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Sports
Special Issues
Strategies to Improve Modifiable Factors of Athletic Success
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Strategies to Improve Modifiable Factors of Athletic Success

A special issue of Sports (ISSN 2075-4663).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 October 2025 | Viewed by 5374

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Vincent Dalbo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Health, Education, Lifestyle, and Performance (HELP) Laboratory, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, QLD 4701, Australia
Interests: aging; disease prevention; sport science; public health; sports nutrition
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Michael D. Roberts

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
Interests: skeletal muscle; sports nutrition; nutritional supplements
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. David H. Fukuda

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA
Interests: exercise physiology; sport science; body composition; sport nutrition
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Numerous factors contribute to athletic success. Unfortunately, some factors are outside of the influence of coaches, such as the genetic potential of the athletes they coach and the skill of the opposition their athletes face. Fortunately, coaches can influence numerous factors that influence the probability of athletic success by incorporating research from the fields of exercise physiology, nutrition, sport psychology, and skill acquisition into their coaching practice.

  • Exercise physiology
    • How can we train athletes more safely and efficiently?
    • Are there better ways to monitor or promote physiological adaptations?
    • How can we improve the quality of sleep around training and competition?
  • Nutrition
    • Can we improve upon dietary considerations prior to, during, and following training and competition to enhance performance and/or recovery?
    • Which nutritional supplements are safe and effective for performance enhancement?
  • Sport psychology
    • How can we best prepare athletes to manage arousal and anxiety around training and competition?
    • How do we best train athletes to be resilient?
    • How can coaches create a positive team dynamic?
  • Skill acquisition
    • Can we improve the speed at which players learn skills?

As a result, we are interested in submissions that coaches can implement to improve modifiable factors related to athletic success. This Special Issue welcomes the submission of original research, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, narrative reviews, commentaries, opinion articles, and perspectives.

It is our hope this Special Issue attracts research that will improve current practice. As John Wooden once said, “It’s the little details that are vital. Little things make big things happen”.

Dr. Vincent Dalbo
Prof. Dr. Michael D. Roberts
Prof. Dr. David H. Fukuda
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sports is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • coaching
  • nutrition
  • performance
  • sport
  • strength
  • player monitoring
  • internal or external load
  • supplements

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  • Greater discoverability: Special Issues support the reach and impact of scientific research. Articles in Special Issues are more discoverable and cited more frequently.
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  • External promotion: Articles in Special Issues are often promoted through the journal's social media, increasing their visibility.
  • Reprint: MDPI Books provides the opportunity to republish successful Special Issues in book format, both online and in print.

Further information on MDPI's Special Issue policies can be found here.

Published Papers (9 papers)

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14 pages, 236 KiB  
Article
Exploration of Commonly Used Tests to Assess Physical Qualities in Male, Adolescent Rugby League Players: Discriminative Validity Analyses and Correlations with Match Performance Metrics
by Michael A. Carron, Aaron T. Scanlan and Thomas M. Doering
Sports 2025, 13(7), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13070204 - 24 Jun 2025
Viewed by 100
Abstract
Tests assessing physical qualities are regularly used in youth rugby league teams for various functions. However, the utility of such tests is under-explored in this population. In this way, tests are commonly examined in terms of how well they can differentiate performances between [...] Read more.
Tests assessing physical qualities are regularly used in youth rugby league teams for various functions. However, the utility of such tests is under-explored in this population. In this way, tests are commonly examined in terms of how well they can differentiate performances between groups that are expected to differ and how they relate to outcomes in actual competitive contexts. Therefore, the purpose of this exploratory study was to investigate the discriminative validity and relationships to match performance metrics of frequently used tests to assess physical qualities in male, adolescent rugby league players. Anthropometric (standing height and body mass) and fitness-related (20 m linear sprint, 505-Agility Test, L-run Test, medicine ball throw, countermovement jump, one-repetition maximum back squat, bench press, and prone row tests, and Multistage Fitness Test) physical qualities were measured using common tests in 42 players (16.1 ± 1.3 years). Test outcomes were compared between players in different age and positional groups for discriminative validity analyses. Relationships between test outcomes and match performance metrics gathered via global positioning system and video analysis were also determined. Compared to younger players (14–15 years), older players (16–18 years) had significantly better fitness-related physical qualities (p < 0.05, d = −1.78–1.66), but similar anthropometric qualities (p > 0.05, d = −0.45–0.20). Significant, moderate correlations (p < 0.05, r = 0.56–0.70) were found between (1) one-repetition maximum (1-RM) back squat and relative (per min) high-speed running distance and maximum velocity in matches; (2) 20-m sprint time and relative total distance; (3) 505-Agility Test time and relative line breaks; and (4) height and relative unsuccessful tackles. Consequently, commonly used fitness-related tests demonstrate discriminative validity in detecting differences between age groups, with standing height and the 1-RM back squat showing promising utility given their associations with key match metrics in adolescent rugby league players. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies to Improve Modifiable Factors of Athletic Success)
12 pages, 486 KiB  
Article
Understanding External Peak Demands in Elite vs. Non-Elite Male Basketball Players
by Yoel Antoranz, Enrique Alonso-Pérez-Chao, Carlos Mª Tejero-González, Hugo Salazar, Juan del Campo-Vecino and Sergio L. Jiménez-Sáiz
Sports 2025, 13(6), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060179 - 9 Jun 2025
Viewed by 386
Abstract
Background: Understanding the physical demands of basketball at different competitive levels is essential for optimizing training and performance. While elite players are often assumed to experience the highest physical loads, evidence comparing peak external demands (PDs) between elite and non-elite athletes using time-window [...] Read more.
Background: Understanding the physical demands of basketball at different competitive levels is essential for optimizing training and performance. While elite players are often assumed to experience the highest physical loads, evidence comparing peak external demands (PDs) between elite and non-elite athletes using time-window analysis is limited. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine how player level (Elite vs. Non-Elite) influences the external PDs experienced by male basketball players. Methods: This study examined PlayerLoad™ (PL) PDs in elite (n = 10) and non-elite (n = 11) male basketball players during the 2023–2024 season. Players were monitored using inertial measurement units (IMUs) during official and friendly matches (elite = 8 games; non-elite = 29 games). Peak PL values were computed using rolling averages across 30-s, 1-min, and 3-min time windows. Linear mixed-effects models were employed to examine differences between groups, adjusting for age and match nature. A secondary analysis was carried out including only friendly matches. Results: Non-elite players exhibited significantly higher PL PDs across all the time windows (p < 0.001), with effect sizes ranging from small to very large in the main analysis (ES = −0.41 to −2.11) and from very large to extremely large in the secondary analysis (ES = −2.68 to −5.06). Differences were more pronounced in longer durations. These results suggest that non-elite athletes sustain higher physical loads, possibly due to less efficient movement patterns and lower tactical regulation. Conclusions: Elite players display lower peak external loads than their non-elite counterparts, likely due to superior cognitive, tactical, and perceptual abilities that enhance movement economy. Training programs should incorporate tasks that combine physical intensity with decision-making demands to foster efficiency and potentially reduce injury risk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies to Improve Modifiable Factors of Athletic Success)
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22 pages, 1014 KiB  
Article
Quantifying Long-Term Adaptations in Performance Variables in Adolescent Athletes: A 1.5 Year Longitudinal Training Study Utilising a Standardised, Progressive, Blocked Linear Periodisation Resistance Training Program
by Michael A. Carron and Vincent J. Dalbo
Sports 2025, 13(6), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060164 - 27 May 2025
Viewed by 345
Abstract
We examined the effects of resistance training over 1.5 years (two seasons). Body mass, strength, power, and aerobic capacity were assessed during the first 1.5 years of a standardised, progressive, blocked linear periodisation training program in adolescent males with no prior history of [...] Read more.
We examined the effects of resistance training over 1.5 years (two seasons). Body mass, strength, power, and aerobic capacity were assessed during the first 1.5 years of a standardised, progressive, blocked linear periodisation training program in adolescent males with no prior history of resistance training (N = 11, 16.4 ± 0.5 years). Testing occurred during the start of pre-season (SPS), end of pre-season (EPS), and end of season (EOS) during the first and second year of resistance training. Changes over time were assessed with within-group ANOVAs and follow-up independent t-tests. Differences in relative change that occurred during the first and second year of training for each variable were assessed with dependent t-tests. Body mass changed over time (p < 0.001, n2p = 0.794). Body mass increased from SPS to EPS (p = 0.008, Large) and EPS to EOS (p = 0.019, Large) in year 1, and from EOS in year 1 to SPS in year 2 (p < 0.001, Large). Bench press (p < 0.001, n2p = 0.806), squat (p < 0.001, n2p = 0.670), and medicine ball throw (p < 0.001, n2p = 0.350) changed over time. Bench press (Year 1: p < 0.001, Large; Year 2: p < 0.001, Large), squat (Year 1: p < 0.001, Large; Year 2: p < 0.001, Large), and medicine ball throw (Year 1: p = 0.007, Large; Year 2: p = 0.026, Large) increased from SPS to EPS in year 1 and year 2. Bench press (p = 0.010, Large) and squat (p = 0.004, Large) increased more from SPS to EPS during year 1 than year 2. By quantifying diminished returns, our study offers practitioners novel information, helping practitioners manage expectations, avoid excessive training and support long-term adolescent development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies to Improve Modifiable Factors of Athletic Success)
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16 pages, 853 KiB  
Article
Mental Fatigue Impairs Temporal Perceptual Prediction: A Study on Boxing Performance Across Skill Levels
by Chang-Hong Wu, Yi Yang, Xia Xu, Ning Wang, Qiao Li, Lu Geng and Shan-Jun Bao
Sports 2025, 13(5), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050154 - 20 May 2025
Viewed by 435
Abstract
Objective: This study investigated the impact of mental fatigue on the temporal perceptual prediction of action recognition among boxers of different skill levels. Methods: A mixed experimental design of two (groups: Mental Fatigue Expert Group and Mental Fatigue Novice Group) × two (technique [...] Read more.
Objective: This study investigated the impact of mental fatigue on the temporal perceptual prediction of action recognition among boxers of different skill levels. Methods: A mixed experimental design of two (groups: Mental Fatigue Expert Group and Mental Fatigue Novice Group) × two (technique types: attack and defense) × three (time shields: −80 ms, −40 ms, and action start) was implemented. Twenty expert and novice boxers participated in this study. Mental fatigue was induced using a 45-min Stroop paradigm, and the effects were assessed using the VAS, Brog-20, BRUMS-F, and BRUMS-V. The experimental procedure for time perception was developed using E-prime 3.0, incorporating 36 videos depicting various attack and defense techniques, and reaction time and accuracy were recorded. Results: (1) A significant main effect on reaction time (RT) was observed (F (1,38) = 5.97, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.14) but not on accuracy (ACC), suggesting a pronounced influence of mental fatigue on novice boxers’ temporal perceptual prediction in action recognition; (2) significant main effects of skill types were noted in both RT (F (1,38) = 9.03, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.19) and ACC (F (1,38) = 18.496, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.327), indicating disparities in the recognition of offensive and defensive skills under mental fatigue; (3) temporal shielding significantly influenced both RT (F (2,76) = 31.42, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.45) and ACC (F (2,76) = 125.727, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.768), with −80 ms showing a lower RT and ACC compared to −40 ms and action initiation; (4) second-order interaction effects were present in both RT (F (2,76) = 9.85, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.21) and ACC (F (2,76) = 8.773, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.188), with the RT interaction suggesting a negative impact on perceptual prediction at −80 ms and a faster offensive RT than defensive RT. The ACC interaction indicated that under mental fatigue, −40 ms approached and exceeded −80 ms in both offensive and defensive actions, with higher ACC in offense than defense; and (5) a third-order interaction effect among group, technique type, and time shielding on RT (F (2,76) = 3.92, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.09) suggests that mental fatigue more significantly affects novice defensive technique RT than offensive technique. Conclusions: (1) The 45-min Stroop task effectively induced mental fatigue. (2) Mental fatigue negatively impacts both expert and novice boxers, with a more pronounced effect on experts’ defensive skills. (3) The −40 ms time perception is crucial for predicting action recognition as it approaches action initiation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies to Improve Modifiable Factors of Athletic Success)
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20 pages, 750 KiB  
Article
Physical Training Considerations for Futsal Players According to Strength and Conditioning Coaches: A Qualitative Study
by Rafael Albalad-Aiguabella, David Navarrete-Villanueva, Elena Mainer-Pardos, Oscar Villanueva-Guerrero, Borja Muniz-Pardos and Germán Vicente-Rodríguez
Sports 2025, 13(4), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040126 - 18 Apr 2025
Viewed by 953
Abstract
The professionalization of futsal requires greater physical demands on players, requiring strength and conditioning coaches to manage loads, optimize performance, and prevent injuries. This study aimed to describe the current practices of high-level strength and conditioning coaches and determine the elements needed to [...] Read more.
The professionalization of futsal requires greater physical demands on players, requiring strength and conditioning coaches to manage loads, optimize performance, and prevent injuries. This study aimed to describe the current practices of high-level strength and conditioning coaches and determine the elements needed to optimize their performance. Two video-recorded focus groups consisting of eight strength and conditioning coaches from the Spanish futsal league’s first and second divisions were transcribed, translated, and analyzed using a content analysis approach with open-ended questions on physical preparation and current practices. Results showed that strength and conditioning coaches prioritized five main areas: (1) competitive demands, (2) training load control and monitoring, (3) injury risk mitigation strategies, (4) contextual factors and interpersonal relationships, and (5) training methodologies to optimize performance. However, they also claim to deal with several limitations such as lack of time, limited resources and access to facilities, insufficient staff, problems related to combining sport with other activities (e.g., work), or the difficulty to individualize, which limits the optimization of their practices. Based on these findings, practical applications include implementing neuromuscular and strength training sessions at least twice a week, using cost-effective load monitoring tools (e.g., RPE and wellness questionnaires) to manage workloads, individualizing training programs to address the specific demands and characteristics of each player, and fostering close multidisciplinary collaboration to optimize performance and reduce injury risks. These insights can guide current and aspiring strength and conditioning coaches toward optimized practices. This study can assist novice strength and conditioning coaches in identifying the key focus areas of elite physical trainers and understanding their challenges and limitations, fostering collaboration among sports professionals to create a more optimized environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies to Improve Modifiable Factors of Athletic Success)
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11 pages, 222 KiB  
Article
Sports Supplement Use in Road Cycling: A Comparative Analysis by Sex and Competitive Category
by Jesús García-Durán, David Romero-García, José Miguel Martínez-Sanz, José Antonio González-Jurado and Antonio Jesús Sánchez-Oliver
Sports 2025, 13(4), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040122 - 16 Apr 2025
Viewed by 693
Abstract
This study analyzes and compares sports supplement (SS) consumption among federated road cyclists, considering sex and competition category. The aim is to identify key factors influencing SS use and provide insights for developing nutritional strategies in cycling. A cross-sectional, descriptive study was conducted, [...] Read more.
This study analyzes and compares sports supplement (SS) consumption among federated road cyclists, considering sex and competition category. The aim is to identify key factors influencing SS use and provide insights for developing nutritional strategies in cycling. A cross-sectional, descriptive study was conducted, involving 1503 cyclists (1231 men and 272 women). Data were collected through a validated questionnaire assessing anthropometric data, training habits, SS consumption patterns, and sources of information. Results indicate that 64.3% of cyclists currently use SS. Women reported a significantly higher consumption rate (88.2%) compared to men (59.1%), although men had a higher average SS intake than women (8.28 ± 9.36 vs. 6.76 ± 5.96). Additionally, SS use decreased with age and competition level, with elite cyclists showing the highest prevalence (76.3%) and master 50 the lowest (58.4%). Group A supplements (scientifically supported) were the most frequently used, while Group C supplements (limited evidence) and Group D substances (prohibited) were more commonly consumed by men. Findings highlight significant differences in SS consumption based on sex and competition level, with elite cyclists and women reporting higher prevalence. However, men reported a higher average number of SS consumed. The study underscores the need for targeted nutritional education, particularly among master cyclists, to promote evidence-based SS use and minimize the risks of ineffective or unsafe supplementation. Future research should explore the long-term effects of SS consumption in cycling and the effectiveness of educational interventions for safe and optimized supplementation practices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies to Improve Modifiable Factors of Athletic Success)
16 pages, 2567 KiB  
Article
Fecal Microbiota and Associated Metabolites Are Minimally Affected by Ten Weeks of Resistance Training in Younger and Older Adults
by Anthony Agyin-Birikorang, Sarah Lennon, Kristen S. Smith, William Van Der Pol, Morgan A. Smith, Casey L. Sexton, Donald A. Lamb, Kaelin C. Young, Christopher Brooks Mobley, Kevin W. Huggins, Michael D. Roberts and Andrew Dandridge Frugé
Sports 2025, 13(4), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040098 - 26 Mar 2025
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Abstract
Preclinical evidence suggests that short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced by gut microbiota may impact body composition and muscle growth. While aging is implicated in negative alterations to the gut microbiome, exercise may mitigate these changes. Limited human evidence indicates that resistance training [...] Read more.
Preclinical evidence suggests that short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced by gut microbiota may impact body composition and muscle growth. While aging is implicated in negative alterations to the gut microbiome, exercise may mitigate these changes. Limited human evidence indicates that resistance training (RT) does not appreciably alter the gut microbiome in older adults, and no human study has examined whether resistance training differentially alters the gut microbiome and associated SCFAs between younger and older individuals. Therefore, we examined whether 10 weeks of RT differentially altered fecal microbiota composition, fecal and circulating SCFAs, and serum markers associated with gastrointestinal integrity in two cohorts of adults. Fecal and serum samples were obtained from untrained younger (22 ± 2 years, n = 12) and older (58 ± 8 years, n = 12) participants prior to and following 10 weeks of supervised twice-weekly full-body RT. Outcome measures immediately before (PRE) and after the intervention (POST) included dual X-ray absorptiometry for body composition, ultrasound for vastus lateralis (VL) thickness, 16S rRNA gene sequencing fecal microbiome data, serum and fecal SCFAs measured by gas chromatography, and serum intestinal fatty acid-binding protein 2 (FABP2), lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP), and leucine-rich alpha-2 glycoprotein (LRG-1) quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Main effects and interactions were measured by repeated measures analysis of variance (group × time; G × T) for all dependent variables, and Spearman correlations were used to explore relationships among changes in relevant outcomes. The intervention significantly increased VL thickness and lean body mass (p < 0.05) equally in both groups. Although group differences in microbiome beta diversity were identified, no effects of age, time, or their interaction were observed for the alpha diversity measures. Seven SCFAs were detected in the fecal samples, albeit no significant age, time, or interaction effects were evident. In serum, acetic acid was the only SCFA detected, with no significant age, time, or interaction effects. Serum LRG1 decreased for all participants (p = 0.007) with higher levels in younger adults (p = 0.015), but no G × T interactions were observed for this marker, serum FABP2, or LBP. No significant correlations were observed among RT-induced changes in muscle mass-related outcomes and changes in fecal microbiome diversity, total or individual SCFAs, or serum FABP2/LBP/LRG-1. These results highlight that 10 weeks of RT largely does not affect fecal microbiota, associated SCFAs, or select markers of gastrointestinal integrity in untrained younger or older adults. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies to Improve Modifiable Factors of Athletic Success)
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12 pages, 501 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Magnitude and Direction of Body Composition Asymmetries in Male Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Athletes: Pilot Study
by Alex Ojeda-Aravena, Rafael L. Kons, Jairo Azócar-Gallardo, Xurxo Dopico-Calvo, Aida Fernández, Marcelo Tuesta-Roa, Mauricio Cresp-Barria, Jorge Olivares-Arancibia and Eduardo Báez-San Martín
Sports 2025, 13(2), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020054 - 12 Feb 2025
Viewed by 834
Abstract
In order to optimize body composition and its components, it is of interest to analyze inter-limb asymmetries in athletes of popular combat sports such as Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ). This study aimed to assess the magnitude and direction of body composition asymmetry in competitive [...] Read more.
In order to optimize body composition and its components, it is of interest to analyze inter-limb asymmetries in athletes of popular combat sports such as Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ). This study aimed to assess the magnitude and direction of body composition asymmetry in competitive male BJJ athletes. Seventeen experienced and competitive male BJJ athletes (age 34.59 ± 8.00 years, 172.94 ± 5.46 cm, BJJ experience 7.88 ± 5.57 years, and 3.71 ± 1.05 days of weekly volume training), including Guard Fighters (n = 7) and Pass Fighters (n = 10), participated in this study. In a single session, whole-body and segmental upper limb and lower limb body composition (BC) was assessed utilizing dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The assessment included total mass (TM), fat mass (FM), fat mass percentage (%FM), fat-free mass (FFM), and bone mineral content (BMC). Absolute differences between limbs were analyzed using a paired t-test. A comparison of BC asymmetries according to combat styles was conducted using an independent t-test. The effect size (ES) was interpreted as Cohen’s d. The main results revealed significant asymmetries in the upper limbs (ULs) of the total group; greater values were found on the left side for TM (p = 0.009, ES = 0.725), FM (p = 0.016, ES = 0.650), FFM (p = 0.026, ES = 0.594), and BMC (p < 0.001, ES = 0.993). In Pass Fighters, differences favored the right side in TM (p = 0.003, ES = 1.277), FM (p = 0.009, ES = 1.039), FFM (p = 0.011, ES = 1.000), and BMC (p < 0.001, ES = 1.916). In contrast, Guard Fighters showed no discrepancies in these parameters. No notable disparities were observed in the lower limbs. This pilot study reveals that BJJ athletes present significant asymmetries in BC, particularly in the ULs, with a marked predominance on the right side, especially in Pass Fighters. Full article
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17 pages, 1357 KiB  
Commentary
The Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) Multidisciplinary Education and Treatment Protocol for the Female Athlete Triad (1996–2022)
by Emily A. Ricker, Kristen J. Koltun, Carol L. Otis, Anna S. Peavler and Mary Jane De Souza
Sports 2025, 13(7), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13070205 - 25 Jun 2025
Abstract
Elite female tennis players are among those at high risk for developing the Female Athlete Triad (Triad), characterized by three interrelated conditions: energy deficiency/low energy availability, menstrual dysfunction, and low bone mineral density. From 1996 to 2022, the Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) developed [...] Read more.
Elite female tennis players are among those at high risk for developing the Female Athlete Triad (Triad), characterized by three interrelated conditions: energy deficiency/low energy availability, menstrual dysfunction, and low bone mineral density. From 1996 to 2022, the Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) developed and implemented prevention, education, and management plans for female athletes at risk for, or exhibiting symptoms of, the Triad. This article reviews the WTA Triad protocol, developed in 2018 and utilized through 2022, in collaboration with subject matter experts in the Women’s Health and Exercise Laboratory at The Pennsylvania State University. The WTA Triad protocol (1996–2022) includes prevention and management programs implemented by a multidisciplinary Performance Health Team to include screening for “red flags” during annual physicals or upon clinical presentation of a menstrual problem, bone disorder, or nutritional concern; targeted education for players, coaches, and other support team members with handouts and lectures on nutrition and body image to prevent energy deficiency; and a multidisciplinary protocol to guide treatment and return-to-play decisions. Other sport governing bodies can adopt similar multi-layered programs and practices for their athletes, coaches, and support teams to educate, screen, manage, and help to prevent the development of the Triad. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies to Improve Modifiable Factors of Athletic Success)
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