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A special issue of Sports (ISSN 2075-4663).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 July 2026 | Viewed by 27640

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Dr. Giancarlo Condello

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Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy
Interests: exercise science; strength and conditioning planning; resistance training; exercise testing; physical fitness; exercise physiology; physical activity assessment; performance testing; personal training
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Dr. Valentina Presta

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Guest Editor

Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy
Interests: exercise; adapted physical activity; disability; posture

Dr. Santos Villafaina

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Physical Activity and Quality of Life Research Group (AFYCAV), Faculty of Sport Sciences, The University of Extremadura, 10003 Cáceres, Spain
Interests: heart rate variability; EEG; exercise; chronic pain; psychophysiology; exergames
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Participation in sport is the central construct for the achievement of any individual’s health. In fact, sport enters any life stage, ranging from youth development, for the support of physical and cognitive growth, to healthy aging, for the reduction in the decline in body functioning. Sport has a vast spectrum of competitive level and purposes, but it represents a source of opportunities for any individual to reach new achievements in life. Therefore, it is essential to investigate all the possible factors that influence the performance of a variety of sport disciplines. Similarly, it is still necessary to explain several mechanisms that explain human responses to sport performance. Moreover, the new challenges that society is currently facing at global level and the new opportunities offered by numerous technologies and artificial intelligence enlarge the field of research and the creation of implications for athletes and general population. Several research questions still remain unanswered and new concepts must be defined.

Therefore, articles in the form of reviews with meta-analysis and original research centered on prospective longitudinal studies and randomized controlled trials are invited for this Special Issue, especially those combining a high academic standard coupled with practical implications for practitioners and policy-makers.

Dr. Giancarlo Condello
Dr. Valentina Presta
Dr. Santos Villafaina
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sports is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

youth athletes
elite athletes
master athletes
physical and cognitive functioning
training intervention programs
big data analysis
sport technology
sport physiology
molecular signaling

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review, Other

10 pages, 558 KB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence and Predictors of Musculoskeletal Pain in Recreational Resistance Trainers: Associations with Age, Gender, and Training History

by Dimitar Shabanliyski, Denise Soares, Karim Abbady and Suat Kasap

Sports 2026, 14(3), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030087 - 26 Feb 2026

Viewed by 297

Abstract

Recreational weightlifting has become increasingly popular in Kuwait, yet limited data exist regarding musculoskeletal pain (MSP) associated with it. This study aimed to assess the prevalence and anatomical distribution of MSP among recreational resistance trainers (RRTs) in Kuwait and to examine pain patterns according to gender, age, and training history. A total of 642 RRTs (304 males and 341 females) who practiced resistance training for at least 6 months 2 times a week were surveyed using the Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire (NMQ) through face-to-face interviews. MSP prevalence over the previous 12 months was analyzed by anatomical region, and binary logistic regression was applied to investigate predictors of low back pain (LBP). The results indicated a high prevalence of MSP, particularly in the lower back and shoulders, with increased reports among older participants and those with longer training histories. Logistic regression analysis revealed that age and years of practice were significant predictors of LBP, while female gender was associated with higher odds of reporting symptoms. These findings highlight the substantial burden of MSP among RRTs in Kuwait and underscore the importance of targeted preventive strategies, including training supervision, technique optimization, and age-specific interventions, to reduce injury risk and promote long-term musculoskeletal health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fostering Sport for a Healthy Life)

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14 pages, 273 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Targeted Yoga Practice on PMS Symptoms, Body Composition, and Hip Mobility: An Eight-Week Pilot Study

by Vanda Agnes Nemes, Eszter Mikó-Baráth, Charlotte Briest, Dorottya Szabó, Tibor Mintál, Balázs Patczai and Katalin Gőcze

Sports 2026, 14(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010021 - 5 Jan 2026

Viewed by 567

Abstract

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) negatively affects women’s physical performance, emotional balance, and quality of life. Although pharmacological therapies exist, their side effects and limited effectiveness highlight the need for alternatives. This partially controlled, non-blinded, non-randomized prospective pilot study included 34 women aged 18–40 years and examined the effects of an eight-week structured yoga program. Participants met the same eligibility criteria and were comparable at baseline in age, sociodemographic characteristics, and PMS severity. The study group attended two weekly 90-min hatha yoga sessions and completed a 15-min daily home practice, while controls maintained their usual physical activity. Outcome measures included body composition, hip range of motion, spinal mobility (flexion and lateral flexion), and Premenstrual Symptoms Screening Tool (PSST) scores. After eight weeks, the yoga group showed significant reductions in body weight and fat mass and an increase in muscle mass. Hip external rotation improved significantly among yoga participants, while changes in spinal mobility did not reach statistical significance. The intervention group showed a significant reduction in PMS symptom severity, while the control group showed no significant change. The findings suggest that regular yoga practice can enhance physical functioning and alleviate PMS-related symptoms, supporting its role as a movement-based approach for improving women’s health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fostering Sport for a Healthy Life)

15 pages, 410 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Test–Retest Reliability of Five Low-Cost, Perturbation-Based Functional Tests for Balance Recovery in Older Adults

by Maria Melo-Alonso, Juan Luis Leon-Llamas, Santos Villafaina, Juan Pedro Fuentes-García, Francisco Javier Domínguez-Muñoz and Narcis Gusi

Sports 2025, 13(11), 375; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110375 - 3 Nov 2025

Viewed by 903

Abstract

Background: Falls are a leading cause of injury and disability among older adults. Conventional clinical tests typically do not challenge reactive postural responses to unexpected perturbations, which limits their ability to comprehensively assess fall risk. Objective: To examine the test–retest reliability of five pragmatic, low-cost, perturbation-based tests designed to identify compensatory stepping strategies in older adults, and to explore their concurrent validity against established clinical assessments. Methods: Fifty-seven older adults (44 community-dwelling and 13 institutionalized) completed five compensatory stepping tests (obstacle crossing, forward push, backward pull, and lateral pulls to the right and left) and conventional functional tests [Timed Up and Go (TUG), 30 s Chair Stand, and the Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB)] on two separate days, ten days apart. Cohen’s weighted kappa (Kw) quantified test–retest reliability, and Pearson’s correlation coefficients assessed relationships with conventional tests. Results: Obstacle (Kw = 0.443), forward push (Kw = 0.518), and backward pull (Kw = 0.438) demonstrated moderate agreement overall. Lateral pull tests showed poor reliability. Nevertheless, moderate correlations were observed between some perturbation tests (particularly obstacle and backward pull) and standard clinical measures, especially TUG and SPPB. Conclusions: Although reliability was limited—most notably for lateral perturbations—specific tests showed meaningful associations with validated functional assessments. Pending methodological refinements, these low-cost tools may offer useful insights for initial fall-risk screening. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fostering Sport for a Healthy Life)

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15 pages, 1917 KB

Open AccessArticle

Test–Retest Reliability of Ankle Mobility, Balance, and Jump Tests in Amateur Trail Running Athletes

by Alberto Dominguez-Muñoz, José Carmelo Adsuar, Santos Villafaina, Juan Luis Leon-Llamas and Francisco Javier Dominguez-Muñoz

Sports 2025, 13(10), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100352 - 4 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1725

Abstract

This study aimed to test the reliability of seven functional performance tests in amateur trail runners, including ankle mobility, balance, hopping, and countermovement jump (CMJ) tests. The sample consisted of 35 runners who were evaluated in two sessions separated by 7 to 14 days, which varied due to participants’ scheduling constraints. Relative reliability was assessed using the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC, which indicates consistency between repeated measures), the Standard Error of Measurement (SEM, which reflects measurement precision), and the Minimal Detectable Change (MDC, which represents the smallest real change beyond measurement error). The results show high reliability in almost all tests. The Lunge Test obtained an ICC of 0.990 and 0.983 for distance, and 0.941 and 0.958 for angular measurements in both legs. The Hop Tests showed moderate reliability with ICC above 0.7 In contrast, the Y Balance Test demonstrated lower reliability, with ICC values ranging from 0.554 to 0.732. The CMJ test showed good reliability, with an ICC ranging from 0.753 to 0.894, an SEM between 5.79% and 11.3%, and an MDC ranging from 15.54% to 31.44%, making it useful for assessing lower limb explosive strength. Both tests presented comparatively higher error values, which should be considered when interpreting individual changes. These findings support the use of these tests as valid and reliable tools for evaluating ankle dorsiflexion, balance, functional symmetry, and lower limb explosive strength in amateur trail runners, prior to training programs or injury prevention strategies, provided that standardized protocols and validated measuring instruments are used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fostering Sport for a Healthy Life)

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17 pages, 832 KB

Open AccessArticle

Supervised Machine Learning Algorithms for Fitness-Based Cardiometabolic Risk Classification in Adolescents

by Rodrigo Yáñez-Sepúlveda, Rodrigo Olivares, Pablo Olivares, Juan Pablo Zavala-Crichton, Claudio Hinojosa-Torres, Frano Giakoni-Ramírez, Josivaldo de Souza-Lima, Matías Monsalves-Álvarez, Marcelo Tuesta, Jacqueline Páez-Herrera, Jorge Olivares-Arancibia, Tomás Reyes-Amigo, Guillermo Cortés-Roco, Juan Hurtado-Almonacid, Eduardo Guzmán-Muñoz, Nicole Aguilera-Martínez, José Francisco López-Gil and Vicente Javier Clemente-Suárez

Sports 2025, 13(8), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13080273 - 18 Aug 2025

Viewed by 1337

Abstract

Background: Cardiometabolic risk in adolescents represents a growing public health concern that is closely linked to modifiable factors such as physical fitness. Traditional statistical approaches often fail to capture complex, nonlinear relationships among anthropometric and fitness-related variables. Objective: To develop and evaluate supervised machine learning algorithms, including artificial neural networks and ensemble methods, for classifying cardiometabolic risk levels among Chilean adolescents based on standardized physical fitness assessments. Methods: A cross-sectional analysis was conducted using a large representative sample of school-aged adolescents. Field-based physical fitness tests, such as cardiorespiratory fitness (in terms of estimated maximal oxygen consumption [VO_2max]), muscular strength (push-ups), and explosive power (horizontal jump) testing, were used as input variables. A cardiometabolic risk index was derived using international criteria. Various supervised machine learning models were trained and compared regarding accuracy, F1 score, recall, and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC-ROC). Results: Among all the models tested, the gradient boosting classifier achieved the best overall performance, with an accuracy of 77.0%, an F1 score of 67.3%, and the highest AUC-ROC (0.601). These results indicate a strong balance between sensitivity and specificity in classifying adolescents at cardiometabolic risk. Horizontal jumps and push-ups emerged as the most influential predictive variables. Conclusions: Gradient boosting proved to be the most effective model for predicting cardiometabolic risk based on physical fitness data. This approach offers a practical, data-driven tool for early risk detection in adolescent populations and may support scalable screening efforts in educational and clinical settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fostering Sport for a Healthy Life)

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16 pages, 1504 KB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Motor Skill Performance of 13-Year-Old Japanese Boys and Girls: A Cross-Sectional Study over Six Decades (1964–2023)

by Yukitomo Yogi

Sports 2025, 13(6), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060173 - 31 May 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2859

Abstract

This study examines six decades (1964–2023) of changes in motor skills and body dimensions among Japanese 13-year-old students, analyzing grip strength, handball throwing, 50 m dash, endurance running, and composite scores. National Physical Fitness and Motor Skills Survey data were analyzed alongside School Health Examination Survey measurements to identify trends and correlations between performance metrics and anthropometric variables. The results revealed distinct developmental patterns, with motor skills peaking in the 1980s for both genders, followed by decline until 2000, after which boys experienced stagnation while girls showed improvement until 2019. Both genders demonstrated marked decreases following 2020, coinciding with the COVID-19 pandemic. Notably, while height increased significantly over the study period, only boys’ 50 m dash performance showed strong positive correlations with height (r = 0.779) and BMI (r = 0.854). This longitudinal analysis demonstrates how interdisciplinary factors—including educational policy shifts, reduced physical education curriculum hours, changes in urban park design, diminished outdoor play opportunities, and increased sedentary behaviors—collectively impact children’s motor development. These findings hold significant implications for public health initiatives and sports education strategies aimed at reversing concerning trends in youth physical capabilities and addressing the substantial post-pandemic decline in motor performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fostering Sport for a Healthy Life)

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13 pages, 650 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Perceptual-Cognitive Skills in College Elite Athletes: An Analysis of Differences Across Competitive Levels

by Kuo-Cheng Wu, Hui-Chun Lin, Zi-Yi Cheng, Chih-Han Chang, Jo-Ning Chang, Hsia-Ling Tai and Su-I Liu

Sports 2025, 13(5), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050141 - 30 Apr 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4100

Abstract

Background: Athletes with expertise in sports show extensive procedural and factual information, enhancing their ability to focus attention, use cues, and anticipate events. This study examined the differentiation of perceptual-cognitive skills by focusing on attentional cues, processing speed, and working memory. Methods: The component skill approach was used to assess differences in sports expertise levels using non-sport-specific cognitive measures of perceptual-cognitive skills. The study involved a total of 127 college athletes with a mean age of 20.23 years (SD = 3.08) and an average of 10.99 years of training. Among these participants, there were 43 female athletes with a mean age of 20.23 years (SD = 3.32) and 84 male athletes with a mean age of 20.22 years (SD = 2.98). We analyzed the cohort of students who did not engage in regular sports training, identifying them as the control group for our study. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was employed to analyze the measures of the SPT and CBT perceptual-cognitive tasks, treating them as separate dependent variables. The categorization of elite levels and participants is outlined below: there are 41 semi-elite athletes, 70 competitive elite athletes, 12 successful elite athletes, and 4 world-class elite athletes. Results: There were no differences in semi-elite and competitive elite athletes’ perceptual-cognitive skills regarding visual-spatial reaction time (Wilks’ λ = 0.956, p > 0.05), but there was a significant difference in the working memory span (Wilks’ λ = 0.804, p < 0.05). Conclusions: The study reports that elite college athletes have higher working memory, which is crucial for sport performance, compared to semi-elite athletes. However, no between-group differences were observed in reaction time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fostering Sport for a Healthy Life)

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12 pages, 660 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Associations Between Screen Time, Physical Activity, and Sleep Patterns in Children Aged 3–7 Years—A Multicentric Cohort Study in Urban Environment

by Paula Torres, Ana Pablos, Laura Elvira, Diego Ceca, Michael Chia and Florentino Huertas

Sports 2025, 13(4), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040091 - 21 Mar 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 8142

Abstract

In most developed countries, children’s use of digital media has increased significantly. Concerns about how screen time (ST) affects physical activity (PA), sleep patterns (SL), and overall health habits have prompted further exploration of these associations. This study examined ST, PA, and SL patterns in children aged 3–7 years living in an urban environment. A multicenter prospective cohort study was conducted using the Surveillance of Digital Media Habits in Early Childhood Questionnaire (SMALLQ^®). Parents of 243 children completed the questionnaire, providing data on their children’s ST, SL, and PA habits during weekdays and weekends. A series of ANOVA tests were performed to assess differences in weekday and weekend ST, PA, and SL across age groups and sexes, as well as to compare these results with UN recommendations. The findings revealed a non-significant trend in ST and a significant effect of age group on PA during both weekdays and weekends, as well as on weekend SL. No significant differences based on sex were observed. Additionally, the comparison indicated that 3–5-year-old preschool children exceeded the recommended ST during weekends, while 6–7-year-old first-grade elementary children failed to meet the PA recommendations. These results highlight the critical role of age-related changes in shaping PA and SL behaviors in young children, emphasizing the importance of targeted interventions to foster healthy habits in early childhood. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fostering Sport for a Healthy Life)

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26 pages, 2486 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Sports in Natural Forests: A Systematic Review of Environmental Impact and Compatibility for Readability

by Iulian Bratu, Lucian Dinca, Ionut Schiteanu, George Mocanu, Gabriel Murariu, Mirela Stanciu and Miglena Zhiyanski

Sports 2025, 13(8), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13080250 - 29 Jul 2025

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2252

Abstract

The intersection of sports and natural forests and green spaces represents an emerging interdisciplinary field with implications for public health, environmental science, and sustainable land management and refers to the variety of cultural ecosystem services demanded by people from ecosystems. This manuscript presents a systematic bibliometric and thematic analysis of 148 publications for the period 1993–2024 identified through Web of Science and Scopus, aiming to evaluate the current state of research on sports activities conducted in natural forest environments. Findings indicated a marked increase in scientific interest of this topic over the past two decades, with key contributions from countries such as England, Germany, China, and the United States. Researchers most frequently examined sports such as hiking, trail running, mountain biking, and orienteering for their capacity to provide physiological and psychological benefits, reduce stress, and enhance mental well-being. The literature analysis highlights ecological concerns, particularly those associated with habitat disturbance, biodiversity loss, and conflicts between recreation and conservation. Six principal research themes were identified: sports in urban forests, sports tourism, hunting and fishing, recreational sports, health benefits, and environmental impacts. Keyword and co-authorship analyses revealed a multidisciplinary knowledge base with evolving thematic focuses. In conclusion, the need for integrated approaches that incorporate ecological impact assessment, stakeholder perspectives, and adaptive forest governance to ensure sustainable recreational use of natural forest ecosystems is underlined. Full article

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19 pages, 1209 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome (PACS) and Exercise Interventions: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials

by Valentina Presta, Alessandro Guarnieri, Fabiana Laurenti, Salvatore Mazzei, Orsola di Martino, Marco Vitale and Giancarlo Condello

Sports 2025, 13(9), 329; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090329 - 15 Sep 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1896

Abstract

The aim of this systematic review (PROSPERO registration number CRD42024517069) was to investigate the effectiveness of exercise interventions in Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome (PACS). We searched on several databases and followed the PRISMA guidelines (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses). We included randomized controlled trials that evaluate exercise interventions in adults (40–60 years old) diagnosed with PACS. The outcomes of interest were health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and functional fitness. Twenty studies were included after screening. Thirteen and fourteen studies were rated as “low” risk for HRQoL and functional fitness outcomes, respectively. Based on the evidence, an 8-week exercise protocol of aerobic training in combination with strength-based and breathing exercises was found to be safe and feasible while improving quality of life and functional fitness in people with PACS. Telerehabilitation can also be an option to avoid contagion and physical contact with the same beneficial effects. Future research should expand the knowledge about other types of exercise (i.e., water-based exercises) with high-quality trials and consider whether findings could be potentially transferable to recovery from a wider spectrum of viral infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fostering Sport for a Healthy Life)

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11 pages, 927 KB

Open AccessCase Report

Physiological Changes Across a Sport Season in a Nine-Time World-Champion Triathlete: A Case Report

by Adrian Gonzalez-Custodio, Carmen Crespo, Rafael Timon and Guillermo Olcina

Sports 2025, 13(5), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050140 - 30 Apr 2025

Viewed by 2003

Abstract

This case report analyses the physiological changes of a nine-time world champion triathlete over a competitive season. The triathlete, aged 34, resumed training after a 3-month injury-related break. The study monitored key physiological variables at three points: pre-season (PRE), base period (BASE), and peak performance (PEAK). The athlete trained an average of 25,000 m swimming, 400 km cycling, and 90 km running weekly. Incremental cycling tests were performed at each stage, measuring power output, oxygen uptake (VO₂), ventilatory thresholds (VT1, VT2), muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂), heart rate, and lactate levels. Results showed significant improvements in relative power output (+37.2% at VT1), VO₂ max (+12.6%), and body composition (body fat reduced from 10.43% to 7.33%). Heart rate and lactate concentration remained stable, while SmO₂ showed a greater difference between VT2 and peak performance. The triathlete achieved top-10 finishes in all key events, including a win at the Ironman 70.3 World Championship. The findings suggest that elite triathletes can regain peak performance after injury through structured training, with improvements in ventilatory efficiency and body composition contributing to better competition results. This study provides valuable insights for coaches on the recovery and performance optimization of elite triathletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fostering Sport for a Healthy Life)

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