be reported in running. The current study analyzed the agreement between RCP, 50%Δ, and CS. Twelve young runners performed an incremental test to assess VO_2max, RCP, and 50%Δ, with CS estimated by the linear model of time-limited trials at 90, 95, and 110% of the speed corresponding to VO₂max. One-way ANOVA showed no differences when comparing VO₂ and running speed at CS vs. 50%Δ vs. RCP (47.5 ± 4.4 vs. 46.6 ± 4.4 vs. 47.8 ± 4.5 mLO₂∙kg⁻¹∙min⁻¹; and 13.9 ± 1.3 vs. 13.7 ± 1.3 vs. 14.0 ± 1.4 km∙h⁻¹; p > 0.05 for all comparisons). The bias for 50%Δ vs. CS was −0.82 ± 1.55 mLO₂∙kg⁻¹∙min⁻¹ and −0.23 ± 0.55 km∙h⁻¹, and for RCP vs. CS, it was 0.36 ± 1.21 mLO₂∙kg⁻¹∙min⁻¹ and 0.05 ± 0.46 km∙h⁻¹. Therefore, the agreement between RCP, 50%Δ, and CS in estimating VO₂ responses and running speed did not preclude their reciprocal similarity in exercise intensity, although the observed individual variability in physiological variables is a constraint on considering these indexes interchangeable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth)

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19 pages, 246 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experiences of Female Rugby Union Players and Practitioners in Rehabilitation Following a Shoulder Injury

by Caroline Sarah White, Paul Garner, Ian Horsley and Andrew Soundy

Sports 2025, 13(6), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060166 - 28 May 2025

Viewed by 359

Abstract

Background: Little is known about the perspectives of elite female rugby union players and practitioners towards rehabilitation and return to play (RTP) following shoulder injuries and how to manage these complex injuries. Methods: An interpretive hermeneutic phenomenology study was undertaken within a subtle [...] Read more.

Background: Little is known about the perspectives of elite female rugby union players and practitioners towards rehabilitation and return to play (RTP) following shoulder injuries and how to manage these complex injuries. Methods: An interpretive hermeneutic phenomenology study was undertaken within a subtle realist paradigmatic view. Twenty semi-structured interviews were conducted with elite female rugby union players and practitioners working in elite female rugby union. Data were analysed using reflective thematic analysis. Results: Four themes emerged from the data: (1) growth of the women’s game, which involved several influences on the support and resources players received; (2) different viewpoints between players and practitioners concerning injury reporting and objective testing; (3) threats to identity, a player-only generated theme centred around the risk to their career following a significant injury and the isolation they faced; and (4) RTP, exploring strategies and influences to players’ and practitioners’ confidence in the RTP process following a shoulder injury. Conclusions: Practitioners should consider the non-physical factors during the rehabilitation process and the theory of care concept in supporting and collaborating with female rugby union players following a shoulder injury. Full article

13 pages, 393 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship Between Socioeconomic Status and Organized Sports Among Primary School Children: A Gender-Based Analysis of Sports Participation

by Chiaki Tanaka, Eun-Young Lee and Shigeho Tanaka

Sports 2025, 13(6), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060165 - 28 May 2025

Viewed by 425

Abstract

Sports participation according to socioeconomic status (SES) was related to children in high-income Western countries. This study aimed to examine whether family or neighborhood-level SES is associated with current and continued organized sports participation, including the types of sports, among Japanese primary school [...] Read more.

Sports participation according to socioeconomic status (SES) was related to children in high-income Western countries. This study aimed to examine whether family or neighborhood-level SES is associated with current and continued organized sports participation, including the types of sports, among Japanese primary school children from preschool onward. The participants consisted of 269 girls, 255 boys, and their parents. Data on the type of sports participation at the current school or preschool, parental employment, and education were collected by questionnaire. Neighborhood-level SES was evaluated by the average annual income within 4 km of each school. The odds of sports participation was higher among children with mothers identifying as housewives or those with mothers employed part-time. Among girls, the odds of continued sports participation were lower if their mothers were junior high school or high school graduates or junior college/vocational school graduates. The odds of sports type like swimming were higher for children whose mothers had part-time jobs. Lower average community income was associated with lower participation in football and higher participation in baseball. These findings suggest that mothers’ employment and academic background are important correlates of sports participation for children, with variations observed by sport type and gender. Full article

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22 pages, 1014 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying Long-Term Adaptations in Performance Variables in Adolescent Athletes: A 1.5 Year Longitudinal Training Study Utilising a Standardised, Progressive, Blocked Linear Periodisation Resistance Training Program

by Michael A. Carron and Vincent J. Dalbo

Sports 2025, 13(6), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060164 - 27 May 2025

Viewed by 511

Abstract

We examined the effects of resistance training over 1.5 years (two seasons). Body mass, strength, power, and aerobic capacity were assessed during the first 1.5 years of a standardised, progressive, blocked linear periodisation training program in adolescent males with no prior history of [...] Read more.

We examined the effects of resistance training over 1.5 years (two seasons). Body mass, strength, power, and aerobic capacity were assessed during the first 1.5 years of a standardised, progressive, blocked linear periodisation training program in adolescent males with no prior history of resistance training (N = 11, 16.4 ± 0.5 years). Testing occurred during the start of pre-season (SPS), end of pre-season (EPS), and end of season (EOS) during the first and second year of resistance training. Changes over time were assessed with within-group ANOVAs and follow-up independent t-tests. Differences in relative change that occurred during the first and second year of training for each variable were assessed with dependent t-tests. Body mass changed over time (p < 0.001, n²p = 0.794). Body mass increased from SPS to EPS (p = 0.008, Large) and EPS to EOS (p = 0.019, Large) in year 1, and from EOS in year 1 to SPS in year 2 (p < 0.001, Large). Bench press (p < 0.001, n²p = 0.806), squat (p < 0.001, n²p = 0.670), and medicine ball throw (p < 0.001, n²p = 0.350) changed over time. Bench press (Year 1: p < 0.001, Large; Year 2: p < 0.001, Large), squat (Year 1: p < 0.001, Large; Year 2: p < 0.001, Large), and medicine ball throw (Year 1: p = 0.007, Large; Year 2: p = 0.026, Large) increased from SPS to EPS in year 1 and year 2. Bench press (p = 0.010, Large) and squat (p = 0.004, Large) increased more from SPS to EPS during year 1 than year 2. By quantifying diminished returns, our study offers practitioners novel information, helping practitioners manage expectations, avoid excessive training and support long-term adolescent development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies to Improve Modifiable Factors of Athletic Success)

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Sports, Volume 13, Issue 6 (June 2025) – 38 articles

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