Relationship Between Socioeconomic Status and Organized Sports Among Primary School Children: A Gender-Based Analysis of Sports Participation
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Questionnaire
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
SES | Socioeconomic Status |
OR | Odds Ratio |
References
- Bull, F.C.; Al-Ansari, S.S.; Biddle, S.; Borodulin, K.; Buman, M.P.; Cardon, G.; Carty, C.; Chaput, J.P.; Chastin, S.; Chou, R.; et al. World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Br. J. Sports Med. 2020, 54, 1451–1462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare. Overview of Health Japan 21, 3rd ed. 2023. Available online: https://www.mhlw.go.jp/content/10904750/001158810.pdf (accessed on 21 March 2025). (In Japanese)
- Japan Sports Agency. FY2019 Physical Fitness and Athletic Ability Survey Report. 2020. Available online: https://www.mext.go.jp/sports/b_menu/toukei/chousa04/tairyoku/kekka/k_detail/1421920_00001.htm (accessed on 21 March 2025). (In Japanese).
- World Health Organization. Social Determinants of Health. 2023. Available online: https://www.who.int/health-topics/social-determinants-of-health#tab=tab_1 (accessed on 5 May 2025).
- World Health Organization. Global Action Plan on Physical Activity 2018–2030. Available online: https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/272722/9789241514187-eng.pdf (accessed on 5 May 2025).
- Owen, K.B.; Nau, T.; Reece, L.J.; Bellew, W.; Rose, C.; Bauman, A.; Halim, N.K.; Smith, B.J. Fair play? Participation equity in organised sport and physical activity among children and adolescents in high income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2022, 19, 27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Eime, R.M.; Harvey, J.T.; Craike, M.J.; Symons, C.M.; Payne, W.R. Family support and ease of access link socio-economic status and sports club membership in adolescent girls: A mediation study. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2013, 25, 50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yamakita, M.; Sato, M.; Ando, D.; Suzuki, K.; Yamagata, Z. Associations between parent’s educational levels and children’s time spent in exercise. Res. Exerc. Epidemiol. 2017, 19, 36–43. (In Japanese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Japan Sports Agency. Results of the FY2023 Nationwide Survey on Physical Fitness, Athletic Ability, Exercise Habits. 2023. Available online: https://www.mext.go.jp/sports/b_menu/toukei/kodomo/zencyo/1411922_00007.html (accessed on 21 March 2025). (In Japanese).
- Sasakawa Sports Foundation. Sports Life Data for Children and Young People (Survey on the Sports Life of 4–21 Year Olds). 2021. Available online: https://www.ssf.or.jp/thinktank/sports_life/data/lesson.html#:~:text=%E7%AC%B9%E5%B7%9D%E3%82%B9%E3%83%9D%E3%83%BC%E3%83%84%E8%B2%A1%E5%9B%A3%E3%81%A7%E3%81%AF%E3%80%812021,4.7%E3%83%9D%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%88%E5%A2%97%E5%8A%A0%E3%81%97%E3%81%BE%E3%81%97%E3%81%9F%E3%80%82 (accessed on 21 March 2025). (In Japanese).
- Tsukahara, F.; Ishizawa, N.; Yamamoto, R.; Mano, Y.; Nakamura, Y. The relationship between types of sport participation and socio-economic characteristics of adults. J. Jpn. Soc. Sports Ind. 2015, 25, 253–268. (In Japanese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Benesse Educational Research & Development Institute. Survey on Extracurricular Educational Activities 2017—Targeting Families with Children from Preschool to High School. 2017. Available online: https://benesse.jp/berd/up_images/research/2017_Gakko_gai_tyosa_web.pdf (accessed on 21 March 2025).
- Brenner, R.A.; Taneja, G.S.; Haynie, D.L.; Trumble, A.C.; Qian, C.; Klinger, R.M.; Klebanoff, M.A. Association between swimming lessons and drowning in childhood: A case-control study. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2009, 163, 203–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bourdieu, P. The Forms of Capital. In Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education; Richardson, J.G., Ed.; Greenwood Press: New York, NY, USA, 1986; pp. 241–258. [Google Scholar]
- Kwon, S.; Janz, K.F.; Letuchy, E.M.; Burns, T.L.; Levy, S.M. Parental characteristic patterns associated with maintaining healthy physical activity behavior during childhood and adolescence. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2016, 13, 58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Duke, C.; Calverley, H.; Petrass, L.; Peters, J.; Moncrieff, K.; Konjarski, L.; Matthews, B. A systematic review of demographic and background factors associated with the development of children’s aquatic competence. Inj. Epidemiol. 2023, 10, 42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ananthapavan, V.; Peden, A.E.; Angell, B.; Macniven, R. Barriers to preschool aged children’s participation in swimming lessons in New South Wales, Australia. Health Promot. J. Austr. 2024, 35, 770–783. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Japan Sport Association. Youth Sports Club Registration Status. 2013. Available online: https://www.japan-sports.or.jp/club/tabid301.html (accessed on 21 March 2025). (In Japanese).
- Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Results of a Survey on Comprehensive Community Sports Club. Published 2013. Available online: https://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/sports/detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2014/05/30/1234682_10_1.pdf (accessed on 21 March 2025). (In Japanese).
- Sasaki, S. Environment and cooperation of the private gym to surround school club activities. Dep. Bull. Pap. Tohoku Women’s Univ. Tohoku Women’s Jr. Coll. 2016, 55, 105–111. (In Japanese) [Google Scholar]
- Hibshman, N.; Yengo-Kahn, A.; Wiseman, A.; Kelly, P.D.; Wu, J.; Monk, S.; Harris, G.; Gannon, S.; Shannon, C.; Bonfield, C.M. Child participation in collision sports and football: What influences parental decisions? Phys. Sportsmed. 2022, 50, 171–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sports Safety Association. Sports Injury Statistics Data Collection. 2017. Available online: https://www.sportsanzen.org/about_us/grjkkl0000000f3g-att/dchamu000000040t.pdf (accessed on 21 March 2025). (In Japanese).
(n) | (%) | Sports Participation Rate (%) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | Girls | 269 | 51.3 | 66.9 |
Boys | 255 | 48.7 | 77.6 | |
School grade | 1st and 2nd grade | 184 | 35.1 | 72.8 |
3rd and 4th grade | 203 | 38.7 | 73.4 | |
5th and 6th grade | 137 | 26.1 | 69.3 | |
Mother’s employment status | Unemployed | 179 | 42.2 | 75.4 |
Part-time | 154 | 36.3 | 76.6 | |
Self-employed | 23 | 5.4 | 52.2 | |
Full-time | 68 | 16.0 | 52.9 | |
Father’s employment status | Self-employed | 38 | 14.4 | 71.1 |
Full-time | 226 | 85.6 | 72.6 | |
Mother’s educational background | Junior high school and high school | 82 | 18.6 | 65.8 |
Junior college and vocational school | 169 | 38.4 | 71.2 | |
University and above | 189 | 43.0 | 73.3 | |
Father’s educational background | Junior high school and high school | 49 | 19.9 | 71.1 |
Junior college and vocational school | 30 | 12.2 | 73.3 | |
University and above | 167 | 67.9 | 71.4 | |
Regional annual income | Low group | 163 | 31.1 | 68.7 |
Middle group | 202 | 38.5 | 74.8 | |
High group | 159 | 30.3 | 72.3 | |
Types | Swimming | 196 | 37.4 | |
Football | 55 | 10.5 | ||
Gymnastics | 41 | 7.8 | ||
Baseball | 36 | 6.9 | ||
Dance | 31 | 5.9 | ||
Ballet | 29 | 5.5 | ||
Karate | 19 | 3.6 | ||
Tennis | 19 | 3.6 | ||
Athletics | 15 | 2.9 |
All | Girls | Boys | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sports Participants vs. Non-Sports Participants | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | |
Mother’s employment status | Unemployed | 2.91 | 1.49–5.68 * | 1.82 | 0.75–4.41 * | 5.69 | 1.98–16.38 * |
Part-time | 2.90 | 1.44–5.82 * | 1.76 | 0.72–4.33 * | 6.02 | 1.90–19.14 * | |
Self-employed | 1.25 | 0.42–3.77 | 0.34 | 0.07–1.75 | 5.00 | 0.83–30.00 | |
Full-time | reference | reference | reference | ||||
Mother’s educational background | Junior high school and high school | 0.59 | 0.30–1.15 | 0.44 | 0.19–1.03 | 0.72 | 0.23–2.27 |
Junior college and vocational school | 0.79 | 0.45–1.37 | 0.56 | 0.26–1.20 | 0.98 | 0.42–2.29 | |
University and above | reference | reference | reference | ||||
Father’s employment status | Self-employed | 0.88 | 0.29–2.62 | 0.92 | 0.14–5.99 | 0.85 | 0.21–3.33 |
Full-time | reference | reference | reference | ||||
Father’s educational background | Junior high school and high school | 1.30 | 0.46–3.70 | 1.82 | 0.32–10.48 | 1.11 | 0.29–4.25 |
Junior college and vocational school | 0.57 | 0.18–1.83 | 0.79 | 0.15–4.10 | 0.47 | 0.09–2.54 | |
University and above | reference | reference | reference | ||||
Regional annual income | Low group | 0.85 | 0.52–1.38 | 0.81 | 0.42–1.54 | 0.90 | 0.43–1.89 |
Middle group | 1.14 | 0.71–1.85 | 1.16 | 0.62–2.19 | 1.12 | 0.54–2.31 | |
High group | reference | reference | reference |
Sports Participants vs. Non-Sports Participants | OR | 95% CI | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Swimming | Mother’s employment status | Unemployed | 2.43 | 1.19–4.98 * |
Part-time | 2.36 | 1.12–4.96 * | ||
Self-employed | 0.78 | 0.22–2.85 | ||
Full-time | reference | |||
Mother’s educational background | Junior high school and high school | 0.49 | 0.25–0.96 * | |
Junior college and vocational school | 0.93 | 0.57–1.53 | ||
University and above | reference | |||
Father’s employment status | Self-employed | 0.50 | 0.15–1.69 | |
Full-time | reference | |||
Father’s educational background | Junior high school and high school | 0.80 | 0.29–2.21 | |
Junior college and vocational school | 1.00 | 0.30–3.33 | ||
University and above | reference | |||
Regional annual income | Low group | 0.98 | 0.62–1.55 | |
Middle group | 0.99 | 0.64–1.54 | ||
High group | reference | |||
Football | Mother’s employment status | Unemployed | 3.61 | 0.76–17.18 |
Part-time | 5.19 | 1.05–25.70 * | ||
Self-employed | 1.25 | 0.10–15.84 | ||
Full-time | reference | |||
Mother’s educational background | Junior high school and high school | 0.79 | 0.25–2.49 | |
Junior college and vocational school | 0.84 | 0.37–1.87 | ||
University and above | reference | |||
Father’s employment status | Self-employed | 1.08 | 0.26–4.47 | |
Full-time | reference | |||
Father’s educational background | Junior high school and high school | 0.75 | 0.19–3.00 | |
Junior college and vocational school | 0.42 | 0.05–3.85 | ||
University and above | reference | |||
Regional annual income | Low group | 0.39 | 0.18–0.86 * | |
Middle group | 0.63 | 0.32–1.24 | ||
High group | reference | |||
Gymnastics | Mother’s employment status | Unemployed | 1.74 | 0.47–0.41 |
Part-time | 0.87 | 0.20–0.85 * | ||
Self-employed | 2.82 | 0.49–0.25 | ||
Full-time | reference | |||
Mother’s educational background | Junior high school and high school | 0.87 | 0.22–0.84 * | |
Junior college and vocational school | 2.22 | 0.91–0.08 | ||
University and above | reference | |||
Father’s employment status | Self-employed | 2.88 | 0.58–14.24 | |
Full-time | reference | |||
Father’s educational background | Junior high school and high school | 5.16 | 1.03–25.88 * | |
Junior college and vocational school | 5.54 | 0.80–38.57 | ||
University and above | reference | |||
Regional annual income | Low group | 1.05 | 0.37–2.99 | |
Middle group | 2.96 | 1.24–7.06 * | ||
High group | reference | |||
Ballet | Mother’s employment status | Unemployed | 1.45 | 0.38–5.45 |
Part-time | 0.78 | 0.18–3.35 | ||
Self-employed | 0.00 | 0.00–0.00 | ||
Full-time | reference | |||
Mother’s educational background | Junior high school and high school | 0.29 | 0.07–1.14 | |
Junior college and vocational school | 0.07 | 0.01–0.56 * | ||
University and above | reference | |||
Regional annual income | Low group | 1.27 | 0.48–3.36 | |
Middle group | 0.90 | 0.34–2.41 | ||
High group | reference | |||
Baseball | Regional annual income | Low group | 2.77 | 0.99–7.76 |
Middle group | 3.02 | 1.12–8.14 * | ||
High group | reference |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Tanaka, C.; Lee, E.-Y.; Tanaka, S. Relationship Between Socioeconomic Status and Organized Sports Among Primary School Children: A Gender-Based Analysis of Sports Participation. Sports 2025, 13, 165. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060165
Tanaka C, Lee E-Y, Tanaka S. Relationship Between Socioeconomic Status and Organized Sports Among Primary School Children: A Gender-Based Analysis of Sports Participation. Sports. 2025; 13(6):165. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060165
Chicago/Turabian StyleTanaka, Chiaki, Eun-Young Lee, and Shigeho Tanaka. 2025. "Relationship Between Socioeconomic Status and Organized Sports Among Primary School Children: A Gender-Based Analysis of Sports Participation" Sports 13, no. 6: 165. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060165
APA StyleTanaka, C., Lee, E.-Y., & Tanaka, S. (2025). Relationship Between Socioeconomic Status and Organized Sports Among Primary School Children: A Gender-Based Analysis of Sports Participation. Sports, 13(6), 165. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060165