Sports

Research

Jump to: Review

13 pages, 461 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Individualization in External Load Control on Anaerobic Performance in a Women’s Soccer Team

by Alexandre Galvão da Silva, Caroline Cavalcanti de Freitas, Alef Serrat Pinheiro, Débora Dias Ferraretto Moura Rocco, Caroline Simões Teixeira, Luis Alberto Rosan and Rodrigo Kallás Zogaib

Sports 2026, 14(4), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14040138 - 1 Apr 2026

Viewed by 327

Abstract

Soccer is an intermittent sport that requires complex and well-adjusted physiological responses from athletes. The training load allows athletes to optimize physical adaptations and reduces the risk of musculoskeletal injuries. In women’s soccer, the implementation of load control and individualization strategies has shown [...] Read more.

Soccer is an intermittent sport that requires complex and well-adjusted physiological responses from athletes. The training load allows athletes to optimize physical adaptations and reduces the risk of musculoskeletal injuries. In women’s soccer, the implementation of load control and individualization strategies has shown promise for enhancing anaerobic performance and injury prevention. This study aimed to compare the performance levels of professional women’s soccer players before and after the implementation of relative external load (RELC) for training prescription. Twenty-seven female professional soccer athletes (mean age 29.4 ± 6.2 years) were evaluated. Metrics such as total distance, sprint distance, number of sprints, accelerations, and decelerations were collected using the GPS-based device Catapult One (Catapult). Athletes were assessed in two games, with 6 months’ difference between matches: Game 1, without RELC implementation, and Game 2, with RELC. Significant differences were found between both periods. Sprint distance increased from 391 m to 450 m (+15%, d = 0.49, p ≤ 0.05), and sprint count increased from 14 to 17 (+21%, d = 0.35, p ≤ 0.05), showing improved performance related to increased physical output in the second half of the season. These findings suggest potential performance improvements associated with individualized load control over the course of the season. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 478 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acceleration and Deceleration Profiles: Comparison Between the 5-0-5 Test and Seasonal Peak Player Performance

by Ricardo Pimenta, Hugo Antunes and Fábio Yuzo Nakamura

Sports 2026, 14(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010009 - 3 Jan 2026

Viewed by 1134

Abstract

Change-of-direction (COD) capacity is a key performance metric in football due to the high volume of COD actions occurring during match play. This study aimed to (i) evaluate the repeatability of the 5-0-5 test and (ii) examine the relationship between acceleration and deceleration [...] Read more.

Change-of-direction (COD) capacity is a key performance metric in football due to the high volume of COD actions occurring during match play. This study aimed to (i) evaluate the repeatability of the 5-0-5 test and (ii) examine the relationship between acceleration and deceleration profiles of the 5-0-5 test and in-season peak performance. Nineteen national-level Portuguese football players competing in the under-23 Portuguese National Championship were analysed. Repeatability analysis was conducted using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). Paired-samples t-tests and Pearson correlations (r) were employed to assess within-subject differences and associations between 5-0-5 measures (highest accelerations from a standing start [ACC_S], deceleration prior to the change in direction (DEC_COD), acceleration after decelerating and changing direction [ACC_COD]) and seasonal peak performances (ACC_max). The in-season peak values were determined from the average of the three maximal values that occurred either in training sessions or in matches. Normalized (relative to seasonal performance) parameters showed good repeatability (ICC = 0.76–0.85). The best ACC_COD and DEC_COD were not significantly different from ACC_max [ACC_COD] vs. ACC_max: (5.04 ± 0.39 m/s² vs. 5.36 ± 0.54 m/s²; p > 0.05) and DEC_max [DEC_COD] vs. DEC_max: (−6.47 ± 0.26 m/s² vs. −6.35 ± 0.61 m/s²; p > 0.05), respectively. The average and best 5-0-5 ACC_S performances showed significant, moderate correlations (r = 0.48; p = 0.040 and r = 0.50; p = 0.028, respectively) with the players’ peak in-season acceleration performance. Therefore, the best ACC_S and ACC_COD attempts can reflect values above 90% of ACC_max, while DEC_COD reflects values above 100% of DEC_max and may assist in monitoring and tailoring training for this capacity on an individual basis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 239 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Relationship Between Neurocognitive Function and Concussion in Women Professional Football Players: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Freja Fredrika Lähteenmäki, Steve den Hollander, Dina Christa Janse van Rensburg, Tuomas Brinck, Gino Kerkhoffs and Vincent Gouttebarge

Sports 2025, 13(12), 448; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13120448 - 11 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 664

Abstract

Objective: To determine the neurocognitive functions of women professional football players and explore their potential connection to concussions. Methods: An observational cross-sectional study was conducted via electronic questionnaires. Neurocognitive function was assessed with the “CNS Vital Signs” testing tool. Results: In total, 68 [...] Read more.

Objective: To determine the neurocognitive functions of women professional football players and explore their potential connection to concussions. Methods: An observational cross-sectional study was conducted via electronic questionnaires. Neurocognitive function was assessed with the “CNS Vital Signs” testing tool. Results: In total, 68 participants performed the neurocognitive function testing. Compared with the reference population, players scored within the average range (≥90) for 11 of 12 neurocognitive domains. Motor speed was above average (SS = 111.7). Overall, no significant neurocognitive deficits were observed. Thirty-two participants (43%) reported one or more concussions, with defenders being most affected (50%). Among defenders, 64% (n = 16) have a history of one or multiple concussions. Players with a history of three concussions showed significant deficits in the simple attention domain. Conclusion: Professional women footballers did not show significant signs of neurocognitive function deficits. However, a history of three concussions was significantly associated with lower standard scores for the simple attention neurocognitive domain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

14 pages, 782 KB

Open AccessArticle

Measured vs. Estimated

\dot{V}

O_2max in the Yo-Yo Endurance Test: An Exploratory Study in Professional Soccer Players

by Antonio Buglione, Dario Pompa, Marco Beato, Marco Bruno Luigi Rocchi, Cristian Savoia, Maurizio Bertollo, Davide Curzi, Davide Sisti and Fabrizio Perroni

Sports 2025, 13(12), 424; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13120424 - 2 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1402

Abstract

Accurate assessment of aerobic fitness is crucial in soccer; however, the validity of field-based predictive tests remains uncertain in professional players. This study examined the relationship between directly measured and estimated maximal oxygen uptake (

\dot{V}

O_2max) during the Yo-Yo [...] Read more.

Accurate assessment of aerobic fitness is crucial in soccer; however, the validity of field-based predictive tests remains uncertain in professional players. This study examined the relationship between directly measured and estimated maximal oxygen uptake (

\dot{V}

O_2max) during the Yo-Yo Endurance Test Level 1 (YYET₁) in professional soccer players and evaluated seasonal changes after six months of training and competition. Seventeen players from an Italian third-division team performed the YYET₁ in pre- and mid-season conditions, while VO_2max was continuously recorded using a portable metabolic system. VO_2max was estimated using Bangsbo’s distance-based formula. Linear regression and Bland–Altman analyses were used to assess relationships and agreement between methods. Measured VO_2max increased significantly from pre- to mid- season (+13.9%, p < 0.001), whereas estimated values showed a smaller rise (+5.2%, p < 0.001). The predictive method systematically underestimated VO_2max (bias −2.3 to −7.0 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹), and regression analyses revealed only moderate shared variance (R² = 0.18–0.20) between estimated and measured values. These findings demonstrate that Bangsbo’s equation lacks validity for estimating VO_2max in professional players and cannot accurately track aerobic adaptations across a season. For precise physiological evaluation, direct measurement using portable metabolic systems is required, while submaximal soccer-specific protocols may offer practical alternatives for longitudinal monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 2397 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Motor–Cognitive Warm-Up Protocols on Sport-Specific Skills in 8-Year-Old Football Players

by Sayyedarmin Ganji, Hamidreza Sepehri Rahnama, Sára Németh, Dominika Jantal, Kitty Vadasz and Judit Prokai

Sports 2025, 13(12), 416; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13120416 - 25 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1384

Abstract

Football is a multifaceted sport in which cognitive function plays a crucial role alongside physical performance in overall athletic success. However, widely adopted warm-up protocols primarily target motor skills, with minimal attention to cognitive readiness. This study aimed to investigate the short-term effects [...] Read more.

Football is a multifaceted sport in which cognitive function plays a crucial role alongside physical performance in overall athletic success. However, widely adopted warm-up protocols primarily target motor skills, with minimal attention to cognitive readiness. This study aimed to investigate the short-term effects of motor–cognitive warm-up protocols incorporating auditory and visual stimuli on various cognitive and motor skills in youth male football players. Twenty-four male players (age = 8.56 ± 0.33 years) were randomly assigned to three groups (n = 8): motor–verbal (MVEG), motor–visual (MVIG), and motor-only. Each player completed one warm-up session followed by four performance tests. All groups completed the same football-specific warm-up exercises, differing only in instruction modality: pre-given for MG, verbal (auditory) for MVEG, and visual for MVIG. Immediately after the warm-up, participants completed the Stroop Color-Word Test (SCWT), Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT), Illinois Ball Test (IBT), and t-test. Significant group differences were found in SCWT error rate (p = 0.009), LSPT time (p = 0.001), IBT time (p = 0.036), and t-test time (p = 0.003). Across these tests, seven outcome measures were recorded: SCWT completion time and error rate, LSPT total time (finishing time plus penalties), IBT completion time and error rate, and t-test completion time. No differences were observed in SCWT completion time or IBT error rate. MVEG outperformed the other groups in most tests, except the LSPT, where MVIG achieved the best performance. MG showed the lowest overall performance, except in the t-test. Warm-up protocols incorporating cognitive stimuli can immediately improve motor and executive performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 668 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Combined Repeated Sprint and Large-Sided Game Training on Physical Performance in Elite U20 Soccer Players: A Randomised Controlled Trial

by Mehdi Ben Brahim, Bekir Erhan Orhan, Hussain Yasin and Shaher A. I. Shalfawi

Sports 2025, 13(11), 394; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110394 - 5 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1909

Abstract

Background: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the impact of a combined Repeated Sprint Training (RST) with Large-Sided Soccer Games (LSSG) on soccer players’ physical performance indicators. Methods: A randomised controlled trial protocol was designed and implemented to examine the [...] Read more.

Background: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the impact of a combined Repeated Sprint Training (RST) with Large-Sided Soccer Games (LSSG) on soccer players’ physical performance indicators. Methods: A randomised controlled trial protocol was designed and implemented to examine the effects of an 8-week training programme on the physical performance of U20 national team soccer players. Participants were randomly assigned after matching them based on their pre-test results from a 30 m sprint to one of two groups: an experimental group (EG; n = 16) and a control group (CG; n = 10). The EG took part in two extra training sessions per week, which included RST and LSSG, whereas the CG stuck to their usual training routine. Sprint, Repeated sprint ability (RSA), vertical jump, the New Multi-Change of Direction Agility Test (NMAT), and the 15 m ball dribbling agility test performances were assessed. Results: The main findings from this study indicate that the EG showed statistically significant improvements in short sprint performance (5 m), vertical jump height (SJ and CMJ), agility (NMAT), RSA, and fatigue tolerance, with moderate to large effect sizes. The CG showed no statistically significant changes, though some small to moderate effect sizes were observed. Conclusions: The findings suggest that this hybrid method has the potential to produce improvements in specific performance domains, particularly agility and fatigue tolerance, beyond what may be expected from regular soccer training alone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 1762 KB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship Between Internal and External Load in Under-16 Soccer Players: Heart Rate, Rating of Perceived Exertion, and GPS-Derived Variables

by Krisztián Havanecz, Sándor Sáfár, Csaba Bartha, Bence Kopper, Tamás Horváth, Péter János Tóth, Gabriella P. Szabó, Zoltán Szalánczi and Gábor Géczi

Sports 2025, 13(11), 376; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110376 - 3 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2030

Abstract

Heart rate (HR) monitoring is a practical method for assessing internal load (IL). However, it remains unclear for which age group HR would be an appropriate predictor of IL considering the relationship with external load (EL). Thus, this study aims to evaluate the [...] Read more.

Heart rate (HR) monitoring is a practical method for assessing internal load (IL). However, it remains unclear for which age group HR would be an appropriate predictor of IL considering the relationship with external load (EL). Thus, this study aims to evaluate the relevance and applicability of HR monitoring by exploring the relationship between EL and IL among U16 soccer players. EL was measured using global positioning system (GPS) data, while IL was assessed through training impulse (TRIMP), Edward’s TRIMP, HR exertion, rate of perceived exertion (RPE), and session-RPE (s-RPE). Nineteen (N = 19) male footballers from an elite football academy participated, with data collected from 50 training sessions and 11 matches. In the analysis of the training sessions, TRIMP demonstrated a near-perfect correlation with total distance (TD) (p < 0.001), and eTRIMP correlated strongly with TD (r = 0.82) and player load (r = 0.79). HR exertion also correlated significantly with TD, medium-speed running, decelerations, inertial movement analysis (IMA) events, and player load (p < 0.001). In matches, a large correlation was observed between TRIMP and TD (r = 0.73), while the strongest correlation was between RPE and s-RPE with TD and PL (p < 0.001). Furthermore, TD emerged as the best GPS-derived predictor of both TRIMP and HR exertion in training contexts. These findings provide evidence for the validity and usability of heart rate-based and RPE-based measures to indicate IL in U16 soccer players. Future research should focus on contextual factors in exploring the relationship between EL and IL. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

19 pages, 6437 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Passing, Possession, and Goal-Scoring Trends in Euro 2024 and Copa America 2024

by Sattar Taheri-Araghi, Moji Ghadimi and Juan Del Coso

Sports 2025, 13(10), 357; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100357 - 9 Oct 2025

Viewed by 3552

Abstract

Football, as a team sport, relies on a delicate balance where tactical cohesion and strategic play are as critical as physical prowess. While evidence suggests that European teams often display higher physical intensity, the tactical differences between European and American football are still [...] Read more.

Football, as a team sport, relies on a delicate balance where tactical cohesion and strategic play are as critical as physical prowess. While evidence suggests that European teams often display higher physical intensity, the tactical differences between European and American football are still not well quantified. The aim of this study is to conduct a comparative analysis of passing, possession, and goal-scoring dynamics in Euro 2024 and Copa America 2024. Data from 51 Euro matches and 32 Copa America matches, encompassing all game events with sub-second precision, were obtained from StatsBomb. Analyses were performed in MATLAB, with possession calculated as ‘pure possession,’ excluding inactive periods. Euro 2024 teams demonstrated significantly more total passes per match (

p < 0.05

, Cohen’s

d = 1.43

), higher pass completion rates (

p < 0.05

, Cohen’s

d = 1.30

), and longer possession sequences (

p < 0.05

, Cohen’s

d = 0.24

). They also showed greater possession in the five minutes prior to goals (

p < 0.05

, Cohen’s

d = 0.63

). In contrast, Copa America 2024 teams favored longer passes (

p < 0.05

, Cohen’s

d = 0.15

), reflecting a more direct playing style. Possession disparities between teams in individual matches did not differ significantly (

p = 0.31

, Cohen’s

d = 0.23

), and the distribution of shot distances for goals was also similar across tournaments (

p = 0.86

, Cohen’s

d = 0.02

). In summary, Euro 2024 teams emphasized control through longer possession and greater passing accuracy, while Copa America 2024 teams relied on more dynamic and direct play. These findings underscore how regional footballing philosophies shape match strategies and outcomes, offering insights into the tactical diversity of international football. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 462 KB

Open AccessArticle

Attentional Focus and Practice Autonomy Enhance Penalty Kick Accuracy in Soccer

by Tomasz Niźnikowski, Jerzy Sadowski, Andrzej Mastalerz, Jared Porter, Hubert Makaruk, Emilio Fernández-Rodríguez, Marcin Starzak, Oscar Romero-Ramos, Janusz Zieliński, Anna Bodasińska, Agata Chaliburda and Paweł Różański

Sports 2025, 13(10), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100332 - 1 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1473

Abstract

This study investigated the immediate and cumulative effects of attentional focus (external vs. internal), practice autonomy, and their combination on soccer penalty kick performance. Methods: Ninety physically active male university students (average age 22.8 ± 1.5 years) were selected from a pool of [...] Read more.

This study investigated the immediate and cumulative effects of attentional focus (external vs. internal), practice autonomy, and their combination on soccer penalty kick performance. Methods: Ninety physically active male university students (average age 22.8 ± 1.5 years) were selected from a pool of 330 students who completed a 60 h university soccer course. Participants were randomly divided into six groups: external focus with target choice (EF-TC), external focus without target choice (EF-NTC), internal focus with target choice (IF-TC), internal focus without target choice (IF-NTC), autonomy support (AS), and a control group (C). Results: The EF-TC group demonstrated significantly higher accuracy than the IF-TC, IF-NTC, and C groups while performing comparably to the EF-NTC and AS groups in between-group analyses. Notably, the EF-NTC group showed the largest within-group improvement from pre-test to acquisition. Conclusions: The findings indicate that combining attentional focus with practice autonomy enhances the accuracy of penalty kicks, emphasizing the potential of tailored training methods for improving penalty kick performance in soccer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 458 KB

Open AccessArticle

Match vs. Training Physical Requirements and Their Association with Field-Based Physical Tests in International CP Football

by Juan Francisco Maggiolo, Alejandro Caña-Pino, Manuel Moya-Ramón and Iván Peña-González

Sports 2025, 13(9), 312; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090312 - 8 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2163

Abstract

Objetives: This study aimed to (1) describe and compare the external physical requirements of international cerebral palsy (CP) football players during training sessions and official matches at the 2024 IFCPF World Cup, and (2) analyze the relationships between standardized field-based physical performance tests [...] Read more.

Objetives: This study aimed to (1) describe and compare the external physical requirements of international cerebral palsy (CP) football players during training sessions and official matches at the 2024 IFCPF World Cup, and (2) analyze the relationships between standardized field-based physical performance tests and the physical requirements recorded in both contexts. Methods: Twelve international outfield players from the Spanish national CP football team were monitored throughout the tournament. Physical performance was evaluated two weeks prior using 5-m and 30-m sprints, a Modified Agility Test (MAT), a dribbling test, and the 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test (vIFT). Match and training physical requirements were assessed using inertial devices, including total and relative distances, velocity metrics, and acceleration/deceleration outputs. Results: Matches imposed significantly greater demands than training sessions in terms of peak velocity, total distance per minute, and distance at moderate (>12–18 km/h) and high (>18 km/h) intensities (t = 2.79 to 8.06; p = 0.01; ES(d) = 0.50 to 1.45). Training sessions exhibited greater variability in load while match requirements were consistent across games. Performance in the MAT and dribbling tests correlated with several physical indicators in both training and competition. In contrast, vIFT and sprint tests showed limited associations, especially with match variables. Conclusions: Match play elicits higher and more stable physical requirements than training. The MAT and dribbling tests appear to be ecologically valid tools for assessing functional readiness in CP football. These findings support the integration of specific physical tests and tailored training designs to better replicate the competitive requirements of international CP football. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 464 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of an 8-Week Running Technique Program on Linear and Change-of-Direction Speed in Youth Football—A Pilot Study

by Diogo Camacho, Diogo Monteiro, Rui Matos, Nuno Amaro, Raúl Antunes and Miguel Jacinto

Sports 2025, 13(9), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090305 - 4 Sep 2025

Viewed by 2293

Abstract

In football, linear speed and change-of-direction speed are fundamental skills for performance in the sport. The present study aims to evaluate the effect of an 8-week running technique program on the variables described in young footballers. Thirty-one athletes participated, 16 in the intervention [...] Read more.

In football, linear speed and change-of-direction speed are fundamental skills for performance in the sport. The present study aims to evaluate the effect of an 8-week running technique program on the variables described in young footballers. Thirty-one athletes participated, 16 in the intervention group (Under-15) and 15 in the control group (Under-17). The intervention group had a mean age of 14.37 ± 0.50 years and the control group had a mean age of 15.80 ± 0.76 years. Both groups underwent two assessments, pre- and post-intervention, performing the 20-m test and the 5-0-5 Agility Test, assessing linear speed and change-of-direction speed, respectively, with timing conducted manually by trained evaluators. The results showed improvements in the intervention group in both tests, with statistically significant differences in change-of-direction speed (right foot: p = 0.010; r = 0.669; left foot: p = 0.05; r = 0.503), while the control group did not show any significant differences in either test, even showing a regression in results. The present study indicates that running technique training, even with a weekly frequency of only one session per week, may contribute to improvements in linear speed (even non-significant) but, especially, in the change of direction of young footballers. These results are important because training can promote more efficient running movement patterns, promoting benefits in terms of sports performance and the prevention of non-contact injuries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 310 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Mental Fatigue on the Accuracy of Penalty Kicks in College Soccer Players

by Qingguang Liu, Ruitian Huang, Zhibo Liu, Caiyu Sun, Linyu Qi and Antonio Cicchella

Sports 2025, 13(8), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13080259 - 7 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2249

Abstract

Purpose: To investigate the impact of mental fatigue on the shooting accuracy and movement timing in the instep kick of Asian high-level soccer players. Methods: Eight male collegiate soccer players (age 22.00 ± 0.93 years) were tested before and after mental fatigue induction. [...] Read more.

Purpose: To investigate the impact of mental fatigue on the shooting accuracy and movement timing in the instep kick of Asian high-level soccer players. Methods: Eight male collegiate soccer players (age 22.00 ± 0.93 years) were tested before and after mental fatigue induction. Mental fatigue was induced via a 30 min Stroop task. The effectiveness of fatigue induction was assessed using heart rate variability (HRV), a visual analog scale (VAS), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ). Shooting performance was evaluated before and after mental fatigue using the Loughborough Soccer Shooting Test (LSST) and by evaluating timing by means of high-speed imaging. Results: Following mental fatigue induction, HRV decreased. Subjects’ motivation (VAS) to exercise significantly decreased (p < 0.001), while VAS mental fatigue level (p < 0.001) and mental effort level (p < 0.002) significantly increased. Significant differences were observed after completing the Stroop task for ABQ Emotional/Physical Exhaustion (p < 0.007), Reduced Sense of Accomplishment (p < 0.007), Sport Devaluation (p < 0.006), and overall burnout level (p < 0.002). LSST showed that the subjects’ left foot test scores (−4.13, p < 0.013), right foot test scores (−3, p < 0.001), and total scores (−3.16, p < 0.001) significantly decreased. Although movement times increased slightly after fatigue, they did not reach statistical significance. Conclusions: Mental fatigue significantly impairs the shooting accuracy of collegiate soccer players, as evidenced by decreased LSST scores. However, it has no significant effect on event duration during shooting execution. Mental fatigue affected decision-making but not shooting movement timing. More cognitively challenging tasks are more affected by mental fatigue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 708 KB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship Between GPS-Derived Variables and Subjective Questionnaires Among Elite Youth Soccer Players

by Krisztián Havanecz, Péter János Tóth, Bence Kopper, Csaba Bartha, Sándor Sáfár, Marcell Fridvalszki and Gábor Géczi

Sports 2025, 13(8), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13080246 - 25 Jul 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1820

Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between the external load (EL) and internal load among U15, U17, and U19 youth soccer players and to identify the factors best influencing the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and session-RPE (s-RPE) from [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between the external load (EL) and internal load among U15, U17, and U19 youth soccer players and to identify the factors best influencing the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and session-RPE (s-RPE) from Global Positioning System-derived variables. Data were collected from 50 male youth soccer players over an 11-week in-season period, encompassing a total of 1386 observations (145 training sessions and 33 matches). The findings indicate that during training sessions, the relationship between EL-derived volume variables and s-RPE exhibited moderate-to-very-strong correlations (U15—r ranging from 0.23 to 0.52; U17—r ranging from 0.51 to 0.78; U19—r ranging from 0.34 to 0.61, p < 0.001). The strongest relationships were observed with the total distance, acceleration, deceleration, and player load variables (p < 0.001). However, perceived wellness measures showed weak correlations with almost every EL parameter. Considering matches for all age groups, total distance showed moderate-to-large correlation with s-RPE (ranging from 0.41 to 0.59, p < 0.001). Additionally, RPE and s-RPE were significantly influenced by the variables of total distance, acceleration, deceleration, medium-speed running per minute, sprint distance per minute, and deceleration per minute. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 2917 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Four-Match Congestion on the Well-Being of Under-16 Male Soccer Players

by Francisco Tomás González-Fernández, Luis Manuel Martínez-Aranda, Manuel Sanz-Matesanz, Yarisel Quiñones-Rodríguez and Alfonso Castillo-Rodríguez

Sports 2025, 13(7), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13070209 - 26 Jun 2025

Viewed by 1682

Abstract

The assessment of player well-being through questionnaires is vital for managing training and match demands in soccer, aiming to mitigate injury and overtraining risks. This study investigates the impact of Four-Match Congestion on the well-being of under-16 male soccer players. An observational study [...] Read more.

The assessment of player well-being through questionnaires is vital for managing training and match demands in soccer, aiming to mitigate injury and overtraining risks. This study investigates the impact of Four-Match Congestion on the well-being of under-16 male soccer players. An observational study design was implemented, focusing on the well-being of eighteen male soccer players throughout a championship. Players were monitored daily for indicators such as muscle soreness, stress levels, mood, fatigue, sleep quality, and an overall well-being index. Data collection was conducted by research team staff without interfering with established training plans. Preliminary findings indicate significant fluctuations in well-being indicators throughout the championship, with lower well-being scores correlating with higher match intensity. Specifically, it was indicated that the athletes’ fatigue increased, while their stress levels gradually decreased (p < 0.05). Furthermore, muscle soreness, mood, and sleep quality metrics fluctuated throughout the study, with significant differences found between matches 1 and 3. These results highlight the importance of monitoring well-being to inform coaches about necessary adjustments in training loads during congested match schedules. Understanding the relationship between match demands and player well-being can lead to effective recovery strategies, enhancing performance and reducing injury risks. Future research should explore the long-term impacts of well-being monitoring and its integration into training regimens to optimize athlete management in competitive settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 698 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physiological Benchmarks and Player Profiling in Elite Football: A Role-Specific Analysis Using T-Scores

by Vincenzo Manzi, Daniele A. Cardinale, Marco Alfonso Perrone, Antonio Bovenzi, Ferdinando Iellamo, Cristian Savoia, Giuseppe Caminiti and Francesco Laterza

Sports 2025, 13(6), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060181 - 10 Jun 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 6801

Abstract

Physiological characteristics such as VO_2max, running economy (RE), maximal aerobic speed (MAS), maximal sprinting speed (MSS), anaerobic speed reserve (ASR), and player profiling (based on MSS and MAS) have been proven to be important for training prescriptions in football. However, previous [...] Read more.

Physiological characteristics such as VO_2max, running economy (RE), maximal aerobic speed (MAS), maximal sprinting speed (MSS), anaerobic speed reserve (ASR), and player profiling (based on MSS and MAS) have been proven to be important for training prescriptions in football. However, previous studies on player profiling have neglected the absolute values of MSS and MAS. The objectives of this study were to compare the aforementioned physiological variables among player roles, create benchmarks, and provide normative data to help coaches categorize players, ultimately proposing a new player profiling method. We analyzed 195 male professional football players (50 forwards, 59 midfielders, 44 full-backs, and 42 center-backs). Multivariate analysis of variance with Tukey’s post hoc tests revealed positional differences. Center-backs exhibited lower VO_2max than midfielders and full-backs. Both center-backs and forwards showed poorer RE and MAS compared to midfielders and full-backs. Full-backs achieved higher MSS than midfielders and center-backs, and forwards outperformed center-backs. Finally, midfielders demonstrated lower ASR than all other positions. Benchmarks based on T-scores for all variables were provided. Finally, in the new profiling method proposed—also based on T-scores—players were classified as “speed”, “endurance”, or “hybrid” if their MAS and/or MSS T-score exceeded 60, “in development” if both were below 45, and “average” if both scores were between 45 and 60 without any value above 60. The normative data provided can assist coaches in identifying specific areas for improvement in players’ physical conditioning—particularly valuable for youth athletes or those returning from injury. Additionally, the new profiling method offers insights into individual player characteristics, enabling more tailored and effective training interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 229 KB

Open AccessArticle

by Patrik Hegedüs, Dániel Csala, János Tóth and János Tóth, Jr.

Sports 2025, 13(6), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060162 - 27 May 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2849

Abstract

This study explores how age influences the relationship between physical performance (PP) and technical–tactical parameters (TPs) in youth soccer, analyzing 80 matches across four age groups: U15, U17, U19, and NB1 (adults). Team-level data were examined to assess how maturation affects the integration [...] Read more.

This study explores how age influences the relationship between physical performance (PP) and technical–tactical parameters (TPs) in youth soccer, analyzing 80 matches across four age groups: U15, U17, U19, and NB1 (adults). Team-level data were examined to assess how maturation affects the integration of physical and technical demands. Physical metrics included total distance (TD) and total high-intensity distance (THID), while TP metrics involved actions such as pressing, tackling, and ball possession. Pearson’s correlations and general linear models (GLMs) were used to identify associations between PP and TPs across age categories. The results showed age-related trends in performance integration. U19 and NB1 players demonstrated moderate-to-strong correlations between PP and TP variables, with TD and THID positively associated with pressing and tackling, indicating increasing synergy with age. U17 players showed emerging integration, while U15 players exhibited no significant correlations, suggesting developmental variability. Limitations include reliance on team-level correlational data and the absence of individual physiological or cognitive assessments. These findings suggest that training approaches should be tailored to players’ developmental stages, with increasing emphasis on combining physical conditioning and tactical understanding as players mature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

13 pages, 218 KB

Open AccessArticle

Return-to-Play Timeline and Recovery Predictors After COVID-19 Infection in Elite Football Players

by Agnes Sziva, Zsuzsanna Kives and Zsolt Szelid

Sports 2025, 13(5), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050147 - 15 May 2025

Viewed by 3010

Abstract

The pandemic period significantly impacted professional football, leading to mandatory SARS-CoV-2 testing and quarantine. Our study aimed to examine the factors influencing time of recovery after a positive test, including return-to-training (RTT) and return-to-first-match (RTFM) of male football players in a first-division Hungarian [...] Read more.

The pandemic period significantly impacted professional football, leading to mandatory SARS-CoV-2 testing and quarantine. Our study aimed to examine the factors influencing time of recovery after a positive test, including return-to-training (RTT) and return-to-first-match (RTFM) of male football players in a first-division Hungarian team between 8 May 2020 and 30 June 2022. Infection was determined using mandatory RT-PCR testing 3 times per week, which later decreased to 1 to 2 times per week, in 55 elite players. A self-administered questionnaire was utilized based on the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services symptom list and modified with relevant factors of return-to-play in football. The incidence of SARS-CoV-2-positive players in the three consecutive years was 5.26; 21.43 and 45.71%. Mild symptoms were present in test-positive players, completing the questionnaire (n = 31), predominantly loss of smell and dry cough. Post-infection fatigue levels correlated with the perceived performance decline. In players with precisely documented dates (n = 18), the average RTT was 18.7 days, while the RTFM was 67.3 days. Older players returned to training faster than their younger counterparts and the RT-PCR Ct number had a weak negative correlation with RTFM. Mental support was provided by family and friends in 68% of the players. This study highlights the variability in return-to-play timelines and the role of age, symptom severity and mental help in recovery and emphasizes the need for individualized rehabilitation in elite football. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

Review

Jump to: Research

48 pages, 753 KB

Open AccessReview

Shaping Training Load, Technical–Tactical Behaviour, and Well-Being in Football: A Systematic Review

by Pedro Afonso, Pedro Forte, Luís Branquinho, Ricardo Ferraz, Nuno Domingos Garrido and José Eduardo Teixeira

Sports 2025, 13(8), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13080244 - 25 Jul 2025

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4776

Abstract

Football performance results from the dynamic interaction between physical, tactical, technical, and psychological dimensions—each of which also influences player well-being, recovery, and readiness. However, integrated monitoring approaches remain scarce, particularly in youth and sub-elite contexts. This systematic review screened 341 records from PubMed, [...] Read more.

Football performance results from the dynamic interaction between physical, tactical, technical, and psychological dimensions—each of which also influences player well-being, recovery, and readiness. However, integrated monitoring approaches remain scarce, particularly in youth and sub-elite contexts. This systematic review screened 341 records from PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, with 46 studies meeting the inclusion criteria (n = 1763 players; age range: 13.2–28.7 years). Physical external load was reported in 44 studies using GPS-derived metrics such as total distance and high-speed running, while internal load was examined in 36 studies through session-RPE (rate of perceived exertion × duration), heart rate zones, training impulse (TRIMP), and Player Load (PL). A total of 22 studies included well-being indicators capturing fatigue, sleep quality, stress levels, and muscle soreness, through tools such as the Hooper Index (HI), the Total Quality Recovery (TQR) scale, and various Likert-type or composite wellness scores. Tactical behaviours (n = 15) were derived from positional tracking systems, while technical performance (n = 7) was assessed using metrics like pass accuracy and expected goals, typically obtained from Wyscout^® or TRACAB^® (a multi-camera optical tracking system). Only five studies employed multivariate models to examine interactions between performance domains or to predict well-being outcomes. Most remained observational, relying on descriptive analyses and examining each domain in isolation. These findings reveal a fragmented approach to player monitoring and a lack of conceptual integration between physical, psychological, tactical, and technical indicators. Future research should prioritise multidimensional, standardised monitoring frameworks that combine contextual, psychophysiological, and performance data to improve applied decision-making and support player health, particularly in sub-elite and youth populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editors

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

Published Papers (18 papers)

Research

Review

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI