Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090404

Authors: Domenico Martone Daniela Vitucci Andrea Gillo Sara Dei Loretta Francesca Cosco Giuliana Valerio Rosa Ghirelli Andreina Alfieri Annamaria Mancini Stefania Orrù Pasqualina Buono

Background: Physical inactivity and prolonged sedentary behavior have been associated with impaired cognitive function during adolescence. Although classroom-based active breaks (ABs) have shown promising effects in primary school children, evidence among adolescents attending upper secondary schools remains limited. This study evaluated the effects of a four-month classroom-based ABs program on attention and concentration performance and explored whether selected participant and lifestyle-related characteristics moderated the intervention response. Methods: In this cluster-randomized controlled trial, 529 adolescents (302 females, 227 males; 14.3 ± 0.9 years) from 39 classes attending four upper secondary schools in Southern Italy were included. Classes were randomly allocated to the intervention group (IG; 20 classes, n = 288) or control group (CG; 19 classes, n = 241). The IG participated in two daily 10 min classroom-based ABs for four months, whereas the CG followed the usual school routine. At baseline, anthropometric characteristics, sport participation, sleep duration, daily smartphone use, adherence to the Mediterranean Diet, and concentration performance (CP score), assessed by the d2-R Test of Attention, were evaluated; only CP was reassessed after the intervention. Results: The primary mixed-effects model showed significantly higher adjusted post-intervention CP in the IG than in the CG (adjusted between-group difference = 56.7 points, 95% CI 21.7–91.6; p = 0.003). The intervention effect remained significant in a fully adjusted model including sex, organized sport participation, sleep duration, smartphone use, and Mediterranean Diet adherence (p = 0.004). Exploratory moderator analyses provided no evidence that the intervention effect differed according to any of these characteristics after correction for multiple testing. Conclusions: A four-month classroom-based ABs program can improve concentration performance among adolescents. High intervention fidelity and student attendance support the feasibility of implementing structured ABs within the school setting over the intervention period. Further research is needed to determine the long-term effects and implementation of ABs program in secondary schools.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090403

Authors: Gašper Munda Goran Kuvačić Sara Besal Damir Karpljuk Marco Batista Łukasz Rydzik Jožef Šimenko

Background: Reliable judging is essential to the fairness of elite boxing, yet inter-judge reliability under the current World Boxing 10-Point Must Scoring System remains largely unexplored. This study aimed to evaluate inter-judge reliability across rounds and weight categories at the 2025 World Boxing Championships. Methods: A retrospective observational analysis included 94 men’s bouts in the 60 kg (n = 42), 75 kg (n = 23), and 90+ kg (n = 29) categories. Judge-level round scores were analysed using linear mixed-effects variance-component models, with bout-round target and judge identity specified as random effects. Reliability was estimated for individual judge ratings (Rsingle) and an aggregate measurement based on five judge ratings (Rpanel(5)). Pairwise differences across rounds and weight categories were evaluated using bout-level bootstrap procedures with Holm adjustment for multiple testing. Results: Across all bouts, Rsingle was 0.617 (95% CI: 0.521–0.693) in Round 1, 0.634 (95% CI: 0.539–0.709) in Round 2, and 0.687 (95% CI: 0.597–0.754) in Round 3. The corresponding Rpanel(5) estimates were consistently higher at 0.889 (95% CI: 0.845–0.919), 0.897 (95% CI: 0.854–0.924), and 0.916 (95% CI: 0.881–0.939), respectively. No statistically significant differences in reliability were detected across rounds or between weight categories after Holm adjustment. Overall, 98.2% of judge-round scores were 10:9 and 68.9% of bouts decided by judges’ scores ended in unanimous 5:0 decisions. Conclusions: Reliability was consistently higher when five judge ratings were aggregated than when individual judge ratings were considered. No statistically significant evidence of systematic differences in reliability across rounds or between the examined weight categories was detected.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090402

Authors: Krisztián Havanecz Ferenc Ihász

This study aimed to examine age- and maturity-related differences in anthropometric characteristics, body composition, functional movement, and field-based physical performance among U14–U19 male youth soccer players. Seventy academy players completed anthropometric and body composition assessments, the Functional Movement Screen, a 30-m linear sprint, the Illinois Agility Test with and without the ball to assess change-of-direction speed (CODs), a standing long jump, and the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1. Biological maturation was estimated using the Mirwald equation. Age-category differences were examined using one-way ANOVA or Welch’s ANOVA, as appropriate. Associations between variables were assessed using Pearson’s correlation coefficient, while multivariable linear regression models were used to examine the independent associations of chronological age and maturity offset with physical performance outcomes. Significant age-category differences were observed in estimated age at peak height velocity (F(4, 65) = 5.12, η2 = 0.240), maturity offset (F(4, 65) = 45.12, η2 = 0.735), body height (F(4, 32.15) = 5.01, η2 = 0.319), body weight (F(4, 65) = 15.47, η2 = 0.488), skeletal muscle mass (F(4, 65) = 16.36, η2 = 0.502), 30-m sprint time (F(4, 65) = 27.97, η2 = 0.633), CODs without a ball (F(4, 65) = 16.52, η2 = 0.504), standing long jump (F(4, 65) = 11.39, η2 = 0.412), and endurance test performance (F(4, 30.21) = 16.47, η2 = 0.408; all p < 0.01). The U14 players generally demonstrated less favorable performance than the older age categories. Interestingly, no significant age-category differences were observed in body fat percentage, Functional Movement Screen total score, or CODs with the ball. In the regression analyses, maturity offset was significantly associated only with standing long jump performance (β = 0.496, p = 0.012), but the association did not remain significant after Holm correction. The reported age-category values may provide preliminary benchmarks for evaluating youth academy soccer players, but they should be interpreted alongside maturity status and individual developmental characteristics. Future studies could complement field-based testing with biomechanical and treadmill-based laboratory assessments to provide a more comprehensive evaluation of age- and maturity-related performance.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090401

Authors: Taeseok Choi Hanshin Jeong Yohan Uhm

Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the primary motor cortex (M1) has been proposed as an ergogenic aid. Prior reviews pooled heterogeneous outcomes, and none isolated explosive lower-limb power or separated jump output from force–time kinetics. We asked whether anodal M1 tDCS versus sham improves explosive lower-limb power in healthy active adults, analysing these two outcome categories separately. Following PRISMA 2020 (PROSPERO CRD420261438841), four databases were searched up to 3 July 2026 for randomised and crossover trials. Random-effects meta-analyses (REML with Hartung–Knapp) pooled Hedges’ g by category; risk of bias (RoB 2) and certainty (GRADE) were assessed. Seven trials were included. tDCS did not significantly improve jump output (k = 6; g = 0.44, 95% CI −0.05 to 0.92; p = 0.069; I2 = 19%). The kinetics estimate was moderate (k = 3; g = 0.67, 95% CI 0.53 to 0.81; I2 = 0%) but did not survive a conservative small-sample correction (95% CI −0.23 to 1.57; p = 0.086). Certainty was very low throughout. Including a further trial whose comparator was a no-intervention control made both estimates significant, indicating a fragile evidence base. Current evidence does not establish an ergogenic benefit; adequately powered, pre-registered trials are needed.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090400

Authors: Artur Avelino Birk Preissler Pedro Schons Filipe Manuel Clemente Ana Filipa Silva Carla Gonçalves Luiz Fernando Martins Kruel

Physical performance may vary across competitive categories in women’s football, but the capacities distinguishing consecutive stages remain unclear. This cross-sectional study compared under-14 (U14), under-16 (U16), under-18 (U18), and professional Brazilian female outfield players and identified adjacent-stage differences. Overall, 119 female outfield players from two Brazilian football clubs, with U14 and U16 players recruited from one club and U18 and professional players from both clubs, completed the squat jump, countermovement jump, 20 m sprint, 20 m change-of-direction test (COD-20m), and Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1. Analyses included Welch’s ANOVA, multivariate analysis, Games–Howell tests, and adjacent-stage comparisons with Holm adjustment. The multivariate physical-performance profile differed in all three adjacent-stage comparisons (Holm-adjusted p ≤ 0.043). U16 covered 491.82 m more than U14 in the Yo-Yo test (adjusted p = 0.012), although this comparison was limited to players from one club. U18 exceeded U16 in squat jump (3.10 cm; adjusted p = 0.004) and countermovement jump (3.87 cm; adjusted p = 0.002). Professionals exceeded U18 in squat jump (2.89 cm; adjusted p = 0.008), countermovement jump (2.93 cm; adjusted p = 0.011), and COD-20m (−0.24 s; adjusted p < 0.001). These category- and capacity-specific differences support category-specific interpretation and may help practitioners prioritize relevant capacities in monitoring and physical preparation rather than applying uniform benchmarks.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090399

Authors: Juan Miguel Ramírez Lucas Juan Antonio Párraga Montilla Manuel Herrero Sánchez José Carlos Cabrera-Linares Pedro Ángel Latorre Román

Background: Football performance emerges from the interaction of technical, physical, and perceptual-cognitive abilities, yet talent identification protocols often assess these components separately. This study examined whether football-specific dual-task (DT) performance, assessed using the Soccer Skills and Cognitive Aptitude Test (SoSCAT), could discriminate between coach-rated talent levels in youth football players. Methods: A total of 181 male football players aged 12–18 years participated in this cross-sectional study and were classified into U14 (n = 70), U16 (n = 63), and U18 (n = 48) categories. Based on coaches’ evaluations, players were also classified as more talented (n = 46) or less talented (n = 135). Participants completed football-specific technical, physical, cognitive, and DT assessments. Results: Coach-rated talented players demonstrated superior football-specific DT performance, with faster completion times under DT conditions (partial η2 = 0.190), a smaller increase in completion time (ΔTime; partial η2 = 0.095), lower DTC (rrβ = −0.351), and fewer decision errors (rrβ = −0.211). Older players showed better absolute DT performance and fewer decision errors, although ΔTime and DTC did not differ between age categories. Age, coach-rated talent status, league goals, and football-specific technical performance remained independently associated with SoSCAT DT performance (adjusted R2 = 0.500). ROC analysis showed good discriminative ability for SoSCAT DT performance (AUC = 0.822). Conclusions: Football-specific DT performance demonstrated good discriminative ability between coach-rated talent levels. The SoSCAT may represent a valuable complementary tool for multidimensional player assessment by integrating football-specific technical execution and perceptual-cognitive demands. However, its interpretation should consider the cross-sectional design, absence of biological maturation assessment, and reliance on coach-rated talent classification.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090398

Authors: Himani Sanjay Vartak Jorge Costa Sampath Kumar Amaravadi

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is increasingly incorporated into football conditioning programmes to enhance aerobic fitness, muscular strength, and agility. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the effects of HIIT on these performance outcomes in football players and explored the availability of evidence relating to injury outcomes. Six electronic information sources were searched for randomised and non-randomised controlled trials published between January 2010 and December 2024. Methodological quality was assessed using the Modified Downs and Black checklist, and certainty of evidence was evaluated using GRADE. Ten studies including 329 football players were included. Aerobic-fitness outcomes were synthesised narratively because heterogeneity in outcome measurement and reporting precluded reliable quantitative pooling. Individual studies demonstrated favourable changes, although superiority over comparator training was not consistently established. Muscle-strength outcomes were also synthesised narratively because sufficiently comparable independent-study data were unavailable. Two RCTs contributed to the agility meta-analysis; following harmonisation of the direction of time-based outcomes, no significant advantage of HIIT over comparator training was observed (SMD = −0.29, 95% CI −0.83 to 0.25; p = 0.290). Certainty of evidence was low across performance outcomes. No included study directly assessed injury incidence. Overall, HIIT may contribute to improvements in football-related physical performance; however, the limited, heterogeneous, and non-professional evidence base warrants cautious interpretation and further adequately powered trials.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090397

Authors: Clinton Deon Swanepoel Charl Jacobus Roux Heather Morris-Eyton

Elite 5000 m track performance depends on the integration of endurance training, race-specific speed, tactical decision-making, technology, physiological characteristics, and individualized athlete support. This systematic review synthesized peer-reviewed evidence available as open-access full texts that was either specific to the 5000 m event or explicitly applicable to elite 5000 m preparation. Searches of SPORTDiscus, ProQuest Central, Scopus, and PsycINFO were completed in February 2025 and updated on 17 August 2026, with reporting guided by PRISMA 2020 and PRISMA-S and narrative synthesis structured with reference to SWiM. Following duplicate removal, 1439 records were screened; 430 reports were sought, 39 were not retrieved, 391 were assessed, and 11 publications met the deliberately narrow event-relevance criteria. The update search identified 11 records; three duplicates were removed, eight unique records were screened, and no additional eligible publication was identified. Methodological and reporting quality were appraised using QuADS. Evidence was considered separately across warm-up, training-intensity distribution, tapering, altitude exposure/training responses, pacing/tactical behavior, footwear technology, physiological profiling/performance determinants, and nutrition. The most direct event-specific evidence comprised a 5000 m warm-up trial in trained runners and observational championship pacing analyses, whereas most other evidence was indirect to exclusive elite 5000 m specialists. Confidence was low or very low across components. The pragmatic open-access retrieval restriction, small evidence base, methodological heterogeneity, restricted database coverage, and indirectness limit certainty and generalizability. The findings should therefore be interpreted as conditional considerations rather than prescriptive recommendations.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090396

Authors: Prashant Kumar Choudhary Suchishrava Choudhary Yajuvendra Singh Rajpoot Ana Maria Vulpe Sohom Saha Sema Arslan Kabasakal Gabriel Stănică Lupu Mihaela Anghel Nevzat Demirci Mihai Adrian Sava Cristina Elena Stoica Cristian Corneliu Drăgoi

Background: Research examining performance, biomechanics, workload, injury, and health in Para sport is heterogeneous and is particularly focused on wheelchair-based sports. This systematic review synthesized quantitative evidence focused predominantly on wheelchair basketball, wheelchair rugby, and wheelchair tennis, with additional evidence from Para-cycling, mixed wheelchair-sport populations, and broader Paralympic cohorts. Methods: Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidance and predefined eligibility criteria, PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science Core Collection, and Google Scholar were searched without publication-date restrictions. Owing to substantial heterogeneity in study designs, populations, sports, measurements, and outcomes, findings were synthesized narratively. Risk of bias was evaluated using design-specific appraisal tools. Results: Twenty-two quantitative studies were included. Evidence was focused on wheelchair basketball, wheelchair rugby, and wheelchair tennis, with additional evidence from Para-cycling, mixed wheelchair-sport populations, and broader Paralympic cohorts. Findings indicated associations among trunk function, functional classification, wheelchair mobility, upper-body function, propulsion characteristics, workload responses, and sport-specific performance. In one small study involving 10 wheelchair tennis athletes, medicine-ball throw performance was strongly correlated with serve accuracy (r = 0.874); this finding should not be generalized beyond that study. Prospective surveillance studies also identified meaningful injury and illness burdens across Para athlete populations. Conclusions: Available evidence suggests that performance and health in the represented Para sport populations are influenced by interacting functional, biomechanical, workload, and health-related factors. However, the evidence base is limited by small samples, heterogeneous methods, and a predominance of observational designs. Individualized assessment, workload monitoring, and health surveillance therefore represent provisional practice considerations rather than established best-practice recommendations.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090395

Authors: Pablo Góngora-Rodríguez Manuel Rodríguez-Huguet Jorge Góngora-Rodríguez Javier Riscart-López Guillermo de Castro-Maqueda Miguel Ángel Rosety-Rodríguez

This systematic review and meta-analysis investigated resisted sled training (RST) efficacy compared to unresisted sprint training (UST), alongside the moderating effects of sprint distance, sled load, and surface. Following PRISMA guidelines, PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus and SPORTDiscus were searched up to May 2026. Risk of bias was assessed via the PEDro scale. Twelve studies (N = 324) were included. Data were analyzed using Correlated Robust Variance Estimation (CRVE). Overall, RST reduced sprint times compared to UST (Hedges’ g = −0.250, p = 0.046; I2 = 0.0%). While time reductions were significant for early acceleration (≤10 m; g = −0.360, p < 0.001), and not for longer-distance outcomes (>10 m; g = −0.168, p = 0.293), the between-distance interaction was non-significant (p = 0.094). Moderate loads (g = −0.352, p = 0.062) and indoor gym floors (g = −0.495, p = 0.096) showed larger point estimates than natural grass (g = −0.180) and synthetic tracks (g = −0.197). In conclusion, no statistically significant moderating effects of distance, load, or surface were demonstrated. Because training surfaces influence the actual mechanical stimulus, prescribing sled loads based on velocity decrement (%Vdec) rather than percentage of body mass (%BM) is a promising hypothesis to standardize resistance across terrains, requiring confirmation via future prospective trials. PROSPERO: CRD420261415365.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090394

Authors: Matthew J. Barenie Michael R. Thomsen Harneet Kaur Erin K. Howie Christopher M. Murphy Kari A. Weber

Purpose: Body mass index (BMI) is widely used in childhood obesity surveillance despite limitations in capturing central adiposity, which has been hypothesized to relate to reduced participation in movement. This study compared associations between z-score waist circumference (zWC), z-score waist-to-height ratio (zWHR), and BMI and device-measured physical activity in predominantly African American, low-income schoolchildren. Methods: This cross-sectional study included 264 schoolchildren aged 5–12 years (146 girls, 118 boys; mean age 8.5 ± 1.8 years; ~86% African American; ~93% eligible for free/reduced-price lunch). Anthropometrics and free-living PA (Actigraph GT9X) were measured. Regression models evaluated associations between each anthropometric z-score and PA intensities, adjusting for age, sex, wear time, and school. Results: Measures of central adiposity showed inverse associations with physical activity that were of similar or slightly greater magnitude than those for BMI, although differences between models were modest. All three adiposity measures (zWC, zWHR, zBMI) were significantly and negatively associated with total moderate–vigorous physical activity (MVPA), only in girls. A one-unit increase in zWC was associated with a decrease of 3.334 min/day in MVPA. The largest negative associations were observed for zWC and zWHR with vigorous activity. Conclusions: In this population of schoolchildren, waist-based measures showed inverse associations with physical activity of similar or slightly greater magnitude than BMI, particularly among girls. Although modest differences in model fit prohibit claiming superiority over BMI, these findings support utilizing waist-based measures as practical, low-cost complements to traditional BMI in school-based surveillance and activity targeting.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090393

Authors: Fernando Valero Fernando González-Mohíno Alejandro Alda-Blanco Violeta Muñoz de la Cruz Sergio Rodríguez-Barbero Miguel Ángel Galán-Rioja Juan José Salinero

This study aimed to analyze the placebo effect associated with caffeine ingestion on cycling performance at the respiratory compensation point (RCP). Nineteen trained male cyclists (age: 28.1 ± 9.4 years; body mass: 71.0 ± 8.4 kg; VO2max: 67.1 ± 6.7 mL·kg−1·min−1) completed two time-to-exhaustion (TTE) tests at the power output associated with RCP under two conditions: caffeine informed/placebo ingested (Expectancy) and non-ingested (Control), separated by 4–7 days. Total work (kJ) was recorded as the main performance variable and heart rate and rating of perceived exertion were measured. The side effects were evaluated through a questionnaire administered the day after the expectancy condition. TTE performance was similar (157.31 ± 63.45 kJ Expectancy vs. 154.83 ± 56.19 kJ Control, p = 0.68, trivial d = 0.09). Heart rate did not differ between trials (173.05 ± 9.65 bpm vs. 173.32 ± 9.74 bpm, p = 0.71 trivial d = −0.07), and RPE reached maximal values. Mild side effects—mainly increased activeness and muscular pain (31.3%)—were reported following placebo ingestion. In conclusion, this study did not detect an effect of a caffeine expectancy manipulation on time to exhaustion at the RCP in trained male cyclists. Heart rate was similar between conditions, and mild subjective symptoms were reported following the expectancy condition, although these cannot be causally attributed to expectancy.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090392

Authors: Aldo Di Martino Silvana Mirella Aliberti Daria Nurzynska Raffaele Canonico Gennaro De Luca Angelo Gioffredi Clotilde Castaldo Franca Di Meglio

Background: Evidence regarding the longitudinal use of infrared thermography in elite under-18 soccer players remains limited. Most previous studies have relied on cross-sectional designs or short observation periods. Methods: This prospective longitudinal observational study monitored 18 elite under-18 male outfield soccer players across 16 official matches (96 valid assessments). Thermographic evaluations were performed 48 h post-match under standardized conditions across six bilateral lower-limb regions. A thermal asymmetry was defined as relevant if ΔTsk ≥ 0.5 °C. Linear mixed-effects models, paired t-tests and chi-square tests were used for statistical analysis. Results: Relevant asymmetries were detected in 79.2% of assessments (mean maximum ΔTsk 0.77 ± 0.43 °C). Posterior Thigh BF (40.6%) and Posterior Thigh ST (35.4%) showed the highest prevalence (χ2 = 16.31, p = 0.006). Significant side-to-side differences were found for Anterior Thigh (p = 0.004), Adductor (p = 0.039) and Posterior Thigh BF (p = 0.032). The intraclass correlation coefficient for Thermal Asymmetry Burden was very low (ICC = 0.024). Fifteen athletes (83.3%) showed recurrent asymmetry and 13 (72.2%) showed a recurrent same-region pattern. Match-to-match variation in TAB was significant (Kruskal–Wallis p = 0.025; ANOVA p = 0.011). No time-loss muscle injuries occurred. Conclusions: Post-match thermal asymmetries are highly prevalent in elite youth soccer and appear to reflect dynamic, load-dependent recovery responses rather than stable thermal phenotypes. Longitudinal thermographic monitoring may help characterise individual recovery patterns when interpreted alongside other monitoring tools.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090391

Authors: Efstathios Papadopoulos Lazaros Vardakis Maria Papadopoulou Konstantinos Papadopoulos Stefanos Katsikas Glykeria Tsentidou

Playing position influences soccer match demands, but comparisons may be biased by unequal playing time and repeated observations from the same players. This retrospective observational study compared GPS-derived running and change-of-velocity demands across five positional groups while accounting for within-player clustering and match exposure. The primary analysis included 84 player-match observations from 21 male professional outfield players across six competitive matches. Linear mixed-effects models included playing position and match as fixed effects, log-transformed playing duration as a covariate, and player as a random intercept. After Holm correction, position was associated with total distance, high-intensity running distance at ≥19 km/h, distance at ≥25 km/h, sprint count, peak speed, accelerations at ≥3 m/s2, and decelerations at ≤−3 m/s2 (adjusted p ≤ 0.020). At equivalent exposure, central defenders recorded approximately 49% less high-intensity running than wingers and fewer sprints, accelerations, and decelerations than several other groups. Midfielders achieved a 3.06 km/h lower adjusted peak speed than side defenders/full-backs. Findings were robust to two sensitivity analyses. Position-specific monitoring should combine accumulated match dose with exposure-adjusted estimates and account for repeated observations when players contribute data from multiple matches.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090390

Authors: Aura D. Montenegro-Bonilla Boryi A. Becerra-Patiño Jorge Olivares-Arancibia Julio Plaza-Díaz Daniel Rojas-Valverde Rodrigo Yañez-Sepúlveda José Francisco López-Gil

Background: Mental health has become a fundamental component of the sports world. Although previous studies have addressed psychological aspects of women’s soccer, no comprehensive review has mapped both mental health symptoms and adaptive psychological resources and psychophysiological markers in professional, semi-professional, and competitive adolescent women’s soccer. Objective: This scoping review aimed to map recent evidence from 2020 to 2025 on mental health in professional and semi-professional women’s soccer including competitive settings for adolescents, identifying key psychological constructs, assessment instruments, and risk and protective factors within the competitive sport context. Methods: Following the methodological guidelines of the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR), a systematic search was conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science. Thirteen empirical studies that explicitly assessed mental health dimensions in professional and semi-professional women’s soccer players were included. Results: The most frequently studied constructs were psychological stress, competitive anxiety, resilience, motivation, and well-being. The main risk factors included intense competitive demands, accumulated fatigue, and performance pressure. Predominant protective factors were individual resilience, social support, team cohesion, and self-confidence. The most used instruments were validated scales including the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS), Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2), Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Revised (CSAI-2R), Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7), Sport Mental Health Assessment Tool-1 (SMHAT-1) and qualitative interviews. Resilience emerged as a central concept; although it was measured directly in only two studies, it emerged conceptually as a central theme in the evidence, and recent qualitative studies have highlighted the influence of the institutional environment and technical support. Conclusions: The available evidence which is heterogeneous and limited to 13 studies points to a growing body of research on mental health in women’s soccer, focused primarily on stress and resilience. However, significant gaps remain, including a lack of multi-season longitudinal studies tracking players across full competitive cycles, limited representation of Latin American and Asian contexts (one study each), the absence of position-specific analyses such as studies focused on goalkeepers and insufficient attention to positive well-being. Prospective and intervention-based studies are needed to develop a comprehensive understanding of mental health in elite sports and in competitive adolescent settings.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090389

Authors: Carlos Alberto Lubián Rodríguez Alexandra Martín-Rodríguez

Background: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is associated with impairments in executive functions, particularly cognitive flexibility, which may negatively affect academic performance, behavioral regulation, and daily adaptation in children. Physical activity has emerged as a promising non-pharmacological strategy to support executive functioning; however, evidence regarding the effects of different exercise modalities on cognitive flexibility remains heterogeneous. Methods: This systematic review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The review protocol was retrospectively registered in the PROSPERO database (CRD420261399699) before manuscript submission. Searches were conducted in PubMed, Scopus, MEDLINE, Web of Science, PsycInfo, and SPORTDiscus. Studies examining the effects of physical activity interventions on cognitive flexibility in Primary Education students with ADHD were included. Seventeen studies involving 634 participants aged 6–12 years met the eligibility criteria. Methodological quality was assessed using design-appropriate critical appraisal tools. Results: Overall, the included studies reported potentially beneficial effects of physical activity on cognitive flexibility, although findings varied according to study design, intervention characteristics, and outcome measures. Across the available studies, multi-session interventions tended to report more consistent improvements across cognitive flexibility outcomes than single-session protocols. Structured sports and interventions combining physical and cognitive demands, including football, table tennis, EXCIR, and BARAN, also reported improvements in several cognitive flexibility outcomes. However, substantial methodological heterogeneity and the absence of direct comparisons between intervention types or durations preclude conclusions regarding the superiority or comparative effectiveness of specific approaches. Conclusions: Physical activity may represent a promising complementary strategy for supporting cognitive flexibility in children with ADHD. The available evidence suggests potentially favorable findings for multi-session and cognitively engaging interventions; however, these patterns should be interpreted cautiously because of the heterogeneity of study designs, intervention protocols, and cognitive flexibility measures. Further well-designed studies directly comparing intervention characteristics and exercise modalities are needed before specific recommendations regarding optimal type or duration can be established.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090388

Authors: Simona Mrakic-Sposta Cristina Ranuncoli Vittore Verratti Maristella Gussoni Federica Mrakic-Sposta Consuelo Rubina Nava Manuel Marzola Michela Montorsi Alessio Cavicchioli Alessandra Vezzoli

The study investigated the systemic responses concerning oxy-inflammation, hormones, and mood after a ski mountaineering competition. Nine experienced military ski mountaineers (age, 32.37 ± 8.90 years; body mass, 59.37 ± 9.58 kg; BMI, 19.85 ± 1.53 kg/m−2) were non-invasively assessed using saliva and urine samples collected at baseline (T0) and immediately after competition (T1). Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), total antioxidant capacity, lipid peroxidation (8-isoPGF2α), systemic inflammatory responses (IL-6; TNF-α; sICAM), neurobiological markers of stress and mood regulation (cortisol and serotonin), and indicators of metabolic and immune activation (creatinine, neopterin, and uric acid) were obtained. In addition, psychometric, physical, and subjective rating scales were administered. At T1, significant increases in oxy-inflammatory biomarkers were recorded (ROS: +137%; 8-iso: +121%; IL-6: +175%; TNF-α: +45%); stress hormones (cortisol: +241%; serotonin: +141%), associated with changes in urinary creatinine (+60%) and an increase in immune activation (neopterin: +94%). An exploratory analysis suggested a potential quadratic association between race completion time and post-race ROS production rate (R2 = 0.552), warranting further investigation in larger cohorts. At T1, Visual Analog Scale (VAS) scores increased by 98% for tiredness, 112% for fatigue, 36% for happiness, and 320% for pain. In conclusion, ski mountaineering competitions place an extremely high physiological burden on athletes, eliciting complex oxidative, inflammatory, metabolic, hormonal, and psychophysiological responses that may reflect the interactions among exercise intensity, cumulative hypoxic exposure, and redox adaptive mechanisms.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090387

Authors: Raffaella R. R. Marzovillo Gabriella D’Orsi Paride Vasco Giuseppe Cartagena Donato Melchionda Natalia Forte Giuseppe Cibelli Anna A. Valenzano

Gait and balance impairments in Parkinson’s disease (PD) severely compromise mobility and independence. This exploratory randomized pilot study evaluated a multimodal Adapted Physical Activity (APA) protocol, a tango-based program (Riabilitango®, RT), and standard care regarding walking distance, static postural stability, joint range of motion, and plantar-load redistribution. Twenty-seven participants with PD (Hoehn and Yahr 1–3) were allocated to APA (n = 10), RT (n = 10), or Control (n = 7). The active groups completed 24 supervised sessions over 12 weeks. Static postural stability and treadmill-based walking distance were evaluated at baseline and post-intervention. Both active interventions showed favorable static sway profiles compared to Control, though between-group differences were non-significant. Crucially, APA demonstrated a significantly greater post-intervention improvement in walking distance than RT and Control. Exploratory analyses linked APA walking gains to adaptations in joint mobility and plantar-load redistribution. In conclusion, multimodal APA showed the clearest functional signal for improving walking distance in PD, whereas Riabilitango® offered a complementary profile focused on sensorimotor integration and balance. These preliminary pilot findings warrant confirmation in larger prospective trials.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090386

Authors: Alexandre Duarte Martins João Paulo Brito Nuno Batalha Bruno Gonçalves Rafael Oliveira Orlando Fernandes

Background: Engaging in regular physical activity (PA) after completing structured exercise programmes may contribute to sustaining functional and cognitive gains in older adults over the long term. This study investigated whether different levels of PA during the one-year follow-up were associated with the preservation of the physical and cognitive gains achieved after a high-speed resistance training (HSRT) intervention lasting 16 weeks. Methods: Thirty-six community-dwelling older adults who had previously finished a supervised 16-week HSRT programme were monitored for one year. According to self-reported PA assessed at the one-year follow-up, participants were allocated to either a light activity group (LAG, n = 20) or a moderate-to-vigorous activity group (MVAG, n = 16). The following tests were used to assess physical function: six-minute walk test (6MWT), chair-stand test, seated medicine ball throw (SMBT), timed up-and-go test (TUG), and handgrip strength (HGS), whereas global cognitive function was assessed with the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Results: Exploratory between-group comparisons indicated that participants in the MVAG tended to show better chair-stand performance at the six-month (dunb = 0.76 [0.09 to 1.45]) and one-year (dunb = 1.02 [0.34 to 1.74]) assessments. SMBT performance declined similarly in both groups throughout follow-up (LAG: dunb = −0.41 [−0.61 to −0.24]; MVAG: dunb = −0.44 [−0.72 to −0.21]). Although the group × time interaction did not reach statistical significance (p = 0.079, ηp2 = 0.088), exploratory analyses showed that declines in chair-stand and TUG performance occurred mainly in the LAG, pointing to possible patterns related to the maintenance of functional capacity. Cognitive performance decreased post-intervention in both groups, regardless of the PA level. Conclusions: Higher levels of self-reported PA assessed at the one-year follow-up were associated with more favourable trends in lower-limb functional performance.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090385

Authors: Diego H. Méndez Federico J. Villalba Santiago Soliño Tim J. Gabbett

The session rating of perceived exertion (s-RPE) is a validated tool for monitoring subjective training intensity across various sports. We aimed to assess the association between s-RPE recorded within 30 min post-training and a single retrospective weekly RPE (wRPE) reported at the end of the week. We tracked the training loads (TLs) of eight professional tennis players over one season and analyzed the association among three parameters: the weekly average of session-specific RPE (mRPE) vs. wRPE; weekly TL (s-RPE × duration) derived from both mRPE and wRPE; and week-to-week percentage changes in TL. We employed a nested model and a Bland–Altman analysis to evaluate association, bias, and limits of agreement. Our analysis revealed very large associations between mRPE and wRPE (r = 0.804) and between week-to-week TL progressions (r = 0.885). The association between TL measures themselves was nearly perfect (r = 0.974). Bland–Altman plots demonstrated superior agreement at lower loads, whereas higher loads were associated with greater variability. We conclude that a single self-reported measure at the end of the week was strongly associated with session-derived RPE, TL, and weekly TL progression in professional tennis players. Nevertheless, these two approaches are not interchangeable, and consistency in the chosen method is key for reliable TL monitoring in professional tennis players.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090384

Authors: Riccardo Bucciarelli Farzad Yousefian Ethan Brown Lawrence L. Spriet Margaret Jones John Srbely

This cross-sectional observational study examined associations between distance covered in the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (YYIRTL1) and Level 2 (YYIRTL2) and selected physical and physiological performance characteristics in Canadian male professional soccer players. A convenience sample of 29 players from one Canadian Premier League club completed YYIRTL1, YYIRTL2, VO2max testing, the Cunningham–Faulkner Test (CFT), squat-jump-derived power, theoretical running-power index, maximal running velocity (Vmax), reactive strength index (RSI), and isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP). Pearson correlations with 95% confidence intervals and Benjamini–Hochberg false-discovery-rate adjustment were calculated. Hypothesis-driven hierarchical regression models were limited to VO2max and CFT. YYIRTL1 distance was positively correlated with VO2max (r = 0.666) and CFT (r = 0.540), and was inversely correlated with squat-jump-derived power and theoretical running-power index (both r = −0.501). VO2max explained 44.3% of YYIRTL1 variance; adding CFT increased explained variance to 52.9%. YYIRTL2 distance was positively correlated with CFT (r = 0.740) and VO2max (r = 0.684). CFT explained 54.8% of YYIRTL2 variance; adding VO2max increased explained variance to 72.2%. These findings suggest that VO2max and CFT performance are associated with YYIRT performance in this single-club professional cohort. Because the sample was small and externally unvalidated, the regression models should be interpreted as exploratory explanatory models rather than prospective prediction tools.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090383

Authors: Natalie Marterer Lorenz Immler Martin Faulhaber

Background: Upper-body exercise is increasingly applied in athletic and exercise settings; however, acute physiological and perceptual differences compared to lower-body exercise remain insufficiently characterized. This study compared maximal performance parameters during incremental upper- and lower-body exercise in healthy adults. Methods: Seventeen moderately trained participants (eight females, nine males) completed randomized incremental tests on a hand crank ergometer (HCE) and a cycle ergometer (CE). Maximal fat oxidation (MFO), intensity at maximal fat oxidation (FATmax), peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), maximal heart rate (HRpeak), peak power output (PPO), immediate post-exercise lactate (LApost), and differentiated ratings of perceived exertion (RPEbreathing and RPEmuscles) were assessed. Results: MFO was significantly lower during HCE compared with CE (0.26 vs. 0.55 g·min−1, p < 0.001), occurring at a lower FATmax (42.6% vs. 51.6% of VO2peak, p = 0.016). Furthermore, relative VO2peak (34.1 vs. 48.9 mL·kg−1·min−1, p < 0.001), HRpeak (178 vs. 189 beats·min−1, p < 0.001), and relative PPO (1.8 vs. 4.1 W·kg−1, p < 0.001) were substantially reduced during HCE. While RPEbreathing was higher during CE (19.1 vs. 17.6, p < 0.001), RPEmuscles (19.4 vs. 19.8, p = 0.111) and LApost (9.8 vs. 8.6 mmol·L−1, p = 0.060) did not differ significantly between modalities. No significant modality-by-sex interactions were observed for any outcome. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate pronounced modality-specific differences in metabolic, cardiorespiratory, and perceptual responses. Exercise modality should therefore be carefully considered when interpreting maximal exercise tests and prescribing training or rehabilitation programs.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090382

Authors: Rita Géczi Csaba Ökrös Károly Dobos Katalin Orbán-Sebestyén Nóra Papp László Tóth

Objective: Talent identification in youth tennis remains challenging because current assessment approaches often evaluate physical, technical, and cognitive characteristics separately rather than within an integrated multidimensional framework. The present study aimed to identify multidimensional performance profiles in U10 tennis players by integrating technical, physical-motor, and reaction-based cognitive performance characteristics within a single analytical framework. Methods: A total of 113 players participating in the Hungarian Tennis Federation’s U10 Talent Identification Festival were assessed using a multidimensional performance battery. Following data cleaning, 113 participants were included in the analyses. Principal component analysis was used to examine the dimensional structure of the assessment battery, whereas k-means clustering was performed separately on the ten standardized performance variables. The optimal number of clusters was determined using complementary validation procedures, including the elbow method, average silhouette width, and gap statistic. Differences between the two performance profiles were examined using Welch’s t-tests with Hedges’ g effect sizes, while associations of profile membership with birth quarter and sex were assessed using chi-square analyses. An age-adjusted sensitivity analysis was additionally performed to evaluate the influence of chronological age on the clustering solution. Results: A two-cluster solution was retained, comprising a higher-performing profile (n = 48) and a lower-performing profile (n = 65). The higher-performing profile demonstrated better performance across all ten technical, physical-motor, and reaction-based measures, with the largest standardized differences observed for throwing speed (Hedges’ g = 1.43), technique (g = 1.42), and 15-m sprint performance (|g| = 1.38). Chronological age differed significantly between profiles, with participants in the higher-performing profile being older (9.41 vs. 8.80 years; Welch’s t(102.94) = 4.24, p < 0.001; Hedges’ g = 0.80). However, the two-cluster solution remained highly stable after age adjustment (bootstrap Jaccard coefficients = 0.937 and 0.946), with 85.0% correspondence in cluster membership. Neither birth quarter (χ2(3) = 0.28, p = 0.964) nor sex (χ2(1) = 3.19, p = 0.074) was significantly associated with profile membership. Conclusions: Multidimensional profiling identified two distinct performance profiles in U10 tennis players, primarily reflecting a broad gradient in current technical, physical-motor, and reaction-based performance. Although chronological age contributed to profile membership, the persistence of the cluster structure after age adjustment suggests that age did not fully account for the observed performance heterogeneity. These profiles should be interpreted as exploratory descriptions of current multidimensional performance rather than fixed talent categories or predictors of future development. In practice, multidimensional assessment may help coaches identify relative strengths and weaknesses across performance domains and support individualised player development; however, profile membership should not be used as a stand-alone criterion for talent selection or deselection. Longitudinal studies are needed to establish their developmental stability and predictive validity.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090381

Authors: Danijela Kuna Jasenka Gajdoš Kljusurić Vesna Bosanac

Beverage consumption practices before, during, and after training are relevant to physical performance and health. However, less is known about whether these self-reported practices remain stable or change over relatively short periods. The primary aim of this study was to determine whether the frequency of self-reported exercise-related beverage consumption changed over a 30-day period in physically active university students. A secondary aim was to characterize individual-level temporal agreement in selected beverage consumption frequency items across the two assessments. A total of 34 participants (18 males and 16 females; age 20.8 ± 0.5 years) completed a 28-item questionnaire on two occasions separated by 30 days. Paired Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were used to examine group-level changes in ordinal beverage-consumption frequency, while weighted Cohen’s kappa coefficients (κw) with 95% confidence intervals, exact agreement, and adjacent-category agreement were used to characterize individual-level temporal agreement. No statistically significant group-level differences were detected between assessments for the analyzed beverage-consumption frequency items (all p > 0.05). Across the analyzed items, exact agreement ranged from 73.5% to 100.0%, adjacent-category agreement from 94.1% to 100.0%, and κw values ranged from 0.329 to 1.000. Water was the most frequently reported beverage before, during, and after training. Overall, no systematic group-level changes in exercise-related beverage consumption frequency were detected over the 30-day period, while individual-level temporal agreement varied across beverage categories and exercise-related time points.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090380

Authors: Henrique Brito Henrique Lopes Eric Brymer Duarte Araújo

A fundamental concern for coaches and sport practitioners is developing athlete performance while preserving health and well-being. An emerging topic is that performing in nature-based environments may have more benefits than performing in typical built/indoor environments. However, to understand athlete performance and well-being, it is essential to recognize how performers accommodate (adapt) skills and resources under environmental constraints in pursuit of sport and exercise task goals. This article presents a narrative review to support a hypothesis on the sustained benefits of performing in nature-based environments, with health and well-being as necessary aspects for performance, grounded in the ecological dynamics theoretical framework. We start by discussing: (i) performance in nature-based and indoor environments underpinned by affordance perception; (ii) evidence for the role of nature-based environmental constraints on movement and psychological aspects; (iii) the hypothesis that prolonged engagement with nature-based environments during sport and exercise may promote adaptive skill development, health, and well-being, and may facilitate the transfer of these adaptations to performance in built indoor competitive settings; (iv) the distinct lived experiences (e.g., emotion, well-being) that emerge from exercising in nature-based and built indoor environments; and (v) suggestions on how to include nature-based constraints on sport and exercise training, and future research considerations. Overall, the reviewed theoretical and empirical evidence provides a rationale for the hypothesis that prolonged engagement with nature-based environments during sport and exercise may promote adaptive skill development, health, and well-being, with potential transfer of these adaptations to performance in built indoor settings. Future longitudinal and experimental studies are required to test this hypothesis and determine whether, and under what conditions, these proposed adaptations transfer to performance in built indoor sport settings.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090379

Authors: Artur Avelino Birk Preissler Filipe Manuel Clemente Marcela Zimmermann Casal Bianca Mariante Braga Rui Miguel Silva Carla Gonçalves Pedro Schons

Interpreting judo-specific fitness in young judoka requires practical field-based tests that reflect relevant neuromuscular and functional capacities. This cross-sectional study aimed to analyze the associations between field-based neuromuscular and functional indicators and Special Judo Fitness Test performance in young judoka. The sample comprised 36 judoka, including 27 male and 9 female athletes aged 15 to 22 years. Athletes were assessed during a beginning-of-season physical assessment session for body mass, stature, squat jump, countermovement jump, medicine ball throw without and with countermovement, judogi-grip dynamic pull-up, judogi-grip isometric pull-up, Y Balance Test score, and Special Judo Fitness Test performance. The SJFT total number of throws was treated as the primary outcome, whereas the SJFT index was treated as a secondary outcome. SJFT total was positively associated with squat jump (r = 0.670), countermovement jump (r = 0.637), judogi-grip dynamic pull-up (r = 0.514), judogi-grip isometric pull-up (r = 0.579), and Y Balance Test score (r = 0.501). Medicine ball throw performance was not significantly associated with SJFT total. An exploratory regression model including countermovement jump and judogi-grip isometric pull-up accounted for 46.7% of the variance in SJFT total performance after adjustment for model complexity (adjusted R2 = 0.467). These findings indicate that lower-limb power and judogi-grip pulling strength-endurance are relevant field-based indicators associated with SJFT performance in young judoka. Therefore, countermovement jump and judogi-grip isometric pull-up may support applied monitoring of physical capacities related to SJFT performance in developmental judo settings.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090378

Authors: Guanwen Zhou Hrvoje Karninčić Ivan Segedi Ivan Todorov Damir Pekas

Background: The official combat sports in the Olympic Games include fencing, taekwondo, wrestling, judo, boxing, and karate. Most current research indicates that participation in Olympic combat sports significantly improves the physical fitness of children and adolescents, but specific studies on its weight loss effects in this population remain relatively limited. This systematic review evaluated controlled Olympic combat-sport interventions for weight management and body composition in non-athlete children and adolescents. Methods: We searched five databases and platforms: PubMed, ProQuest, EBSCOhost, Web of Science (Core Collection), and Embase, up to 3 November 2025. Eleven reports met the eligibility criteria. Results: Four reports involved overweight or obese youth (three taekwondo and one judo intervention), and seven involved normal-weight participants (six judo and one taekwondo intervention). The studies differed substantially in populations, comparators, outcome definitions, and reporting. Reported within-group changes in body mass, BMI, and adiposity-related outcomes cannot alone establish comparative intervention effects. Among overweight or obese youth, the available taekwondo reports described favourable changes in selected adiposity-related outcomes, whereas evidence for judo and findings among normal-weight participants were inconsistent. In normal-weight children, changes in absolute body mass require interpretation alongside growth, maturation, and body-composition measures. Conclusions: The available evidence is limited, heterogeneous, and requires design-appropriate risk-of-bias reassessment. It does not support conclusions about fencing, boxing, wrestling, or karate. Future controlled trials should report prespecified, age- and sex-adjusted outcomes, complete between-group analyses, and adverse events.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090377

Authors: Tzu-Han Chan Chieh-Ying Chiang Yi-Cheng Wu Sung-Kai Lin

Background: Vertical jump force–time strategy describes how force is organized in time. This strategy provides performance-relevant information that jump height alone does not capture in basketball players. Arm swing and external load are opposing conditions rarely imposed on the same athletes. However, little is known about how they reorganize jump strategy, or whether force production capacity is associated with the response. Methods: A within-participant, repeated-measures design was used. Seventeen collegiate male basketball players performed the countermovement jump (CMJ), the arm-swing countermovement jump (CMJA), and the 20 kg loaded countermovement jump (LCMJ) on force platforms in a fixed order within one session. The isometric mid-thigh pull provided relative peak force and the rate of force development (RFD250). Vastus lateralis and lateral gastrocnemius architecture were assessed by ultrasonography. Linear mixed-effects models examined condition effects and capacity associations, with a condition-mean sensitivity analysis. Results: Relative to CMJ, CMJA increased jump height and prolonged contact and concentric times. In contrast, LCMJ reduced jump height and increased mean concentric force. No significant overall condition effect was found for gross peak force, and equivalence was not established. Relative isometric peak force was not significantly associated with jump height. The trial-level CMJA-by-RFD250 interaction was significant, but the corresponding interaction was not significant in the condition-mean model. No architecture–RFD250 correlation remained significant after correction for multiple comparisons. Conclusions: In this exploratory fixed-order design, the arm-swing and loaded conditions were associated with divergent force–time responses. Evidence for an overall condition effect on gross peak force was inconclusive, and the capacity associations require confirmation in larger, counterbalanced samples.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090376

Authors: Rareș Dumitrescu Denisa-Iulia Brus Ștefan Teriș Răzvan-Sandu Enoiu

Attack execution is a fundamental determinant of performance in sabre fencing, requiring athletes to integrate technical precision, tactical decision-making, perceptual abilities, and neuromuscular control within extremely short time intervals. The purpose of this exploratory single-group pre–post study was to investigate changes in attack execution, balance, postural control, and movement accuracy following an eight-week fencing-specific training program in competitive male sabre fencers. Eight competitive junior male sabre fencers completed an eight-week intervention consisting of two mesocycles designed to develop technical execution, balance, and movement control. Technical performance was assessed using four fencing-specific attack tests, whereas balance, postural control, and movement accuracy were evaluated using three sport-specific tests. Pre- and post-intervention performances were compared using paired-samples t-tests or exact Wilcoxon signed-rank tests according to the distribution of the paired differences, with effect sizes and 95% confidence intervals also reported. Balance in the En Garde Position increased from 44.00 ± 13.34 to 60.13 ± 18.80 s and was the only outcome showing a statistically significant pre–post change (p = 0.016; r_rb = 0.94). Change of Attack Direction increased from 7.50 ± 0.93 to 8.00 ± 0.93 points (p = 0.125; r_rb = 1.00; 4 non-tied pairs), while Beat Attack Execution increased from 8.25 ± 1.28 to 9.13 ± 0.83 points (p = 0.063; r_rb = 1.00; 5 non-tied pairs); neither change reached statistical significance. The remaining outcomes also showed non-significant pre–post changes. Overall, the findings indicate changes in technical and balance-related performance following the eight-week training period; however, given the absence of a control group, the small sample size, and the lack of test–retest reliability data for the sport-specific assessments, these findings should be interpreted cautiously and cannot establish a causal effect of the training program.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090375

Authors: Tung-Lin Lu Kumpei Tanisawa Zenya Fujita Chikara Ozeki Ena Yoshida Shih-Hua Fang Katsuhiko Suzuki

The gut microbiota is increasingly recognized as an important factor related to intestinal homeostasis and athlete health, yet the effects of L-glutamine supplementation on gut microbiota composition in endurance athletes during training remain unclear. This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial examined whether 4 weeks of L-glutamine supplementation influenced gut microbiota composition and gastrointestinal responses in 19 collegiate cross-country skiers during a training period. Stool samples were collected at baseline, week 2, and week 4 during each intervention period, and gut microbiota composition was analyzed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing targeting the V4 region. Shannon alpha diversity increased significantly over time, and Bray–Curtis beta diversity showed significant time-related changes, with no significant supplementation or interaction effects. At the genus level, L-glutamine supplementation was associated with a transient increase in Faecalibacterium and a decrease in Collinsella at week 2, though these changes were not sustained at week 4. Positive correlations among selected short-chain fatty acid-producing genera were also observed under the L-glutamine condition. Fecal calprotectin, gastrointestinal symptoms, stool form, and bowel movement frequency were not significantly affected by supplementation. These findings suggest that gut microbiota dynamics in collegiate cross-country skiers were characterized by time-dependent shifts across the intervention period, whereas L-glutamine supplementation was associated with transient genus-level shifts and microbial correlation patterns without adverse gastrointestinal responses.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090371

Authors: Marcus Lee Sandave Singh Muhammad Yusof Vincenzo Rago Frankie Tan

This study aimed to (i) describe the peak match intensities of youth football matches, (ii) quantify the variability of these peak intensities to provide references for monitoring players, and (iii) explore the association between physical capacities and peak match intensities. Match-running intensities were tracked for 32 young male footballers (age, 14.1 ± 0.8 y; height, 162.8 ± 8.3 cm; and 50.4 ± 9.6 kg) from three teams across 12 competitive matches. Peak match intensities were determined using a moving average technique, applied to total distance, high-speed distance (>14.4 km·h−1), average acceleration, and PlayerLoad™. The power-law relationships were constructed to derive an intercept and slope for the match variables, and linear mixed models were used to assess the association with physical capacities and estimate the between-player, between-match, and within-player variability. No clear associations were observed between any physical capacity and the intercepts or slopes derived from match-running intensities, with wide confidence intervals overlapping trivial effects. The coefficient of variation for peak match intensities was 7.1–20.9% (between-player), 4.4–10.3% (between-match), and 6.5–21.8% (within-player). The lack of a clear association between physical capacities and peak match intensities suggests that firm conclusions cannot be drawn from these findings. The reported peak intensities and match variability may aid performance practitioners to prescribe match-specific conditioning and monitor training drills but are specific to this cohort and competitive standard.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090374

Authors: Enrico Serra Daniel Carrilho Li Xiao Cristian Savoia Marco Beato Silvia Coppola Rodolfo Vastola Duarte Araújo

Negative transitions require teams to reorganise rapidly from attack to defence, yet few positional indicators describe collective reorganisation in relation to possession recovery. This study examined whether rβ, a GNSS-derived angular concentration performance indicator referenced to the goal to be protected, was associated with controlled possession recovery within 10 s after a negative transition. In this retrospective observational study, five official matches of a single professional team (Serie A and UEFA Conference League) were analysed. Negative-transition episodes ending with controlled recovery were classified as FAST (≤10 s) or SLOW (>10 s). For each outfield player, the angular deviation between movement direction and the direction to the protected goal was computed; rβ was calculated at the team level using Kuramoto’s order parameter. The sample comprised 248 episodes (133 FAST; 115 SLOW). FAST episodes showed higher mean rβ values than SLOW episodes (0.717 vs. 0.600; difference = 0.117; 95% CI [0.085, 0.150]; p < 0.001; and d = 0.906). This pattern remained consistent across thresholds, fixed-window analyses, zones, and matches. Among recovered transitions, greater goal-referenced angular concentration was associated with controlled recovery within 10 s; rβ may serve as a process indicator of immediate defensive reorganisation that could support training, team monitoring and performance analysis.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090372

Authors: Nayeli Vaquero-Barbosa Lilia Castillo-Martínez Juan Garduño-Espinosa Jimena Aguilar-Curiel Graciela Gavia-García Cristina Flores-Bello Elsa Correa-Muñoz Víctor Manuel Mendoza-Núñez

Tele-exercise (TEF) is an option for maintaining the vitality of people who have difficulty exercising outside the home and in confinement situations. The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of TEF in Tai Chi (TC) compared to Strength Training (ST) on muscle mass and strength in older Mexican adults. The effect was measured in the following groups: (i) TC Group (TCG) n = 22; (ii) ST Group (STG) n = 22; and (iii) Control Group (CG) n = 21. Skeletal muscle mass (SMM), Skeletal Muscle Mass Index (SMMI), FM (%) (percentage of fat mass), handgrip strength (HS), and sit–stand test (SST) were assessed before and after the intervention. The data presented comes from a per-protocol design and only include the results of people who completed the study. An ANCOVA was performed and the mean difference (MD) was estimated with a 95% confidence interval (CI). The effect size was also calculated using the partial squared eta (η2p). A high percentage of study dropout was observed in all three groups (TCG, 20/42 = 48%; STG, 19/41 = 46%; CG, 19/40 = 47%). Both TCG and STG showed an increase respect CG in SMM (TCG: MD = 1.79, CI 0.71, 2.88; STG: MD = 1.10, CI 0.18, 2.02, p < 0.01) and SMMI (TCG: MD = 0.73, CI 0.28, 1.19; STG: MD = 0.40, CI 0.05, 0.77, p < 0.01). Likewise, they showed a significant decrease in FM (%) (TCG: MD −4.81, CI −8.17, −1.44; STG: MD = −3.99, CI −6.84, −1.13, p < 0.01). Regarding the effect size, it was observed large statistically significant effects in SSM (η2p = 0.19, F = 5.38, p < 0.01); SMMI (η2p = 0.19, F = 5.23, p < 0.01); FM% (η2p = 0.18, F = 5.06, p < 0.01); FM/FFM (η2p = 0.19, F = 5.47, p < 0.01); and STST (η2p = 0.16, F = 4.42, p < 0.01). Our findings suggest that Tai Chi or Strength Training tele-exercise has a similar positive effect on skeletal muscle mass coupled with a decrease in the percentage of fat mass, so one of these exercises could be an option to continue with physical exercise training at home for older adults in confinement situations. However, the results cannot be generalized due to limitations in the quasi-experimental study design, the non-representative sample size, the high dropout rate, and selection bias. For this reason, more randomized intention-to-treat clinical trials with representative samples are necessary.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090373

Authors: Salvatore Pinelli Gonzalo Reverte-Pagola Sergio Tejero Laura Bragonzoni Borja Sañudo

Countermovement jump (CMJ) assessment is widely used to evaluate lower-body neuromuscular performance, but its potential relationship with bone health remains insufficiently understood. This study aimed to determine whether eccentric-phase force–time characteristics during the CMJ are associated with proximal femur bone density, mass, and structural properties in postmenopausal women. One hundred and ten physically inactive women within 10 years after menopause underwent bone and jump assessments. Areal bone mineral density and bone mineral content were measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, and three-dimensional cortical and trabecular proximal femur parameters were estimated from dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry images. Participants performed maximal countermovement jumps on a force platform. Seventeen eccentric-phase force–time variables were extracted and reduced using principal component analysis. Multivariable linear regression models adjusted for age, body mass, height, waist circumference, and hip circumference examined associations between eccentric mechanical profiles and bone outcomes. Four principal components explained 90.5% of the variance in eccentric jump mechanics. Regression models explained between 11% and 41% of the variance across bone outcomes, with the strongest models observed for trabecular bone mineral content at the femoral neck (R2 = 0.41), bone mineral content at the femoral shaft (R2 = 0.40), and total trabecular volume (R2 = 0.39). The component reflecting greater countermovement depth and longer eccentric duration showed the most consistent contribution across models, whereas the force–power component contributed to selected trabecular outcomes. These findings suggest that the combined eccentric mechanical profile of the CMJ is associated with proximal femur bone properties in physically inactive women in early postmenopause and may help inform the biomechanical assessment of bone health and the development of bone-targeted exercise interventions in this population.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090370

Authors: Vincenzo Manzi Giuseppe Di Lascio Manuele Taleb Giuseppe Giardullo Francesco Laterza Cristian Savoia Giuseppe Caminiti Rosario D’Onofrio Gaetano Raiola

Small-sided games (SSGs) are widely used in soccer training to replicate the technical, tactical, and physical demands of competition. However, their ability to reproduce the multidimensional distribution of accelerative and decelerative actions observed during official matches remains unclear. This study compared multidimensional locomotor distributions between SSGs and official match play in eleven professional soccer players monitored across more than 20 official matches and multiple SSG sessions during a competitive season. Locomotor data were obtained using validated tracking systems and analyzed by integrating speed, acceleration/deceleration magnitude, and metabolic power. The resulting multidimensional distributions were compared using Jensen–Shannon (JS) divergence to quantify distributional similarity. For accelerations, differences between SSGs and official matches were minimal at low metabolic power but increased progressively, reaching the greatest divergence above 60 W·kg−1 (JS = 0.196). Decelerations showed a similar trend; however, no deceleration events above 30 W·kg−1 were observed during SSGs, whereas official matches included exposure across higher metabolic power bands. These findings indicate that the SSG formats examined only partially reproduced the multidimensional locomotor demands of competition. Although accelerative actions remained represented across several metabolic power domains, exposure to high-intensity decelerations was absent during the SSG formats examined. From a practical perspective, these findings suggest that complementary training strategies may be considered when greater exposure to high-intensity deceleration demands is desired; however, the effectiveness of such strategies was not directly evaluated in the present study.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090369

Authors: Jiahao Li Zhifan Ye Jiali Lu Huizhi Yang Huiping Yan Yifan Lu

Background: Physical fitness is important for health and independence in older adults, but existing systems do not always provide a continuous multidomain score. Objective: To develop and preliminarily evaluate a Physical Fitness Index (PFI) for older adults in a Chinese retirement community. Methods: A total of 561 participants aged 65–89 years completed assessments of body composition, strength, endurance, balance, mobility, and flexibility. Scores were normalized within sex and 5-year age groups and combined using a fixed radar-axis order. Results: The PFI averaged 39.24 ± 13.43 points (range, 4.16–84.47). In a reduced surrogate regression model, R2 was 0.825 and ten-fold cross-validation yielded an RMSE of 5.79 points and an MAE of 4.33 points. Conclusion: The PFI provides a continuous overall score with a domain profile, but its calibration and measurement properties require external and longitudinal validation.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090368

Authors: Dimitrios Dragoumis Fotios Mavrovouniotis Evangelia Kouidi Nikolaos Koutlianos

Physical exercise is a major determinant of health and functional capacity, yet direct comparisons among contemporary gym-based exercise modalities remain limited. This cross-sectional study compared the fitness, dietary, and supplement-use profile of 148 healthy recreational adults (72 men and 76 women; aged 18–45 years) engaged in mixed aerobic-resistance training (n = 52), Pilates (n = 46), or CrossFit (n = 50). Participants underwent cardiopulmonary exercise testing to determine the maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and ventilatory anaerobic threshold (VAT). Body composition, handgrip strength, flexibility, Mediterranean diet adherence, and supplement use were also assessed. Participants in CrossFit and mixed training showed higher VO2max and lower fat mass than the Pilates participants. Pilates showed higher VAT expressed as a percentage of VO2max; however, this finding should be interpreted as a relative submaximal profile rather than evidence of superior overall aerobic fitness. Mixed training and CrossFit also showed more favorable body composition profiles, while mixed training demonstrated superior handgrip strength. Flexibility did not differ significantly among exercise modalities. Mediterranean diet adherence showed limited and sex-specific differences, which were attenuated after adjustment for age and training age. Overall, exercise modality was associated with distinct physiological and nutritional characteristics, with CrossFit and mixed training showing greater cardiorespiratory fitness and more favorable body composition characteristics, whereas Pilates was linked to a different submaximal exercise profile and specific lifestyle-related patterns. These findings should be interpreted with caution given the cross-sectional design and the possibility of self-selection bias.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090367

Authors: Alex Quok An Teo Zavier Yongxuan Lim Janice Hui En Tan Joel Zhao Jie Lee Hoi Pong Nicholas Wong Fucai Han

Purpose: In a relatively new concept of individualised ACL reconstruction, the restoration or matching of the native ACL footprints at both the tibial and femoral insertions might be sufficient as a surgical objective. This study aimed to determine whether ACL graft size relative to the native ACL tibial footprint influences the rate of graft failure in a Singaporean Asian population. Methods: A retrospective study of all consecutive patients who underwent primary hamstring autograft ACL reconstruction over a 3-year period at a tertiary referral centre was performed. Baseline anthropometric data and native ACL tibial footprint area from pre-operative MRI scans were collected. Graft area was calculated based on the graft tunnel diameter. ACL graft failures were diagnosed clinically and confirmed radiologically. Multivariable analyses were performed using pre-specified variables based on the literature. Results: This cohort comprised 240 patients with a mean age of 24.4 years. There were a total of seven graft failures (2.92%), with two patients undergoing revision surgeries. There was no association between graft-to-footprint ratios and failure rates (71.9 vs. 80.2%, p = 0.386). There were no other significant predictors of graft failure. There was no statistically significant difference in graft failure rate between grafts <8 mm and ≥8 mm (p = 1.00). Gender, but not the graft-to-footprint ratio, was a significant predictor of graft size. Conclusions: No statistically significant association was identified between graft-to-footprint ratio and early graft failure. However, the low event rate and short-term follow-up limit definitive conclusions.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090366

Authors: Jorge Iglesias-Martín Salvador Pérez-Muñoz Alberto Rodríguez-Cayetano

Female youth basketball remains an underexplored area of performance analysis. This study aimed to analyze the participation and offensive performance of players on a female youth basketball team across a season, assessing decision-making and execution in offensive plays according to playing position and contextual variables. An observational methodology was applied using the Game Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI) across 15 matches involving a youth team (n = 11; mean age 13.89 ± 0.25 years). A total of 9450 offensive acts (dribbles, passes, shots, screens, and off-ball movements) were analyzed, calculating participation, execution, decision-making, and game performance metrics by playing position (guards, forwards, and centers) and four contextual variables. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was applied, and univariate analyses of variance (ANOVA) were subsequently conducted to identify the specific index in which differences were located. Results showed the highest values across all indices for guards (Participation = 45.12%; Execution = 0.85; Decision-Making = 0.92; Game Performance = 0.89) and the lowest for centers (26.28%, 0.77, 0.85, 0.81, respectively), confirming differentiated offensive profiles. Regarding contextual variables, playing at home improved offensive performance for all positions, while performance declined in all positions as proximity to the opponent’s basket increased. By contrast, the game period showed position-specific differences, and also previous wins modulated participation and offensive performance, reflecting the influence of perceived opponent quality, with effects varying by position. These findings highlight the need for position- and context-specific training to enhance offensive performance for this team’s players.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14090365

Authors: Cíntia França Francisco Teixeira Francisco Martins Honorato Sousa Koulla Parpa Fahri Safa Cinarli Élvio R. Gouveia

Relative age effect (RAE) and biological maturation can significantly impact athlete selection. This study examined the presence of RAE in youth team invasion sports and assessed whether the timing of maturity influences body size and lower-body explosive strength. Athletes were grouped by age category (U14, U16, U18), and the distribution of birth quartiles was analyzed. Maturity timing was estimated using age at peak height velocity (APHV), and lower-body explosive strength was evaluated through jumping performance. Comparisons across age groups showed progressive increases in body size and jumping performance with advancing age, consistent with pubertal changes in fat-free mass and neuromuscular function. The birthdate distribution indicated an overrepresentation of relatively older athletes (U16 and U18), suggesting that selection bias may intensify with age around the pubertal window. Regression analyses showed that earlier APHV was significantly associated with greater body size after controlling for chronological age (CA) (p ≤ 0.01), although CA remained the strongest predictor. In contrast, APHV did not significantly explain additional variance in jumping performance, suggesting that anthropometrics, training exposure, and movement technique likely contributed. The current findings underscore the role of biological maturation in body size and the need for youth sport systems to include structured strength and conditioning programs that optimize lower-body muscle power.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080364

Authors: Eugenio Barrios García-Miguel Carmen Repullo Teresa Urbina-Gómez José María González-Ravé

The STRYD® power meter has been used by runners and running coaches in recent years. The data it provides may offer useful information for training monitoring and performance assessment. Accordingly, this systematic review identifies and analyzes the use of the main parameters provided by the STRYD® power meter in the scientific literature. The PRISMA guidelines were used to identify relevant studies. The search was conducted in the electronic databases PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar. In total, 142 studies were identified. After removing duplicates and assessing the eligibility of the abstracts, 29 studies were included in the systematic review. Eight of the main metrics provided by STRYD® were analyzed. The total number of times each metric appeared varied widely, as did the number of metrics analyzed in each study. Power output was identified as the most frequently used metric in scientific studies and as the primary variable in the primary objectives sought. Ground contact time and cadence were also used by a high percentage of users, far exceeding the rest: vertical oscillation, flight time, stride length, form power, and stiffness. The study provides coaches and technical staff with guidelines on which variables to use when analyzing runners using STRYD®.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080362

Authors: Alexandra Reta Iacobini Pierre Joseph de Hillerin Vlad Adrian Geantă

Real-time feedback-based training has emerged as a potentially time-efficient approach for enhancing neuromuscular performance, yet evidence in youth basketball athletes remains limited. This study examined the acute and short-term effects of a five-day simulator-based neuromuscular training program incorporating real-time feedback on vertical jump performance and reactive efficiency in youth basketball players. A quasi-experimental, single-group repeated-measures design was employed, with performance assessed at three time points: pre-intervention (T1), post-intervention (T2), and 7-day follow-up (T3). Twenty-one male junior athletes (15.1 ± 0.7 years) completed five consecutive sessions on a condition simulation device (ERGOSIM), designed to enhance force control and neuromuscular coordination through real-time visual feedback. Vertical jump performance was assessed using a 15 s repeated jump test (OptoJump), including bilateral and unilateral conditions. Primary outcomes were jump height (H), mean average power (PU), and contact time (CT), analyzed via the MGM-15 method. Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed significant time effects for bilateral performance: H (F(2,40) = 16.593, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.453), PU (F(2,40) = 19.281, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.491), and CT (F(2,40) = 6.009, p = 0.005, η2p = 0.231). From T1 to T3, bilateral jump height increased by 17.0%, accompanied by a 14.5% increase in average power and a 10.3% reduction in contact time. Unilateral performance improved significantly in both limbs, with progressive reduction in inter-limb asymmetry across the intervention period. Performance gains were largely maintained at T3, indicating short-term retention of neuromuscular adaptations. These findings suggest that simulator-based, feedback-driven neuromuscular training represents a time-efficient strategy for optimizing explosive performance and inter-limb symmetry within competitive microcycles although the single-group design and absence of a control group warrant cautious interpretation.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080363

Authors: Apostolos Papandreou Giorgos Paradisis Anastassios Philippou Elias Zacharogiannis

The purpose of this study was to examine the independent contribution of aerobic physiological variables to 500 m sprint kayak performance in national-level male athletes. Twenty-four male flatwater kayak athletes completed post-intervention physiological and performance assessments following a 6-week training intervention. Sprint performance was assessed using a 500 m kayak ergometer time trial. Pearson correlation and hierarchical multiple regression analyses were performed after accounting for training-group allocation. Power output at VO2max (POVO2max) demonstrated the strongest association with 500 m performance time (r = −0.71, p < 0.001). Hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that training-group allocation explained a small, non-significant proportion of the variance in performance time (R2 = 0.082, p = 0.648). The addition of POVO2max significantly increased the explained variance (R2 = 0.708, ΔR2 = 0.626, p < 0.001); whereas, VO2max (ΔR2 = 0.012, p = 0.363) and post-exercise blood lactate concentration (ΔR2 = 0.004, p = 0.855) did not provide additional explanatory value. These findings indicate that POVO2max was the strongest independent physiological predictor of 500 m sprint kayak performance after accounting for training-group allocation.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080361

Authors: Ivana Sović Mirela Vučković Verner Marijančić Mia Hrlec Gordana Starčević-Klasan Tanja Grubić Kezele Antonio Kokot

Comprehensive data on sagittal spinal alignment, regional mobility, trunk muscle strength and imbalances in 9–11-year-old children participating in intensively organized sport (IOS) are limited. This cross-sectional study evaluated the association between IOS participation and the aforementioned postural parameters, compared with a non-intensive comparison cohort. A total of 143 children were included (IOS: n = 66; controls: n = 77). Sagittal spinal curvatures (thoracic kyphosis and lumbar lordosis) and regional mobility were assessed using Spinal Mouse®, software-generated sagittal spinal curvature and trunk muscle imbalance profiles were assessed using Moti Physio 3D system, and absolute trunk muscle strength was measured using a K-Push dynamometer. Statistical analyses included multivariable ANCOVA, multivariable ordinal logistic regression, Fisher’s exact tests, and Benjamini–Hochberg (BH) adjustments, with significance set at p ≤ 0.05. In adjusted ANCOVA models, the IOS group demonstrated significantly higher absolute trunk flexor (20.1 ± 0.5 vs. 16.8 ± 0.5 kgf) and extensor (25.5 ± 0.5 vs. 22.7 ± 0.5 kgf) strength than controls (both p < 0.001), independent of demographic and anthropometric covariates. At the univariate level, the comparison group showed a significantly higher prevalence of software-classified weakness of the m. rectus abdominis (88.3% vs. 72.7%; BH-adjusted p = 0.05) and tightness of the m. psoas major (96.1% vs. 83.3%; BH-adjusted p = 0.05). In contrast, sagittal spinal curvatures and mobility did not differ between groups. After BH adjustment, m. quadratus lumborum differences showed only a non-significant trend (BH-adjusted p = 0.06). Structural parameters were mainly associated with biological factors: age showed an independent association with lumbar lordosis severity (BH-adjusted p = 0.03), whereas sex was independently associated with thoracic (BH-adjusted p = 0.01) and lumbar spine mobility (BH-adjusted p = 0.03). In summary, IOS participation in children aged 9–11 years is associated with greater absolute trunk strength, whereas structural sagittal spinal profiles and software-based muscle-imbalance classifications appear to be driven primarily by age and sex. These findings support integrating non-invasive posture screening with trunk strength assessment when monitoring young athletes and planning developmentally appropriate exercise interventions.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080360

Authors: Ismail Dergaa Wissem Dhahbi Mohamed Amine Dergaa Mortadha Razzak Halil İbrahim Ceylan Valentina Stefanica Raul Ioan Muntean Noomen Guelmami

Background: Elite soccer performance emerges from the interplay of cognitive, emotional, psychophysiological, and tactical processes that operate in real time during matches. Advances in wearable sensors and artificial intelligence (AI) now allow continuous monitoring of physiological and psychological states. They also allow modeling of how these states relate to tactical and physical performance. Existing reviews have examined machine learning in soccer, heart rate variability (HRV) monitoring, and psychological determinants of performance separately. No scoping review has mapped the intersection of AI analytics, wearable psychophysiological monitoring, and psychological performance constructs as one integrated decision-support framework in elite soccer. Aim: The aim of this study was to map the available evidence on the integration of AI and machine learning with psychophysiological monitoring for performance modeling in elite soccer, to identify the psychological constructs already used as model inputs, to describe the wearable technologies and AI methods applied, and to set out the translational challenges and evidence gaps that need priority attention. Methods: The review followed the PRISMA extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) and the updated Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology. The protocol was registered on the Open Science Framework (OSF). Six databases (PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, IEEE Xplore, and PsycINFO) were searched from January 2000 to March 2026 using the Population–Concept–Context (PCC) framework. Two reviewers independently screened titles, abstracts, and full texts (Cohen’s kappa = 0.82). Results: Thirty-six sources met the eligibility criteria after screening of 3104 records. AI and machine learning have been applied widely to predict physical and tactical performance in soccer, yet they rarely include psychological constructs. Reported models (decision trees, gradient boosting, and artificial neural networks) reach high accuracy for physical outcomes in internal validation, for example, above 66% for injury risk. Multi-modal models that add physiological and psychological inputs report stronger prediction. These figures come mostly from internal validation, and external validation and overfitting controls are seldom reported, so they should be read as optimistic upper bounds. Psychological and psychophysiological inputs remain under-represented. Explainable AI (XAI) methods, in particular Shapley Addictive exPlanations (SHAP) values, are appearing, but validation with domain experts is scarce. HRV has been reviewed as a psychophysiological marker in soccer, yet its use within AI decision-support tools for real-time psychological readiness has not been mapped. Three translational challenges stand out: the ecological validity gap between laboratory cognitive tests and match-embedded psychophysiology; the interpretability problem of opaque AI in high-stakes decisions; and the data fragmentation problem created by disconnected physical, tactical, and psychological data streams. Conclusions: Integrating AI with wearable psychophysiological monitoring offers a credible route toward integrated performance modeling in elite soccer. Closing this gap calls for multi-modal frameworks that combine psychological constructs, physiological markers, and tactical data within explainable AI. Research priorities include ecologically valid psychophysiological assessment protocols, position-specific psychological profiling, and practitioner-validated tools that turn AI outputs into usable coaching recommendations.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080359

Authors: Kirsten I. de Oude Roy G. Elbers Alyt Oppewal Dederieke A. M. Maes-Festen

This study, part of the PRET-study (NCT06579898), investigated changes in body composition, physical fitness, sarcopenia, activities of daily living (ADL), challenging behaviour, and falls in adults with intellectual disabilities (ID) following participation in a 24-week progressive resistance exercise training (PRET) intervention. A repeated-time-series design with one study group was used. We used multilevel linear regression models and non-parametric tests to investigate changes in body composition (bioelectrical impedance), physical fitness (ID-fitscan), sarcopenia, ADL (Barthel Index, Lawton IADL scale), challenging behaviour (Aberrant Behaviour Checklist), and falls. Thirty-six adults with mild to moderate ID (mean age: 55.6 ± 12.9 years; 52.8% male) participated and 26 completed the intervention. Intention-to-treat and per-protocol analyses showed statistically significant improvements in physical fitness and challenging behaviour. As these analyses concerned multiple secondary outcomes from a study powered for cardiovascular risk factors, these findings should be considered exploratory. Intention-to-treat analyses showed improvements in the five-times chair stand (−2.40 s, 95% CI [−4.06; −0.75]), and reductions in irritability (−1.10, 95% CI [−2.21; −0.00]) and inappropriate speech (−0.75, 95% CI [−1.22; −0.28]). No statistically significant changes were observed for body composition, ADL, or falls and no cases of sarcopenia were identified. The findings suggest that participation in PRET may be associated with improvements in lower body functional muscular endurance and challenging behaviour.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080358

Authors: Eva Åkerman Taru Tervo Marie Klingberg-Allvin

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the impact of menstrual symptoms on sport participation and management strategies among adolescent girls playing floorball in Sweden. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among floorball players aged 12–18 years (n = 545). Logistic regression was used to assess factors associated with menstrual-related symptoms and their impact on participation and absence from training sessions or matches. Results: Menstrual pain (89.6%) and mood swings (81.9%) were the most commonly reported symptoms. Symptoms such as menstrual pain, heavy menstrual bleeding, headache, fatigue, dizziness, and concentration difficulties were more prevalent among participants with early menarche (≤11 years) than those with later menarche. Overall, about 62.2% perceived that their menstrual symptoms affected their training and matches. Early menarche (≤11 years) was associated with nearly three times higher odds of refraining from training sessions or matches. Despite substantial impact, healthcare-seeking and communication with coaches were limited. Conclusions: Given the high prevalence of menstrual symptoms and their impact on sport participation and experiences, menstrual health should be recognised as a core component of athlete well-being in youth sport. Efforts are needed to improve menstrual health awareness, early identification of girls with high symptom burden, and supportive sport environments to promote gender equality in youth sport.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080357

Authors: Luis Morales-Rodríguez-Parets Maria Gabriela Cortiguera Blanca De-la-Cruz-Torres

Introduction: Lateral elbow pain (LEP) is traditionally considered a local tendinopathy; however, emerging evidence suggests that proximal shoulder function and kinetic chain adaptations may contribute to its development in overhead and racquet sport athletes such as padel players. This study compared shoulder strength, neuromuscular activation, elbow tendon morphology, and grip strength between padel players with lateral elbow pain and healthy controls, and between pain and non-pain sides within the symptomatic group. Methods: A pilot study was conducted in padel players with unilateral LEP and matched healthy controls. Assessments included isometric shoulder internal and external rotator (IR/ER) strength, glenohumeral rotational range of motion, electromyographic activity (infraspinatus/deltoid posterior and upper trapezius/lower trapezius ratios), grip strength, and ultrasound evaluation of infraspinatus and common extensor tendon thickness. Results: No significant differences were observed between groups or sides in shoulder strength, IR/ER ratios, electromyographic activity, or grip strength (all p > 0.05). The symptomatic group showed greater infraspinatus muscle thickness than controls. Within the symptomatic group, the pain side demonstrated reduced glenohumeral IR (p = 0.04) and increased common extensor tendon thickness (p = 0.02–0.05). Conclusions: Padel players with LEP demonstrated largely preserved neuromuscular and strength profiles. However, reduced shoulder IR and increased tendon thickness suggest proximal mobility alterations and local tendon adaptations, supporting a kinetic chain interpretation of lateral elbow pain.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080356

Authors: Emilia Martinsson Haris Pojskic Anna Hafsteinsson Östenberg Jesper Augustsson

Physical ability testing is an essential part of police education, as fitness assessments indicate students’ preparedness for police work. Clear documentation and reporting of test protocols and measurement properties are essential for interpreting, evaluating, and comparing the usefulness of different test batteries. Therefore, this scoping review aimed to map the fitness tests used in police education programs internationally, including reporting standards of test protocols, reliability, validity, and sex-based test specificity, thereby providing insight into the physical abilities considered important for police work. The main searches were conducted in the databases CINAHL, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science. The database search yielded 1323 articles, of which 92 met the inclusion criteria. An additional nine articles were included through citation and hand searching. Of the 101 studies, 95 used an average of 4–5 general fitness tests, and 29 included work-related police tests. Test protocols were generally well documented across studies. However, only a few studies included in this review assessed test–retest reliability, and only a limited number of studies, whose primary aim was to validate the tests, evaluated test validity. The most commonly used assessments were upper-body and core muscular endurance (60 s push-up, maximum pull-up, and 60 s sit-up tests), upper-body muscular strength (hand-grip test), lower-body power (standing long jump, and vertical jump tests), and aerobic capacity (20 m multistage fitness, 2400 m Cooper, and 12 min Cooper tests. Only 19 studies reported sex-specific performance standards, including differences in test execution, scoring systems, VO2max estimation, or time limits. The findings indicate that tests of upper-body muscular endurance and strength, lower-body power, and aerobic capacity are among the most frequently measured physical abilities in police education programs internationally, while also highlighting the need for more standardized reporting of test protocols, reliability, and validity.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080355

Authors: Juan Alberto Sanchis-Gimeno Alejandro Bruna-Mejías Mathias Orellana-Donoso Juan José Valenzuela-Fuenzalida Gustavo Oyanedel-Amaro José Eduardo León-Rojas

Congenital and developmental cervical spine variants, as well as acquired or sport-adapted cervical morphologies, may alter canal reserve, segmental stability, foraminal dimensions, and the cervicothoracic outlet in athletes. This narrative review aimed to integrate the anatomically and methodologically heterogeneous literature linking these findings with sports-related injury and return-to-play decisions. PubMed/MEDLINE was searched from database inception through 6 July 2026 using controlled vocabulary and free-text terms for cervical anatomy, specific variants, athletic exposure, neurological syndromes, injury mechanisms, and return to sport; reference lists of relevant publications were also examined. English-language human studies were selected for direct anatomical, biomechanical, clinical, or athlete relevance and synthesized by evidence type, mechanism, vertebral level, and sport. The strongest athlete-specific evidence concerned developmental or functional cervical stenosis, space available for the cord, cervical cord neurapraxia, transient quadriparesis, and stingers in collision sports. Evidence for atlas arch defects, os odontoideum, Klippel–Feil syndrome, cervical spondylolysis, and cervical rib-related thoracic outlet syndrome was predominantly case-based or derived from expert guidance. These findings support cautious, individualized interpretation rather than universal clearance rules. Clinical assessment should integrate symptoms, neurological findings, imaging, dynamic stability, recurrence, and sport-specific exposure while recognizing that prospective athlete-specific evidence remains limited.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080354

Authors: Jakob Hofer David Behm Masatoshi Nakamura Andreas Konrad

Foam rolling (FR) is widely used to acutely enhance range of motion, yet the influence of different application volumes on neuromuscular, structural, and biochemical responses remains unclear. This study investigated the acute effects of low- and high-volume hamstrings FR interventions. Fifty-seven healthy male participants were randomly assigned to a high-volume FR group (IG10; 10 min per posterior thigh), a low-volume FR group (IG2; 2 min per posterior thigh), or a control group (CG; 20 min rest). Pre- and post-intervention assessments included sit-and-reach (SAR) performance, shoulder circumduction (SC) (mobility), maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), biceps femoris muscle stiffness (MS), and creatine kinase (CK) levels. Linear mixed-effects models revealed significant Time effects for SAR performance and SC, as well as a Group effect for SC (p < 0.05), whereas no significant Group × Time interactions were observed for any outcome (all p > 0.05). Significant improvements in SC were observed in both intervention groups compared with the CG, whereas no differences were detected between the two intervention durations. In contrast, no differential effects were observed for MS, maximal strength, or CK concentrations between the intervention groups, indicating that extending the FR duration from 2 to 10 min did not provide additional acute benefits.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080353

Authors: Gaku Kakehata Tuncay Örs Sofyan Sahrom Chee Yong Low

Sprint performance improves throughout adolescence as a result of both structural and neuromuscular development. In particular, increases in body height, lower limb length, and muscle volume have been consistently linked to improvements in sprint performance. However, allometric scaling of force, speed, and power remain lower in adolescents compared to adults even after structural differences are accounted for, implicating neural factors as independent contributors to performance development. The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in neuromuscular activation patterns of the lower limb muscles during maximal sprinting between youth male athletes across two age groups (U19: 17–19 years; U16: 13–16 years). Eighteen athletes performed a 50 m maximal sprint. Spatiotemporal variables (running speed, step frequency, step length) were measured over 30–50 m using a high-speed camera (240 Hz) and timing gates. Electromyographic (EMG) signals were recorded simultaneously from ten lower limb muscles using wireless EMG sensors (2000 Hz): rectus femoris (RF), biceps femoris (BF), semitendinosus (ST), gluteus maximus (Gmax), gluteus medius (Gmed), vastus lateralis (VL), vastus medialis (VM), tibialis anterior (TA), gastrocnemius (GAS), and soleus (SOL). Root mean square (RMS) amplitude was calculated across four gait phases (contact, early-swing, mid-swing, late-swing) and normalised to maximal voluntary Isometric contraction (%MVIC). The U19 group demonstrated significantly greater running speed (U19: 9.49 ± 0.39 vs. U16: 8.67 ± 0.25 m·s−1, p < 0.001), step frequency (U19: 4.49 ± 0.12 vs. U16: 4.35 ± 0.16 Hz, p = 0.004), and step length (U19: 2.12 ± 0.12 vs. U16: 1.99 ± 0.06 m, p = 0.010) than U16. The overall pattern of lower limb muscle activation across the gait cycle was broadly similar between groups; however, a significant group × phase interaction was observed for RF (p = 0.003, F = 5.257, η2 = 0.247), with post hoc analysis revealing greater RF activation during early swing in U19 (p = 0.033). These findings may indicate that sprint-specific training in youth athletes is associated with not only structural but also neuromuscular differences, specifically reflecting enhanced RF recruitment during the phase-critical moment of early swing—a window in which high-threshold motor unit activation is most mechanically decisive. EMG-based assessment of hip flexor activation during maximal sprinting may provide a complementary tool, pending further validation, for talent identification and training prescription in youth track and field.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080352

Authors: Sibi Walter Gregory King Harrison Jones-Park Dayle Shackel Ben Ramsay Elena Moltchanova

Background: Women’s cricket is rapidly expanding at the elite youth level, yet limited research has comprehensively examined the physical, positional, and developmental characteristics underpinning performance in elite under-19 (U19) female players. In particular, the role of biological maturation and relative age effects in shaping physical performance within this population remains poorly understood. Objective: This study aimed to characterise the anthropometric and physical profile of elite U19 female cricketers, examine positional differences, assess the presence of relative age effects (RAE), and evaluate the applicability of maturity offset estimation in this cohort. Methods: Ninety elite U19 female cricketers representing six regional high school teams were assessed using a cross-sectional design. Anthropometric measures, strength, power, sprint performance, and agility were evaluated. Maturity status was estimated using both the original and modified maturity offset equations, and birth quartiles were used to assess RAE via a chi-squared test. Between-group differences were analysed using ANOVA. Results: Statistically significant positional differences were observed for vertical jump, isometric strength, and sprint performance (p < 0.05), with spin bowlers demonstrating lower power and slower sprint times, and seam bowlers exhibiting greater maximal strength. No differences were observed in anthropometry or agility. Birth quartile distribution was relatively uniform, indicating no clear RAE. Maturity offset estimates indicated that players were well beyond peak height velocity; however, both original and modified estimates demonstrated limited variability and a tendency to overestimate maturity timing in this cohort. Conclusions: Elite U19 female cricketers demonstrate role-specific physical profiles driven primarily by strength, power, and speed rather than anthropometry or maturity status. The absence of a clear RAE and limited applicability of maturity offset methods highlight the need for performance-based, position-specific approaches to training and talent identification in female cricket.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080351

Authors: Fiorenzo Moscatelli Vincenzo Monda Marco La Marra Antonietta Messina Antonietta Monda Maria Casillo Nicola Mancini Girolamo Di Maio Gabriella Marsala Giovanni Messina Rita Polito

Purpose: Acute exercise elicits coordinated neuroendocrine and autonomic responses that are strongly influenced by exercise modality and intensity. While cortisol and salivary alpha-amylase are widely used as peripheral indicators of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and sympathetic nervous system activation, respectively, salivary orexin remains an exploratory biomarker whose relationship with central orexinergic activity is not yet fully established, particularly in response to different exercise conditions. This study aimed to compare the acute salivary responses of orexin, alpha-amylase, and cortisol following distinct exercise modalities characterized by different physiological loads. Methods: A repeated-measures design was employed in a sample of physically active young women. Each participant completed four experimental sessions: high-intensity interval training (HIIT), combined exercise (CE), moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT), and yoga. Saliva samples were collected at baseline (T0), immediately post-exercise (T1), and during early recovery (T2 and T3). Biomarker concentrations were analyzed to assess temporal dynamics and modality-dependent differences. Results: All biomarkers showed modality-dependent responses. HIIT elicited the most pronounced increases in alpha-amylase and cortisol, reflecting robust sympathetic and HPA axis activation, whereas CE and MICT induced more moderate responses. Yoga was associated with minimal changes across all biomarkers. Orexin displayed a graded response across the exercise modalities, with higher post-exercise levels observed following HIIT compared to lower-intensity conditions. Temporal analyses revealed distinct kinetic profiles, with alpha-amylase peaking rapidly in the early post-exercise phase, whereas cortisol exhibited a more delayed response. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that acute salivary responses of orexin, alpha-amylase, and cortisol are strongly modulated by exercise modality, supporting the importance of an integrated, multi-biomarker approach to characterize the physiological response to exercise. The inclusion of salivary orexin provides exploratory information on a potentially relevant arousal- and energy-regulation-related pathway, complementing established peripheral markers of autonomic and endocrine activation. This integrated perspective may contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of exercise-induced stress responses in young women.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080350

Authors: Yiqing Xie Yemin Han Qing Du Zhen Zhang Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo Kai Xu

(1) Background: French contrast training (FCT) enhances sports performance, but its long-term efficacy in elite basketball players remains unclear. This study compared FCT and traditional strength training (TST) on jump performance and lower-limb strength. (2) Methods: Sixteen elite basketball players (age 22.4 ± 1.4 years; 14 male, 2 female) were randomly assigned to 8 weeks of FCT (n = 8) or TST (n = 8). The TST protocol consisted of barbell back squat, barbell Bulgarian split squat, conventional deadlift, and barbell hip thrust (4 sets of 8, 6, 4, 4 repetitions at 80%, 95%, 90%, 90% of one-repetition maximum [1RM]; 2–3 min inter-set rest). Assessments included countermovement jump (CMJ) kinetics, CMJ with arm swing (CMJA), running CMJ, running single-leg CMJ, and back squat 1RM, analyzed via repeated-measures ANOVA. (3) Results: A significant Group × Time interaction favored FCT for maximal relative force (p = 0.007, ηp2 = 0.41): FCT increased 6.80% (Cohen’s d = 1.55), TST decreased 2.41% (d = −0.36). Significant time effects (p < 0.001–0.044) occurred for CMJA, running CMJ, flight height, reactive strength index, and back squat 1RM, with large improvements in both groups (e.g., back squat 1RM: FCT +30.45%, d = 2.89; TST +26.77%, d = 2.34). The interaction for average power approached significance (p = 0.053, ηp2 = 0.24). No other interactions were significant. (4) Conclusions: Both FCT and TST improved performance, but FCT yielded superior gains in maximal relative force. Limitations include small sample (n = 16), mixed-gender composition, short 8-week intervention, and lack of retention testing.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080349

Authors: Juan David Paucar-Uribe Boryi A. Becerra-Patiño Aura D. Montenegro-Bonilla Armando Monterrosa-Quintero Jorge Olivares-Arancibia Daniel Rojas-Valverde Rodrigo Yáñez-Sepúlveda José Francisco López-Gil

Background: Anthropometric analysis has become a key tool for analyzing body composition to assess, monitor, and track structural changes in soccer players. Objective: The objective of this study was to analyze the scientific literature on body composition and anthropometry in soccer using a bibliometric analysis. Material and Methods: The following databases were consulted: Scopus, Web of Science (WoS), PubMed (Medline), SportDiscus, and the ScienceDirect publishing platform. The study included documents published between 1990 and 2025. Data was selected following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines statement flowchart and subsequently analyzed using Bibliometrix and R software to identify keywords, frequency of occurrence, journal analysis, countries, and other bibliometric indicators. Results: A total of 384 documents met the inclusion criteria. Spain, Italy, Brazil and Portugal stand out as the countries with the highest output. These countries are associated with the most representative authors, led by Suarez-Arrones, L; Nikolaidis, PT; and Campa, F., who are in turn associated with the most representative concepts: “Male”, “Adolescent” and “Athletic performance”. The most prevalent concepts are population-based: “Adolescent” and “Young adult”. The top three organizations in terms of contributing to the scientific study of body composition and anthropometry were the University of the Basque Country, Pablo de Olavide University, and the University of Coimbra. It can be observed that most of the literature has focused on youth (29.16% of the total documents), followed by elite players (22.91%) and professionals (14.84%), where the focus is on those aged 14 to 19 years and playing at highly competitive levels, seeking peak performance. Conclusions: Methodological heterogeneity in evaluation protocols constitutes the main structural shortcoming in this field: 32.29% of studies do not specify their protocols, which compromises the comparability of the results. The widespread adoption of international standards, such as the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) methodology, along with a requirement to indicate the instrument used and the evaluator’s certification level, is a priority for improving the quality of scientific communication in future research.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080348

Authors: Manoel J. Rios Francisco A. Ferreira Dale W. Chapman Ricardo J. Fernandes Victor Machado Reis

The purpose of this narrative review was to provide a conceptual and applied framework that distinguishes resistance training methods, strategies, and systems and clarifies how these constructs organize established training variables within contemporary recommendations for exercise prescription. The historical, conceptual, and theoretical synthesis was not restricted by publication date and included seminal studies and previous evidence syntheses. In addition, a focused descriptive mapping of primary experimental studies published between January 2021 and April 2026 was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. This mapping comprised 40 studies assessing acute responses or chronic adaptations to methods including drop sets, rest–pause, pyramidal loading, eccentric training, blood flow restriction, cluster sets, and velocity-based training. Several studies reported no statistically significant between-method differences in selected strength or hypertrophy outcomes; however, their generally small samples and the absence of equivalence or non-inferiority analyses preclude conclusions of true equivalence. Individual studies also reported context-specific differences in session efficiency, fatigue distribution, movement velocity, regional hypertrophy, and contraction-specific adaptations. Given the heterogeneity of the mapped studies and the absence of formal risk-of-bias or certainty-of-evidence assessments, these observations should be interpreted as descriptive and exploratory rather than as evidence of general comparative superiority. Taken together with the broader historical and synthesized literature, the findings suggest that resistance training adaptations are primarily governed by foundational prescription variables, including load, volume, frequency, effort, density, and exercise selection. The principal contribution of this review is therefore to clarify how methods, strategies, and systems can be selected and organized according to specific goals, individual characteristics, and practical constraints.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080347

Authors: Álvaro Gómez-del Pino Laura Carrasco-Fernández Javier Benítez-Porres Gabriel Gijón-Noguerón Joaquín Páez-Moguer Manuel García-Sillero

The foot’s windlass mechanism (WM), engaged by hallux dorsiflexion, is a key determinant of lower-limb propulsive efficiency in explosive sports. This randomized within-subjects crossover study examined whether forefoot wedges of varying angulation, intended to facilitate the windlass mechanism, with or without real-time visual biofeedback, modify concentric power output during loaded back squats in elite female handball players. Seventeen professional athletes performed 3 × 3 back squats at 65% one-repetition maximum under six randomized conditions: three wedge angles (0°, 10°, and 30°) × biofeedback (present or absent). Peak concentric power (W) was the primary outcome; secondary outcomes included relative peak power (W·kg−1), concentric force (N), and concentric velocity (m·s−1), all recorded using dual force plates. The pre-specified two-way (3 × 2) repeated-measures ANOVA showed no significant main effects of wedge angle or biofeedback and no significant interaction for peak concentric power (all p > 0.05). A complementary exploratory Friedman analysis indicated an overall condition effect (χ2 = 14.01, p = 0.016; Kendall’s W = 0.165), with the highest descriptive values observed for the 30° wedge without biofeedback. However, pairwise comparisons did not remain significant after correction and did not isolate an independent wedge effect. Taken together, these findings are exploratory and hypothesis-generating and do not confirm that forefoot wedging acutely enhances power output in this population. Larger, pre-registered trials with direct biomechanical verification of windlass activation and longer-term performance outcomes are needed before specific wedge-based applications can be recommended in elite handball practice.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080346

Authors: Timothy Sayer Nicholas Cross

Maximal velocity (MaxV) is a key determinant of sprint performance, yet its biomechanical predictors have rarely been examined in the field. This exploratory study developed preliminary predictive models of sprint time and MaxV in national level Australian track sprinters using portable technology. Twenty-eight sprinters (16 male, 12 female) each completed two maximal 60 m sprints recorded with a MuscleLab LaserSpeed radar, SportScientia Techlayer instrumented insoles, and VueMotion kinograms. The two trials per athlete were averaged (intraclass correlation 0.83–0.98) to give 28 independent observations, and best-subsets multiple regression selected by leave-one-out cross-validated R2 subject to all variance inflation factors below five was used to model 60 m and 20 m sprint time and MaxV. The 60 m sprint time was almost entirely explained by MaxV alone (R2 = 0.94, cross-validated R2 = 0.93), an expected mechanical relationship. The 60 m MaxV was associated with normalised peak force, vertical loading rate, time to peak force and thigh angular velocity (R2 = 0.85, cross-validated R2 = 0.78). The 20 m sprint time was predicted by 20 m MaxV (R2 = 0.80), while vertical loading rate was the only significant predictor of 20 m maximal velocity (β = 0.65, R2 = 0.59). These preliminary findings suggest that portable instrumented insoles, sagittal plane kinematics and infrared radar may assist in identifying candidate biomechanical variables associated with MaxV in the field. Given the small sample and absence of external validation, the models require confirmation in larger, independent cohorts.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080345

Authors: Yujiro Tsutsumi Shuichi Machida Hisashi Naito

In an IRONMAN-distance triathlon, run performance is a particularly strong correlate of overall race outcome, alongside cycling. Although individual research areas such as pacing, performance prediction, and laboratory physiology have been reviewed separately, they have not been integrated to determine factors contributing to running performance decline or to identify key knowledge gaps. This scoping review aims to map the current evidence on running performance decline in IRONMAN-distance triathlon and identify key gaps, with a particular focus on age-group athletes. Following the Arksey and O’Malley framework and PRISMA-ScR guidelines, we searched PubMed and SPORTDiscus for studies reporting quantitative running performance outcomes in IRONMAN races or bike-to-run transition protocols. Of 896 deduplicated records, 70 studies were included. Findings were organised into five sub-questions addressing the extent of evidence, quantification of decline, physiological and biomechanical changes, underlying mechanisms, and inter-individual variability. Pacing patterns and performance predictors are well described, whereas mechanistic research relies almost entirely on short, controlled protocols. Critically, no study identified by this review quantified the “between-context decline,” defined as the difference between an athlete’s standalone marathon performance and their actual IRONMAN running performance. Addressing these gaps requires observational studies using real IRONMAN race data and individual-level analyses, particularly for age-group athletes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080344

Authors: Artur Avelino Birk Preissler Filipe Manuel Clemente Ana Filipa Silva Rui Sousa Mendes Pedro Schons

Monitoring physical performance during the pre-season may help coaches and practitioners interpret short-term changes in young soccer players, although group-level analyses may mask individual variability. This observational longitudinal study analyzed short-term changes, individual variability, and associations between baseline performance and change magnitude in 50 under-17 male outfield soccer players during a 47-day pre-season. Physical performance was assessed before and after the pre-season using the squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), 20 m linear sprint (Sprint-20m), 20 m change-of-direction test (COD-20m), and Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (Yo-Yo IRL1). Significant improvements were observed in SJ (+1.43 cm, p < 0.001), CMJ (+1.37 cm, p < 0.001), and COD-20m (+0.31 km·h−1, p < 0.001), whereas no statistically significant changes were detected in Sprint-20m (−0.14 km·h−1, p = 0.121) or Yo-Yo IRL1 (−26.20 m, p = 0.721). Individual changes were heterogeneous, with 68.0% improving in SJ and COD-20m, 64.0% in CMJ, 40.0% in Sprint-20m, and 54.0% in Yo-Yo IRL1. Exploratory inverse associations were observed between baseline performance and change scores for SJ (ρ = −0.35, p = 0.014), CMJ (ρ = −0.40, p = 0.004), and COD-20m (ρ = −0.30, p = 0.033), whereas no statistically significant associations were detected for Sprint-20m or Yo-Yo IRL1. These findings support integrating group-level changes, individual variability, and baseline-performance context when interpreting short-term physical performance monitoring in youth soccer.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080343

Authors: Federica Marzoli Gianluca di Pinto Matteo Campanella Selenia di Fronso Maurizio Bertollo Davide Curzi

Self-efficacy is relevant to sport performance, but its role in artistic gymnastics is unclear because studies vary in construct definition, timing, and outcomes. This PRISMA 2020- and PERSIST 2021-informed systematic review was prospectively registered in PROSPERO (CRD420251266838). PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and EBSCOhost (SPORTDiscus and APA PsycInfo) were searched from inception to 18 December 2025, supplemented by backward reference-list checking and forward citation searching. Eligible quantitative studies assessed self-efficacy or task- or apparatus-specific efficacy expectations, or used performance predictions or an adapted gymnastics-task confidence measure as efficacy-related proxies and reported a performance outcome; qualitative evidence was contextual only. Nine studies were included (eight quantitative; one qualitative). Competitive studies using direct task- or event-specific efficacy measures or efficacy-related proxies and judged outcomes generally reported positive associations, but correlations and predictive patterns varied across apparatus, samples, and measures. Educational findings and broader confidence constructs were treated as indirect evidence. Meta-analysis was inappropriate because constructs, samples, apparatus, timing, outcomes, and reporting were heterogeneous. The evidence therefore indicates a possible positive but inconsistent, low-certainty association between task- or apparatus-specific efficacy-related beliefs and performance. Contemporary longitudinal studies and standardized gymnastics-specific measures are needed.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080342

Authors: Jakov Marasović Ante Rađa Marko Erceg

This study had two primary objectives: first, to examine the influence of biological maturity status and motor performance indicators on coach-assessed player quality in U-15 soccer players; and second, to explore differences in estimated biological age between players of different quality levels. A secondary objective was to identify differences in morphological characteristics and motor performance between players belonging to different bio-banded maturity groups. A total of 240 U-15 male players (14.12 ± 0.84 years) were assessed for estimated biological age (Mirwald method), motor performance (speed and agility tests with and without ball), and perceived quality (5-point scale). Ordinal regression showed that biological age (OR = 2.47) and slalom performance with and without ball, as well as the 20 m sprint with ball, significantly predicted quality, whereas chronological age had a negative effect (OR = 0.44). Biological age differed significantly across quality groups (F = 3.65, p = 0.007, η2 = 0.06), remaining significant after controlling for chronological age (F = 3.78, p = 0.005). Bio-banded groups differed significantly in morphological characteristics and in 20 m sprint performance with and without ball, but most differences were attenuated after adjusting for chronological age. These findings confirm the role of biological maturity in coaches’ perception of player quality, with agility tests appearing less maturity-biased than speed tests, while highlighting ball-oriented performance as a potential predictor of playing success.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080341

Authors: Eduard Bezuglov Beatrisa Volel Elizaveta Kapralova Mikhail Vinogradov Emina Malagych Anna Belyakova Anna Berdnikova

Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) can adversely affect athletes’ health and performance. Coaches in individual sports may help recognize warning signs and facilitate referrals, yet their awareness remains understudied, especially among high-performance professionals. A cross-sectional survey using a translated, pilot-tested, and expert-reviewed adaptation of the Lodge et al. questionnaire was conducted among 101 Russian athletics (n = 75) and short-track speed skating (n = 26) coaches. The primary outcome was self-reported prior awareness of RED-S. Among coaches reporting awareness, secondary outcomes were self-rated confidence and recognition of 12 adverse RED-S consequences. Of 99 coaches who answered the awareness question, 39 (39.4%; 95% CI, 30.3–49.2%) reported prior awareness. Among these 39 coaches, 19 (48.7%) rated their confidence as moderate to very high, and the mean consequence-recognition score was 5.64 ± 4.04 out of 12; 11 (28.2%) recognized at least 9 of 12 consequences. In unadjusted and multivariable analyses, no statistically significant associations were found between prior awareness and sport, sex, athletes’ competitive level, or coaching qualification, although confidence intervals were wide. These findings suggest limited prior awareness of RED-S in the surveyed sample and limited consequence recognition among coaches reporting prior awareness. They may indicate an educational gap with potential implications for athlete health. Targeted coach education should be evaluated in future studies.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080340

Authors: Dimitrios Vlachodimos Athanasios A. Dalamitros Vasiliki Manou Thomas Metaxas Nikolaos Stavropoulos Ioannis Terzidis

This study assessed the effectiveness of a position-specific and time-efficient warm-up injury prevention program for male football players. This season-long quasi-experimental study included 129 male amateur football players. A structured injury prevention program was incorporated into the warm-up routine during the preseason and competitive season. Prospectively collected injury data from the intervention season were compared with retrospectively collected injury data from the previous season and included injury incidence, the number of injured players, injury severity, and injury burden. The program included general exercises and position-specific modifications for defenders, midfielders, and attackers. Implementation of the program was associated with a 60% reduction in total injuries (p < 0.05) and a 60.3% reduction in total injured players The injury burden was significantly reduced (p < 0.05), as indicated by a reduced mean day lost per injury from 33.24 to 19.56 days. Although injury reductions were observed across all playing positions, between-position differences were not statistically significant. The type of injuries and their mechanisms were not significantly affected. These preliminary, associative findings suggest that a time-efficient, position-specific warm-up program may contribute to reduced injury occurrence in amateur football; however, given the quasi-experimental design, confirmation through randomized controlled trials is required.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080339

Authors: Samuel Grimbert Le Mer Adrien Vachon Iñigo Mujika Nicolas Berryman Jean-Benoit Morin Laurent Bosquet

This study aimed to test the reliability of measurements obtained using different technologies for sprint time and force–velocity profiles during sprint running. Seventeen elite rugby union players completed three experimental sessions, separated by one week. During each session, players completed two 30 m sprints and measurements were performed simultaneously with a linear encoder, a 10 Hz GPS unit, timing gates and video analysis. Split time (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 m), maximal velocity (VMAX, m·s−1) and force–velocity variables (maximal power, PMAX, W·kg−1; theoretical maximal force, F0, N·kg−1; theoretical maximal velocity, V0, m·s−1; maximal ratio of force, RFMAX, percentage) from the best sprint of each session were computed. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05 for all analyses. Linear encoder and video analysis showed moderate-to-very-high reliability for sprint time (intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) = 0.68 to 0.94; standard error of measurement (SEM) = 0.95 to 2.59%), while timing gates showed poor-to-high reliability (ICC = 0.23 to 0.85; SEM = 1.80 to 7.23%). Linear encoder showed very-high reliability for maximal velocity (ICC = 0.94) and force–velocity variables for PMAX (ICC = 0.90), high reliability for V0 (ICC = 0.88) as well as RFMAX (ICC = 0.75), and moderate reliability for F0 (ICC = 0.66). Linear encoder (ICC = 0.66 to 0.94) and video analysis (ICC = 0.50 to 0.94) were the most reliable methods to measure sprint times while linear encoder, due to a higher sampling frequency, was the most reliable to establish the force–velocity profile.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080338

Authors: Yipu Zhang Yue Wu Han-Kyo Seo

Background: Fastballs delivered at comparable velocities may differ in upper-extremity loading, but cross-sectional profile differences do not establish within-pitcher biomechanical mechanisms. Objective: To construct an exploratory velocity-adjusted elbow–shoulder loading profile and descriptively compare non-definitional kinetic-chain characteristics associated with high-velocity low- and high-adjusted-load profiles. Methods: This cross-sectional secondary analysis included 411 fastballs from 100 pitchers in the OpenBiomechanics Project. Elbow varus and shoulder internal rotation moments were adjusted for pitch velocity, body mass, height, age, throwing side, and playing level; standardized residuals were averaged into a composite score. Sample tertiles defined high-velocity low-adjusted-load (HVLL) and high-velocity high-adjusted-load (HVHL) profiles, and pitcher-cluster-bootstrap and sensitivity analyses assessed robustness. Results: HVLL included 47 pitches from 17 pitchers, and HVHL included 37 pitches from 17 pitchers; only two pitchers contributed to both profiles, making the HVLL-versus-HVHL contrast almost entirely inter-individual. Pitch velocity was comparable (144.41 vs. 143.39 km/h; difference, 1.01 km/h; 95% CI, −0.97 to 2.88; p = 0.310). HVLL pitches showed smaller lead-knee extension change (6.61 degrees vs. 19.85 degrees; difference, −13.25 degrees; 95% CI, −20.37 to −5.58; FDR-adjusted p = 0.010) and lower lead-knee extension angular velocity at foot plant (30.67 vs. 232.77 degrees/s; difference, −202.10 degrees/s; 95% CI, −293.22 to −88.82; FDR-adjusted p = 0.010). These differences were attenuated when pitcher fixed effects were used to define loading residuals, further limiting within-pitcher interpretation. Conclusions: Because only two pitchers contributed to both profiles, the contrast was almost entirely inter-individual and describes between-pitcher performance–loading organization. It generates hypotheses but does not establish within-pitcher mechanisms, injury risk, or coaching targets.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080337

Authors: Yoshiki Fujisawa Ryohei Hayashi

The relationship between upper- and lower-limb positioning during standing sprint starts and acceleration performance across developmental stages remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to categorize the standing sprint start postures of participants ranging from elementary school to university students and to examine how these postures influence the time from the start signal to the first foot contact and the 5-m split time during a 50-m sprint. Starting postures were classified as Type A (same-side arm–leg alignment) or Type B (opposite-side arm–leg alignment). Two-way ANOVA revealed a significant main effect for posture type, indicating that Type B generally resulted in a shorter initial acceleration time than did Type A. Furthermore, a significant interaction effect was found for the 5-m split time for boys, with a particularly pronounced trend of decreasing times from lower elementary school to junior high school grades. These findings suggest that contralateral arm–leg positioning during standing sprint starts is associated with early acceleration performance and may reflect developmental changes in coordination relevant to sprint performance and coaching practice.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080336

Authors: Javier Gaviria-Chavarro Miguel Ángel Gómez-García Claudia F. Giraldo-Jiménez

This exploratory study examined segmental biomechanical variables associated with 20 m start performance in 24 juvenile inline speed skaters (14–16 years). Athletes performed three maximal 20 m starts; the best time was recorded with photoelectric timing gates, and the corresponding trial was analyzed from two-dimensional video using Tracker. Segmental kinematics and indirect inertial estimates were derived using De Leva-adjusted anthropometric parameters. Candidate predictors were selected with LASSO, and the complete preprocessing and selection pipeline was evaluated using nested leave-one-out cross-validation. Post-selection ordinary least squares, bootstrap, and Bayesian models were used as secondary analyses of coefficient sensitivity and uncertainty. LASSO retained forearm segmental inertial force estimate, thigh velocity, forearm velocity, thigh angular velocity, and torso angular acceleration. The nested pipeline achieved RMSE = 0.12 s, MAE = 0.08 s, and R2_pred = 0.485. Greater thigh velocity, forearm inertial force estimate, thigh angular velocity, and torso angular acceleration were associated with shorter times, whereas greater forearm velocity was associated with longer times. These findings identify candidate within-sample associations, not stable biomechanical determinants. Because of the small sample size, cross-sectional design, indirect two-dimensional measurements, absent reliability analysis, and lack of external validation, the variables should be used only for hypothesis generation and provisional monitoring.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080335

Authors: Anderson Ricardo Malmonge Barbosa Luciano Flávia Marchesi Ciniciato Danilo Malmonge Barbosa Luciano Ercizio Lucas Biazus Vinicius Barroso Hirota Elias De França Marcelo Rodrigues da Cunha Carlos Eduardo Lopes Verardi

The regular practice of physical exercise is often associated with promoting benefits for practitioners. In recent decades, street running has become popular worldwide, with most participants being recreational runners who engage in the activity primarily to promote health, well-being, leisure, and quality of life, although some also participate with competitive goals. Among the psychological aspects related to exercise, studies have shown that some individuals may become susceptible to “exercise dependence,” a condition in which exercise takes a central role in a person’s life. As a result, individuals may exhibit characteristics such as excessive training, injuries; weight control issues, withdrawal symptoms when unable to exercise and even problems in social relationships when exercise is exclusively prioritized. Background/Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate and analyze levels of susceptibility to running dependence and its relationship with exercise volume and mood states (tension, depression, anger, vigor, fatigue, and mental confusion). Methods: This was a quantitative cross-sectional study involving 761 regular Brazilian runners (59.8% male and 40.2% female) who consented to participate and answered the Sociodemographic Questionnaire, the Escala de Dependência de Corrida (EDC), a Brazilian Portuguese adaptation of the Negative Addiction Scale (NAS), and the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS). The analysis plan was conducted through descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, median, 1st and 3rd quartiles, interquartile range, and 95% confidence intervals) and inferential statistics (Spearman’s Correlation and Kruskal–Wallis Test). In all tests, the significance level adopted was p < 0.05. Results: The sample was divided into three groups of susceptibility to exercise dependence: low (37.6%), moderate (36.4%), and high (26%). Scores indicative of greater susceptibility to exercise dependence showed positive correlations with running practice volume (years of experience, weekly training frequency, weekly training duration, and weekly mileage), as well as with vigor. Although a statistically significant correlation was also observed for tension, its magnitude was trivial (rs = 0.080). Comparisons using the Kruskal–Wallis test showed that higher susceptibility levels were associated with greater running volumes and higher raw vigor scores, whereas no significant group differences were observed for the remaining mood states. Conclusions: Higher susceptibility to exercise dependence was associated with greater running volume and higher raw vigor scores. No consistent associations were observed with negative mood states, except for a trivial correlation with tension. These findings suggest that greater susceptibility to exercise dependence among runners was primarily associated with higher raw vigor scores rather than with broader alterations in mood states.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080334

Authors: Marc Lochbaum Fanny Arendt

This review provides a substantial, updated meta-analysis examining the relationships between pre-competition Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) and Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Revised (CSAI-2R) subscales and objective sport performance metrics from 1985 to 2026. Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, we found studies via a systematic search of the Web of Science (WOS) and EBSCOhost databases, as well as relevant meta-analyses. Random-effects models calculated pooled mean differences (Hedges’ g) and correlation coefficients (r) for the primary analyses. Forty-eight studies totaling 3659 athletes met the inclusion criteria. The included literature using primarily the CSAI-2 spanned four decades of global research, featuring mainly individual sport elite and university-level samples of male and female athletes. Primary findings revealed significant pooled effects in the hypothesized directions across all subscales in both the mean difference and correlation studies, ranging from small to medium in magnitude. Prediction intervals were wide for all primary analyses, indicating high variability in future study findings. Of note, subgroup datasets for win/lose comparisons in tennis and martial arts, golf and gymnastics event scores, and individual athlete’s basketball and volleyball statistics provided more stable results providing direction for researchers and practitioners. In conclusion, while the CSAI-2(R) remains a popular pre-competitive monitoring tool, wide prediction intervals except in a few subgroups necessitate caution. Practitioners should prioritize measurement of the CSAI-2(R) the day of performance with longitudinal, idiographic assessments to account for individual zones of optimal functioning and anxiety interpretation.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080333

Authors: Diego Hernán Villarejo-García Carlos Navarro-Martínez Pedro Lopez Baro Gabriel Daza-Sobrino Sebastian Del Rosso José Pino-Ortega

This study examined the association between technical–tactical ruck variables and the probability of defeat in international rugby union. Six variables (Pitch Territory, Number of Phases, Match Half, Player Type, Gainline Progression/Ruck Position, and Number of Players in the Ruck) were recorded from 2575 rucks across 26 international matches played by the Spanish national team. The binary logistic regression model displayed a significant overall fit (χ2 = 137.247, df = 9, p < 0.001, Nagelkerke R2 = 0.0692, AUC = 0.6208), achieving 57.98% global accuracy. A high Number of Phases (OR = 3.265 for ≥7 Phases), playing within Own Territory (OR = 1.481), operating Behind Gainline (OR = 1.478), or On Gainline (OR = 1.369), and actions during the Second Half (65.7%) compared to the First Half (54.5%) were significantly associated with higher odds of defeat. Conversely, the post hoc GLMM sensitivity check showed that the associations for these variables remained broadly consistent, while indicating that the exclusive involvement of Backs was associated with the highest estimated probability of defeat among the Player Type categories (64.4% vs. 57.2% for Forwards), and that the involvement of ≥4 players in the ruck became statistically significant in the mixed-effects model after accounting for match-level clustering and was associated with a higher estimated probability of defeat. In conclusion, Number of Phases, Pitch Territory, Gainline Progression, and the quantity and Player Type involved are significantly associated with defeat, aligning with specific contact exposure environments.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080332

Authors: David Sainsbury Leanda McKenna Jenny Downs Kevin Netto

This study aimed to investigate associations between training load (TL) calculated using the OMNI rating of perceived exertion scale (OMNI-RPE) and heart rate (HR) and velocity-derived measures of TL in non-elite adolescent team sport athletes. Fifty-four athletes participated in the study. The study was separated into two parts. In the Part A, twenty athletes completed both an easy and hard version of a simulated team game circuit outdoors on natural turf to replicate performance parameters often used in training. In part B, thirty-four different athletes completed a competitive team game played outdoors on synthetic/natural turf hockey or soccer pitches. For both Parts A and B, session OMNI TL (sOMNI-TL) was derived as a product of the session OMNI-RPE and session duration, and was correlated to Edward’s Training Impulse (TRIMP) and time spent in 0–25%, 25–50%, 50–70% and >70% peak velocity. Low-to-moderate correlations were observed between sOMNI-TL and Edwards TRIMP (r = 0.18–0.20) and velocity measures (r = 0.05–0.42) for Part A. Larger correlations were observed between sOMNI-TL and Edwards TRIMP (r = 0.53, p < 0.05) and velocity measures (r = 0.36–0.51, p < 0.05) for part B. The hypothesis that sOMNI-TL would show significant, moderate associations with heart rate and velocity-derived training load in both simulated and game conditions was only partially supported, and the results of this study do not support its use as a stand-alone measure in a practical setting.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080331

Authors: Eirini Koidou Fani Thoma Christina F. Dolopikou Sousana K. Papadopoulou Constantinos Giaginis Vassilis Barkoukis Julie Vaiopoulou

Background/Objectives: Valid and culturally adapted instruments are essential for accurately assessing sports nutrition knowledge among coaches, given their influential role in shaping athletes’ dietary behaviors and performance outcomes. This study aimed to translate, culturally adapt, and evaluate the psychometric properties of the Nutrition for Sport Knowledge Questionnaire (NSKQ) for Greek certified coaches, while also examining knowledge levels and associated demographic factors. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 514 certified coaches representing various sports disciplines. The translation followed a standardized forward–backward procedure with expert panel review to ensure cultural relevance. The psychometric properties of the NSKQ-Gr were evaluated using complementary Classical Test Theory (CTT) and Rasch approaches. Item difficulty, item discrimination, Kuder–Richardson Formula 20 (KR-20), McDonald’s omega, and confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) using the WLSMV estimator for dichotomous items were performed. Test–retest reliability was examined via Pearson’s correlation coefficient and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Statistical analyses explored associations between nutrition knowledge and demographic and professional characteristics. Results: Item discrimination varied across domains; the strongest performance was observed for the Alcohol domain and the weakest for Weight Management and Sports Nutrition. KR-20 and McDonald’s omega indicated moderate internal consistency for most domains, apart from Weight Management and Sports Nutrition, the reliability of which was lower. The temporal stability was excellent (ICC = 0.998). CFA findings were heterogeneous across domains, whereas Rasch analyses showed generally acceptable item-level fit. Most coaches demonstrated average (56.8%) or poor (32.3%) sports nutrition knowledge. Good or excellent knowledge was demonstrated by only 10.9% of the participants. Knowledge scores differed according to age, certification pathway, previous athletic experience, and several nutrition-related coaching practices. Conclusions: The NSKQ-Gr provides a useful multidomain instrument for assessing sports nutrition knowledge among Greek coaches. The present study extends previous validation work by providing complementary evidence from CTT, CFA, and Rasch modeling, thereby offering a more comprehensive psychometric evaluation of the NSKQ-Gr. The findings indicate that the NSKQ-Gr is a multidomain knowledge assessment instrument suitable for Greek coaches. Future validation studies are encouraged to further refine its psychometric properties.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080330

Authors: Kevin A. Giordano Ian Jump Benjamin Lerch Gretchen D. Oliver

Biomechanical theory and coaching heuristics suggest that contact depth meaningfully constrains swing mechanics and batted-ball outcomes. Our purpose was to examine the relationship between contact depth and key hitting metrics during live collegiate competition. Markerless motion capture and ball tracking data were collected during live NCAA Division I games from 2779 batted balls from 239 hitters. Outcomes included contact depth, exit velocity, maximum swing speed, swing speed at contact, and vertical and horizontal attack angles. Regressions assessed relationships with velocity and swing speed variables, while partial least squares regression evaluated attack angles. The mean contact depth was 20.1 ± 7.2 inches in front of the hitter’s center of mass. Contact depth weakly explained exit velocity (r2 = 0.04, p < 0.001) but significantly predicted maximum swing speed (r2 = 0.20 p < 0.001). No meaningful relationship was observed with swing speed at ball contact (r2 = 0.01, p > 0.01). Contact depth showed a strong association with the combined structure of vertical and horizontal attack angles, with the primary PLS component explaining 80.0% of the contact depth variance. Contact depth appeared to influence swing mechanics and attack angles and was associated with peak, but not contact, bat speed. These findings highlight contact depth as a critical covariate for interpreting swing metrics and designing biomechanical assessments, analytic models, and on-field interventions.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080329

Authors: Safwen Rekik Mohamed Saifedine Fessi Sami Hidouri John Elvis Hagan Jnr Viorel Petru Ardelean Vlad Adrian Geantă Khaled Trabelsi Wassim Moalla

This study investigated the acute effects of guarana supplementation on cognitive, technical, physiological, and psychological responses in soccer players prior to, during, and following high-intensity 4 vs. 4 small-sided games (SSGs). Thirty-two male amateur soccer players (20.1 ± 2.9 years) completed a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial involving guarana (300 mg) and placebo, separated by a 7-day washout. After a 70 min absorption period, participants performed the Trail Making Test (TMT-A/B) and Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT) before and after a 20 min SSG protocol. Heart rate (HR), HR recovery, perceived physical exertion, perceived mental exertion, mood state, and 24 h wellness were assessed. Guarana significantly improved TMT-A performance compared with placebo (p = 0.005, η2p = 0.05), whereas no significant differences were observed for TMT-B (p = 0.08, η2p = 0.02). A significant Group × Time interaction was found for total LSPT performance time (p = 0.01, η2p = 0.06), driven by a significant technical performance optimization at pre-exercise (p < 0.01) that dissipated post-exercise (p > 0.05). Guarana significantly increased mean exercise HR (p < 0.05) and slowed early recovery kinetics (p < 0.05) without altering perceived physical exertion (p > 0.05). Concurrently, it significantly reduced perceived mental exertion (p < 0.01) and attenuated Total Mood Disturbance (p < 0.001). No significant between condition variations were noted for 24 h wellness indices (p > 0.05). These findings suggest that acute low-dose guarana administration may improve basic attentional readiness and was associated with improved pre-exercise technical performance, although this performance advantage was attenuated following high-intensity physical exertion.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080328

Authors: Balsam Messai Slaheddine Delleli Khaled Trabelsi Achraf Ammar Medina Srem Sai John Elvis Hagan Vlad Adrian Geantă Hamdi Chtourou

Background: Recovery between repeated high-intensity efforts is essential to limit fatigue and performance decline in soccer. This study examined the effects of cold water immersion (CWI), foam rolling (FR), and passive recovery during a 15 min interval between two 5 m shuttle run tests (5mSRTs) on physical performance, perceptual responses, and biochemical markers of muscle damage and inflammation. Methods: Fifteen soccer players (age: 22.6 ± 2.03 years) completed passive recovery, FR, and lower-body CWI at 15 °C in a randomized crossover design. Creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), C-reactive protein (CRP), aspartate transaminase (AST), delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and belief questionnaire scores were assessed before the first 5mSRT and immediately after, and then 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h after the second 5mSRT. Results: Between the first and the second 5mSRT, TD remained unchanged following CWI (p = 0.21), whereas significant decreases were observed following passive recovery (p = 0.025) and FR (p = 0.028). Also, BD decreased after passive recovery (p = 0.03). At 48 h, CWI elicited lower CK (p = 0.01) and LDH (p = 0.003) than passive recovery, whereas FR resulted in lower AST concentrations (p = 0.01). Participants reported higher belief scores following CWI and FR than passive recovery throughout the recovery period (p < 0.05). No between-condition differences were observed for FI, PD, RPE, DOMS, or CRP (all p > 0.05). Conclusions: CWI may help preserve repeated-running performance and attenuate selected markers of muscle damage following repeated high-intensity intermittent exercise in soccer players, whereas FR demonstrated only limited physiological effects.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080327

Authors: Onur Yüksel Öçal Zeynep Meva Altaş Mehmet Erdem Engin Yunus Emre Meydanal Cengizhan Özgürbüz

Hip-Hop dance is physically demanding, yet epidemiological data in female dancers remain limited. This mixed observational cohort study described musculoskeletal injury and physical complaint burden, evaluated core endurance and balance, compared female Hip-Hop dancers with healthy non-dancer controls, and examined associations with prospective complaints. Adult female Hip-Hop dancers (n = 31) and controls (n = 34) completed the McGill test battery, Unipedal Stance Test, and modified Star Excursion Balance Test. Dancers also reported prior-year injuries and musculoskeletal complaints and were followed for 12 weeks to record physical complaints and dance exposure. Dancers and controls showed similar anthropometric characteristics, core endurance, and balance scores (all p > 0.05). Musculoskeletal complaint incidence exceeded injury incidence during the previous year (46.1 vs. 0.72 per 1000 dance hours). During follow-up, 41.9% of dancers reported at least one physical complaint, corresponding to 36.6 physical complaints per 1000 dance hours. Trunk extensor endurance was inversely associated with physical complaint counts, whereas prior-year injury and musculoskeletal complaint counts were positively associated. Female Hip-Hop dancers demonstrated substantial overuse-related physical complaint burden despite relatively low injury incidence.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080326

Authors: Wakako Tatsuta Mizuho Adachi Takayo Inayama Yoshitsugu Fujishima Mutsumi Ogawa

Background: Accurate assessment of athletes’ health status is essential for effective nutritional education and condition management. However, existing quality of life instruments do not adequately capture sport-specific health issues experienced by athletes. This study aimed to develop a subjective health status scale for collegiate athletes and examine its reliability and validity. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 432 collegiate athletes from two private universities in Tokyo, Japan. Six health-related items concerning gastrointestinal, skin, fatigue, and recovery conditions were developed based on semi-structured interviews with athletes and coaches. Exploratory factor analysis was performed to determine the factor structure, followed by assessments of internal consistency and associations with training satisfaction. Results: Two factors were identified: “Gastrointestinal/Skin condition” and “Fatigue Recovery/Reduction”. Both subscales demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.76 for each) and were positively correlated with training satisfaction (r = 0.44–0.55, p < 0.001). Multiple regression analysis showed that both factors significantly predicted training satisfaction (adjusted R2 = 0.35, p < 0.001), with “Fatigue Recovery/Reduction” showing a stronger predictive effect (β = 0.45). Conclusions: The newly developed scale demonstrated satisfactory reliability and validity and may provide a practical, non-invasive tool for monitoring athlete health and evaluating nutritional education and condition management programs.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080325

Authors: José Augusto Rodrigues dos Santos Rodrigo Zacca David Gomes Fernandes Pedro Silva Oliveira Diogo Duarte Carvalho

Monitoring physiological responses to intensified training is critical in elite sport, yet evidence in world-class kayak paddlers remains limited. To assess biochemical and hematological acute responses during an intensified training microcycle in an elite flat-water kayaker, a 35-year-old Olympic-level kayaker was monitored across two consecutive 7-day microcycles (pre-intensified and intensified). During the intensified microcycle, fasting venous blood samples were collected over five consecutive mornings. Hematological, biochemical, and hormonal markers were analyzed using standardized laboratory procedures. Training intensification induced marked but physiological changes. From Monday to Tuesday, leucocytes increased from 5.7 to 7.3 × 109/L (+28%), while creatine kinase (CK) rose from 291 to 602 U/L (+107%) and remained elevated (579–604 U/L). Serum iron decreased from 131 to 88 µg/dL (−32.8%) and remained below baseline throughout the microcycle. Triglycerides declined from 63 to 52 mg/dL (−17.5%) and stabilized thereafter. AST increased from 33 to 41 U/L (+24.2%) with minor fluctuations. Across the microcycle, cortisol rose from 522 to 575–578 nmol/L (+10–10.7%), whereas testosterone remained stable (29.4–31.2 nmol/L). Epinephrine increased from 13 to 37 ng/L (+184.6%). Erythrocytes, hemoglobin, and C-reactive protein remained stable. The intensified microcycle elicited substantial but controlled physiological perturbations, reflecting increased muscle stress and systemic load without evidence of maladaptation.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080323

Authors: Karol Kruczek Tim Gabbett Jason Lake Michał Nowak

The single-leg countermovement jump (SL CMJ) is widely used to assess limb-specific neuromuscular function, with interpretation commonly centred on inter-limb asymmetry. However, contextualising unilateral performance relative to bilateral capacity remains less clearly defined. This retrospective cross-sectional study aimed to develop exploratory descriptive benchmarks for SL CMJ kinetic, kinematic, and temporal variables expressed as a percentage of bilateral CMJ performance in a heterogeneous athletic cohort. A total of 348 athletes completed bilateral and unilateral CMJs using dual force plate sampling at 1000 Hz. The best trials were selected using the modified reactive strength index (mRSI), and averaged unilateral variables were expressed relative to bilateral potential. Unilateral-to-bilateral transfer was non-uniform across metric domains. Median relative jump height and the mRSI were 44.8% and 39.4%, respectively, whereas median average relative braking and propulsive force values were 76.0% and 75.4%, respectively. Gross impulse measures were retained to a greater extent than power- and rate-dependent variables, while temporal metrics showed prolonged unilateral phase durations. Exploratory sex-based analyses indicated trivial-to-small differences in selected variables; however, these findings should be interpreted cautiously because of unequal group sizes and the descriptive nature of the dataset. These results provide broad exploratory percentile benchmarks that may help practitioners contextualise SL CMJ performance relative to bilateral execution. However, the values should not be interpreted as universal clinical thresholds, injury-risk markers, or sport-specific normative standards without consideration of sex, sport discipline, competitive level, injury history, and longitudinal athlete context.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080324

Authors: Nikolaos Androulakis Nikolaos Koundourakis

Youth football academies increasingly utilize physical testing, athlete monitoring, anthropometric profiling, and performance analysis to support athlete development and training management. During adolescence, rapid biological maturation, fluctuating neuromuscular coordination, variable recovery capacity, and ongoing psychological development may substantially influence physical and football-specific performance over time. Consequently, athlete-management decisions based exclusively on isolated testing outcomes may inadequately reflect the developmental needs of young players. This narrative review presents a developmentally informed framework for applied athlete management in youth football academies. The review discusses the interaction between football-specific technical and tactical qualities, physical performance characteristics, biological maturation, somatometric profile, psychological and perceptual-cognitive factors, recovery management, and monitoring strategies during adolescent development. Particular emphasis is placed on practical implementation within real-world academy environments, including low-cost monitoring approaches, intra-club bio-banding, multidisciplinary communication, and athlete-specific intervention planning. Overall, the proposed framework positions athlete monitoring as a continuous support process designed to guide training adjustment, recovery management, and sustainable football progression within youth football development pathways.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080322

Authors: Cristina Maestre-Cascales Pedro Acosta-Manzano Ciara M. Hughes Víctor Segura-Jiménez Blanca Gavilán-Carrera

Background: Maintaining adequate physical fitness is essential for preserving functional independence with ageing. Women with fibromyalgia often exhibit reduced fitness levels, and daily sedentary time (ST) and physical activity (PA) may be important contributors to physical fitness. Objectives: To examine (1) the proportion of women with fibromyalgia meeting fitness standards for later-life independence, (2) associations of ST and PA with fitness, and (3) how reallocating ST to PA relates to fitness. Methods: 407 women with fibromyalgia (51.9 ± 8.0 years) participated. Fitness (Senior Fitness Test and handgrip strength) was compared with standards for women aged 60–64 as indicators of later-life independence. ST and PA were measured using triaxial accelerometry. Linear and isotemporal substitution models examined associations and estimated the theoretical associations of replacing ST with light, moderate, or vigorous PA in relation to physical fitness. Results: 13.3% of participants met cardiorespiratory, 7.9% lower-body strength, 29.9% upper-body endurance, and 4.4% agility standards. ST and PA were associated with fitness (all p < 0.05; adj R2 < 0.06). Reallocating 30 min of ST to light PA was associated with higher handgrip strength (B = 0.3); with moderate PA, cardiorespiratory fitness (B = 9.0); and with vigorous PA, upper-body muscular endurance (B = 11.1) and cardiorespiratory fitness (B = 104.9), all p < 0.05. Conclusions: Overall, only a small proportion of women met established fitness reference standards for later-life independence. ST was negatively and PA positively associated with fitness, although these associations explained little of its variability. In isotemporal substitution models, estimated replacement of ST with PA was associated with better fitness outcomes, particularly cardiorespiratory fitness and upper-body muscular endurance, with stronger associations at higher PA intensities. Further research is needed to identify additional modifiable determinants of physical fitness and support long-term functional independence.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080321

Authors: Jana Daher Jess Haines Margo Mountjoy Dalia El Khoury

Background/Objectives: The rising prevalence of dietary supplement use among athletes raises concerns, given the risks associated with unnecessary or excessive use. This study evaluated the impact of a Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)-based online educational intervention, “Nutrition for Athletes”, on dietary supplement use among varsity athletes at a Canadian university. Methods: Thirty varsity athletes were randomized into intervention (n = 18) and control (n = 12) groups. The intervention was delivered online over four weeks and consisted of four units that covered topics related to sports nutrition, hydration in sports, dietary supplements, and risks associated with dietary supplement use. Dietary supplement use was measured at baseline and post-intervention using self-reported questionnaires. Results: The most commonly used supplements at baseline were vitamin D (57%), vitamin C (53%), sports drinks (50%), protein bars, powders, and shakes (43%), and whey protein (40%). Binary logistic regression revealed a reduced likelihood of dietary supplement use in the experimental group compared to the control group post intervention, but this difference was not statistically significant (OR = 0.18, 95% CI = 0.01 to 1.76, p = 0.14). There was also no significant change in the behaviour of dietary supplement use within the experimental group, when comparing baseline to post-intervention (OR = 0.12, 95% CI = 0.01 to 1.11, p = 0.06). Conclusions: These findings reflect the potential existence of an intention-behaviour gap. Future interventions may benefit from incorporating strategies that address control-related barriers.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080320

Authors: Yoichiro Sato Masaki Eiga Kenshiro Matsuzaki

In competitive sports, players must make decisions rapidly and accurately. However, the cognitive process underlying decision-making while integrating opponent knowledge and relative competitive level remains unclear. This study explored whether these conditions influenced the cognitive process underlying decision-making in kendo athletes. Thirty high-school kendo experts (higher- and lower-skilled groups) observed temporally occluded videos of “kote” (wrist) and “men” (head) actions performed by a familiar high-level model and an unfamiliar intermediate-level model. They anticipated the strike and reported the reason for their anticipation (“intuition,” “sword tip,” or “whole body”) or answered “uncertain.” A fisher’s exact test was performed for statistical analysis. “Uncertain” responses were significantly higher for the intermediate-level model during non-kinematic information stages, suggesting that knowledge about the opponent supported decision-making as non-kinematic information. Furthermore, accuracy rates were also significantly higher for the intermediate-level model immediately before the strike. This finding suggested that the difference in competitive level between observers and models influenced the cognitive processes involved in the tentative stage of decision-making. This study provides novel perspectives on the decision-making paradigm by suggesting that experts’ cognitive mechanisms differ according to their opponent knowledge and relative competitive levels.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080319

Authors: Zhi Yun Liu Wyne Sze Lee Sonia Kaur Sohi Xiang Ren Tan Liyan Huang

Proxy indicators have been proposed as practical screening tools to assess low energy availability (LEA) risk among athletes. We evaluated the utility of the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q), resting metabolic rate (RMR) ratio, and relative RMR (rRMR) in identifying LEA risk compared with estimated energy availability (EA). Twenty mixed-sport female athletes (24.8 ± 4.8 years) participated in this cross-sectional study. EA was estimated using four-day food and activity logs. LEAF-Q scores were obtained via questionnaires. RMR was measured via indirect calorimetry while predicted RMR was calculated using the 1980 Cunningham equation. RMR ratio was computed using measured RMR over predicted value, and rRMR computed using measured RMR over fat-free mass (FFM), as assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Participants were classified ‘at risk’ of LEA based on LEAF-Q score ≥8, RMR ratio <0.90, and rRMR <30 kcal/kg FFM/day. RMR-derived measures displayed high sensitivity (100%) and low specificity (44.4%), while LEAF-Q exhibited low sensitivity (27.3%) and moderate specificity (55.6%). EA was moderately correlated with RMR ratio (r = 0.47, p = 0.035) and strongly correlated with rRMR (r = 0.63, p = 0.003). RMR-based measures may be promising rapid screening tools for LEA risk in mixed-sport female athletes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080318

Authors: Hamid Messaoudi El Mokhtar El Ouali Miloud Chakit Bilel Cherif Jihan Kartibou Rachid Boujdi Redouane Sarakh Ismail Bouzekraoui Alaoui Hervé Mayode Omar Akhouayri

Previous studies have shown that physical activity (PA) can improve insulin sensitivity and reduce insulin resistance (IR), a key determinant of metabolic dysfunction. While the beneficial effects of PA are well-documented in adults, evidence regarding the relationship between PA intensity and insulin resistance in adolescents, particularly in North African populations, remains scarce. This study aimed to compare the effects of a 12-week school-based high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) intervention, versus usual physical education, on insulin resistance as assessed by the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) in overweight and obese non-diabetic Moroccan adolescents. The study included 90 non-diabetic overweight and obese Moroccan adolescents aged 12 to 17 years. Participants were randomly assigned to three groups (HIIT, MICT, and control) within a 12-week school-based intervention. Insulin resistance was assessed using the HOMA-IR index. Linear regression models were used to examine the associations between exercise modality and HOMA-IR, adjusting for age, sex, baseline body mass index (BMI), and baseline HOMA-IR. Compared with the control group, both HIIT and MICT were associated with significant reductions in HOMA-IR. In the fully adjusted models, HIIT showed a greater decrease of −0.90 (95% CI: −1.07 to −0.72) (all p < 0.001) and MICT showed a decrease of −0.77 (95% CI: −0.94 to −0.61). Stratified analyses by BMI categories showed consistent improvements in insulin resistance for both overweight and obese adolescents. These findings suggest that school-based structured exercise interventions, particularly HIIT and MICT, independent of dietary modification, may contribute to improvements in insulin sensitivity and help reduce early metabolic risk in overweight and obese non-diabetic Moroccan adolescents. However, these results should be interpreted with caution given that dietary intake and other lifestyle factors were not strictly controlled.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080317

Authors: Victoria López-Lombó Adrián Mateo-Orcajada Lucía Abenza-Cano J. Arturo Abraldes Mario Albaladejo-Saura Raquel Vaquero-Cristóbal

The use of mobile applications to promote physical activity in adolescents has shown promising results regarding body composition and fitness. However, current evidence is limited by treating adolescents as a homogeneous group, often overlooking whether biological maturity status modulates these effects. This randomized controlled trial analyzed whether biological maturity status and gender modulate the effects of a 10-week step-tracker app intervention in 395 adolescents (13.95 ± 1.20 years). The experimental group (EG) completed walking sessions at least three times per week recorded via the app, while the control group (CG) maintained habitual activities. Somatic maturation was estimated via predicted age at peak height velocity. The 10-week intervention consisted of an app-based step-tracker program (≥3 sessions/week, with goals scaling up to 12,500 steps day). Biological maturity status does not act as a global moderator of the intervention, with its influence being strictly restricted to minor, outcome-specific variations in adiposity metrics among early-maturing males. Males in the EG achieved significant reductions in fat mass (p = 0.002; ηp2 = 0.025) and skinfold thickness (p = 0.005; ηp2 = 0.021) compared to the CG. While physical fitness gains in adolescent males across both groups were predominantly driven by natural pubertal growth, females in the EG demonstrated specific intervention-induced improvements in abdominal muscular endurance (p = 0.001–0.042; ηp2 = 0.011–0.028) and handgrip strength (p = 0.009–0.031; ηp2 = 0.012–0.018) that were absent in controls. In conclusion, biological maturity status and gender show outcome-specific interactive effects on adolescent adiposity and physical fitness, though the associated effect sizes remain consistently small to trivial. Given these results, a standardized mobile step-tracking strategy remains a viable and inclusive tool for educational settings, while the design of gender-tailored digital frameworks should be treated cautiously as a hypothesis for future research.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080316

Authors: Rui António Fernandes Fernando Alacid Beatriz Branquinho Gomes

This study aimed to identify the variables that best explain the performance of young male kayakers over 200 and 500 m across two categories, U14 and U16, and to determine whether stroke rate (SR), as described for senior athletes, is also a determining factor in performance in these categories. Twenty-four young Iberian kayakers (Portuguese and Spanish), 13.63 ± 1.50 years, distributed in two competitive categories, U14 (12.67 ± 0.47 years) and U16 (15.57 ± 0.73 years), were evaluated in terms of training, maturity, anthropometry, limb volumes, body composition, equipment, physical fitness, balance, and performance. Water/shoulder distance correlated significantly at both race distances in both age categories. The observed differences between U14 and U16 may reflect the influence of kayaking experience and maturity-related factors, which are likely to affect several performance-related variables. These results suggest the need to produce a specific evaluation battery for U14 that includes the water/shoulder distance, the 20 m shuttle run test, and the BESS test. Another one for U16 consists of the water/shoulder distance test, the pull-up test, and the sit-up test. This study also highlights the importance of designing training programs that enable young kayakers to perform the paddle technique with maximum efficiency at a high SR.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080315

Authors: Kana Shimizu Ayumi Yoshikawa Naoko Yabuno Yuta Hashimoto Takuya Nishioka Shota Yamaguchi Takayuki Inami

In aesthetic sports, performance is closely linked to body composition; however, quantitative indicators for monitoring athlete conditions remain limited. Bioelectrical impedance analysis-derived phase angle (PhA) reflects cellular health; however, its relationship with performance-related variables in rhythmic gymnasts remains unclear. This study explored the relationships among PhA, body composition, bone density, training time, and jump performance in senior rhythmic gymnasts across competitive levels. Twenty-three female gymnasts (aged 15–22 years) were classified into a top group consisting of athletes who had won major domestic competitions in Japan (n = 5) and a general group (n = 18). Body composition and PhA were assessed using bioelectrical impedance analysis, jump performance using the countermovement jump and reactive strength index, and bone density using the calcaneal ultrasound method. Although between-group differences were limited, distinct associations between PhA and performance-related variables were observed only in the top group. PhA was positively associated with skeletal muscle mass. In addition, a moderate, non-significant negative association between PhA and countermovement jump performance was observed in the top group. No clear relationships between PhA and body composition or jump performance were observed in the general group. Although these findings should be interpreted cautiously because of the small sample size and exploratory nature of the study, they suggest that the associations between PhA and performance-related variables may differ according to competitive level. Further studies with larger sample sizes and longitudinal designs are needed to clarify the relationships between PhA, performance-related variables, and physiological condition in rhythmic gymnasts.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080314

Authors: Mark Godley Daniel Fink Tim Saupe Edgars Edelmers Liāna Pļaviņa Māra Pilmane

Background: Relative energy deficiency in sport (REDs) is a multi-system syndrome precipitated by sustained low energy availability (LEA) and known to perturb bone, muscle, adipose, endocrine, and fluid–electrolyte homeostasis in athletic populations. Research question: How does chronic exercise-induced LEA modify the four principal compartments of body composition—bone mineral density, skeletal muscle mass, adipose (total and visceral) tissue, and hydration status—and to what extent do these modifications differ across endurance, strength, and aesthetic sporting disciplines? Objective: The objective of this narrative review was to synthesise the post-2000 peer-reviewed literature addressing this question, to delineate sex- and sport-specific patterns of compositional change, and to appraise the evidence base underpinning current nutritional and screening recommendations. Methods: A structured search of PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar (January 2000–June 2026) was performed; 85 sources specific to REDs, body composition, and athletes met the pre-specified inclusion criteria and informed the synthesis (104 references are cited in total, including background and methodological sources), the reporting of which was guided by the SANRA framework. Scope: The review integrates physiological, endocrine, and nutritional evidence across both sexes, contrasts REDs risk across endurance, ultra-endurance, weight-category/aesthetic, speed–power, and team disciplines and addresses practical implications for screening, interdisciplinary care, and future research.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14080313

Authors: Guillermo Cortés-Roco Verónica Low-Barría Rodrigo Yáñez-Sepúlveda Jorge Pérez-Contreras Yeny Concha-Cisternas Juan Hurtado-Almonacid Exal Garcia-Carrillo

Plyometric training is proposed as a method for improving neuromuscular performance in climbing; however, its specific effects on upper-body explosive power and rate of force development (RFD) in male boulderers, ranging from trained to highly trained, remain unclear. This preliminary exploratory trial examined the effects of a 10-week plyometric training program on selected laboratory-based neuromuscular performance outcomes. Eighteen male climbers were assigned to: intervention group (n = 9, 29.7 ± 4.5 yr) or a control group (n = 9, 31.3 ± 5.6 yr). Finger flexor strength and RFD (20-mm grip, 0–200 ms, 20–80%), isometric pull-up strength and RFD (load cell), upper-body power (plyometric push-up, Power Slap), and lower-body power (CMJ) were assessed. The intervention comprised two plyometric sessions/week for 10 weeks. Significant differences were observed in pull-ups (Δ difference = +3.89 repetitions; 95% CI: 0.30, 7.48; p = 0.036; η2p = 0.248), push-up power (Δ difference = +174.25 W; 95% CI: 5.05, 343.46; p = 0.044; η2p = 0.230), isometric pull-up RFD 0–200 ms (Δ difference = +107.85 kg/s; 95% CI: 27.54, 188.16; p = 0.012; η2p = 0.336), and the 20–80% range (Δ difference = +261.78 kg/s; 95% CI: 23.09, 500.47; p = 0.034; η2p = 0.253). No clear between-group differences were observed for finger flexor strength, finger RFD, maximum isometric pull-up strength, Power Slap, or CMJ. Given the exploratory design, small sample size, and low reliability of RFD-derived variables, these findings should be interpreted cautiously as preliminary evidence of movement-specific neuromuscular performance improvements.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070312

Authors: Boryi A. Becerra-Patiño Juan David Paucar-Uribe Rodrigo Yáñez-Sepúlveda José Francisco López-Gil José Pino-Ortega

Background. Five-a-side soccer for the blind (F5) is a Paralympic sport that has been the subject of research aimed at identifying variables that influence performance. However, despite its growing popularity, there is limited scientific literature on quantitative analyses of offensive performance in this sport. Objective. To analyze 164 offensive plays by the Argentine men’s national team during the 2022 International Blind Sports Federation (IBSA) Copa América to determine the spatiotemporal progression and the decline in intra-match offensive performance. Materials and Methods. Each play was reconstructed with its progression vector, its finishing zone, and its absolute game minute. Multivariate logistic regression models and weighted trend analysis (Cochran–Armitage) were applied to examine the relationship between these variables and the offensive outcome (shot on-target and goal). Results. Plays originating from high-pressure recovery showed a favorable trend toward shooting on-target. The goal rate showed an empirical decline from 26.1% in the 6th–10th minutes to 6.7% in the final minutes, without reaching statistical significance. Conclusions. The results of this study suggest that the magnitude of the offensive progression vector and offensive effectiveness show an asymmetry toward the right side, as well as a pattern consistent with an intra-match decline toward the end of games. These variables appear to influence the offensive performance of the Argentine men’s national blind football (F5) in the 2022 Copa América. These findings provide one of the first integrated vector analyses of offensive performance in F5 and propose metrics applicable to coaching staff, the design of specific training programs, and the functional assessment of athletes with visual impairments; therefore, further studies are needed to analyze these metrics in different official competitions and to account for various competitive levels. It is recommended to design training exercises focused on recovery under high pressure near the right side of the offensive zone and maintain the intensity of play in the final minutes of the game.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070311

Authors: Julijan Stefanovic Valentina Victoria Werndle Dejan Reljic

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is an effective exercise strategy for improving cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and cardiometabolic health in laboratory settings, yet its effectiveness in real-world conditions remains less clear. This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the effects of real-world HIIT on CRF and cardiometabolic outcomes in adults. We searched five major databases (inception to December 2025) for controlled and non-controlled reports of ≥1 cardiorespiratory or cardiometabolic outcome. Random-effects models were used to calculate weighted mean differences (WMD), with subgroup and meta-regression analyses to explore moderators. Thirty-one studies (n = 1119) were included. In the pooled pre–post analyses, HIIT was associated with significant within-group improvements in VO2max/peak (3.9 mL/kg/min), systolic (−4 mmHg) and diastolic blood pressure (−3 mmHg), triglycerides (−8 mg/dL), total cholesterol (−9 mg/dL), LDL (−10 mg/dL), and waist circumference (−1.7 cm) across interventions. In controlled comparisons, HIIT was superior to passive controls for VO2max/peak (6.9 mL/kg/min) and waist circumference (−2.9 cm), while superiority over active controls was limited to VO2max/peak (1.1 mL/kg/min). Moderator analyses revealed larger cardiometabolic benefits in overweight and clinical populations, and greater improvements in fasting glucose and blood pressure with higher exercise volume and longer intervention duration. In conclusion, real-world HIIT can effectively improve CRF and selected cardiometabolic outcomes across diverse adult populations. Specific cardiometabolic benefits appear to be pronounced in overweight, clinical, and previously untrained individuals. Notably, substantial heterogeneity and moderate methodological quality warrant cautious interpretation.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070310

Authors: Sofia Agra João Barreira Ricardo Pimenta Farzad Yousefian José Afonso Fábio Yuzo Nakamura

This study aimed to quantify and compare the absolute daily and weekly external loads and training-to-match ratios of high-speed running distance (HSRD) and sprint distance (SPD) across the microcycle in semi-professional male soccer players. Twenty-four players from a Portuguese fourth-division team were monitored across nine standardized microcycles (7 days; 1 match) during the 2024–2025 competitive season using Global Navigation Satellite System devices. Absolute HSRD and SPD values were calculated for each training day and match, and daily and weekly training-to-match ratios were derived. Linear mixed-effects models assessed the effects of weekday, playing position, and their interaction. Match day elicited the highest absolute HSRD and SPD across all positions (p < 0.001). Within the training week, HSRD peaked on MD-3, whereas SPD peaked on MD-2, with the lowest values observed on MD-1. Significant position-by-day interactions were identified for both HSRD and SPD (p < 0.001). Wide defenders and midfielders accumulated greater absolute HSRD during both training and matches, while central defenders exhibited comparatively higher training-to-match ratios despite lower absolute match demands. Notably, in the analyzed team, all playing positions exceeded 100% of match-derived HSRD and SPD during the training week. In conclusion, the semi-professional soccer players investigated herein accumulated weekly high-speed and sprinting loads that exceeded match demands, although their distribution varied by playing position and training day. Confirmatory studies are necessary to further explore training-to-match load ratios across different competitive levels.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070309

Authors: Elizabeth Templeton Susan Shirley Daniela Lopez Berazain Rob Sillevis

Background: High-intensity and high-impact exercise may increase intra-abdominal pressure and loading of the pelvic floor. Although pelvic floor dysfunction (PFD) has been reported among physically active women, findings remain inconsistent, particularly in young nulliparous women. This study examined the relationship between exercise modality, pelvic floor distress, and sexual function in physically active nulliparous women. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was completed by 103 physically active nulliparous women aged 18–30 years. Participants completed the Pelvic Floor Distress Inventory-20 (PFDI-20) and Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) and reported their primary exercise modality, exercise frequency, and duration. Statistical analyses included Welch’s ANOVA with effect sizes (ω2) and Spearman correlation analyses. Results: Participants engaged in aerobic training (10%), yoga/Pilates (6%), strength training combined with cardiovascular exercise (57%), powerlifting (14%), and CrossFit (14%). No statistically significant differences were detected across exercise modalities for total PFDI-20 scores (p = 0.209, ω2 = 0.05) or total FSFI scores (p = 0.883, ω2 = 0.00). Likewise, no significant differences were observed across individual PFDI-20 or FSFI domains (all p > 0.05), with effect sizes ranging from negligible to small (ω2 = 0.00–0.07). Weak exploratory correlations were identified between pelvic floor distress and selected sexual function domains (ρ = 0.18–0.23, p < 0.05). Conclusions: No statistically significant differences in pelvic floor distress or sexual function were detected among self-reported exercise modalities in this cohort. These exploratory findings should be interpreted cautiously and warrant confirmation through adequately powered longitudinal studies incorporating objective assessments of pelvic floor function.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070308

Authors: Mohamed Amin Selmi Roland van den Tillaar Radhouane Haj Sassi Raouf Hammami

This study investigated seasonal changes in anthropometric characteristics, vertical and horizontal jump performance, 30 m sprint performance, estimated maximal aerobic capacity, and repeated-sprint ability in competitive youth soccer players across the preparation, mid-season, and end-season phases. A longitudinal repeated-measures design was employed over one competitive season. Anthropometric variables, vertical and horizontal jump performance, 30 m sprint performance, estimated VO2max derived from the Vam-Eval field test, and repeated-sprint sets (2 × 5 × 20 m with 15 s recovery between sprints and 1 min between sets) were assessed at three time points. Significant seasonal changes were observed in anthropometric characteristics, with body mass and height increasing progressively and body fat percentage decreasing throughout the competitive season (F ≥ 12.0, p < 0.001, ηp2 ≥ 0.32). Body mass increased from 64.1 ± 6.7 to 66.7 ± 6.8 kg, height from 1.69 ± 0.07 to 1.72 ± 0.07 m, and body fat percentage decreased from 11.3 ± 2.0% to 9.4 ± 1.8%. Peak height velocity (PHV) significantly influenced changes in body mass and height but not body fat percentage. Seasonal improvements were observed in several physical performance measures. Squat jump, standing long jump, 15 s repeated jump performance, 10- and 30 m sprint performance, estimated maximal aerobic speed, estimated VO2max, and repeated-sprint performance changed significantly across the season (F ≥ 3.28, p ≤ 0.046, ηp2 ≥ 0.11), whereas countermovement jump, five-jump test, and flying 20 m sprint performance remained unchanged. Estimated VO2max and maximal aerobic speed improved from preparation to mid-season and were subsequently maintained. Repeated-sprint performance exhibited set-dependent seasonal adaptations, with significant Time × Set interactions indicating progressive improvements during the second repeated-sprint set, whereas the first set showed only transient improvements at mid-season. Significant PHV and Time × PHV effects were also observed for aerobic capacity and repeated-sprint performance. In conclusion, these seasonal variations likely reflect the combined influence of biological maturation, training exposure, and competitive demands rather than training effects alone.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070307

Authors: Peter Marián Kalanin

Background: Cardiometabolic risk and physical function are both strongly influenced by physical activity (PA) across the adult lifespan, yet it remains unclear whether this association is uniform across different stages of adulthood in everyday primary care settings, particularly among the oldest patients. Objective: Using a real-world primary care cohort stratified into four adult lifespan groups, we investigated how self-reported PA category was linked to LDL-C concentration and Timed Up and Go (TUG) performance, and formally tested whether these associations differed by age group. Methods: This cross-sectional analysis included 863 adult primary care patients, divided into four clinically meaningful lifespan groups: young adults (18–39 years, n = 277), middle-aged adults (40–59 years, n = 284), younger older adults (60–74 years, n = 166), and older-old adults (≥75 years, n = 136); PA was classified as low, moderate, or high per WHO recommendations. The primary outcomes were LDL-C and TUG. Between-group differences were evaluated with one-way ANOVA (Bonferroni-corrected post hoc tests) and age-specific multivariable linear regression adjusted for BMI, sex, arterial hypertension (AH), and diabetes mellitus (DM); a pooled PA × age-group interaction term formally tested for effect modification by age. Results: Baseline BMI, LDL-C, TUG, sex distribution, AH prevalence, and PA distribution were similar across the four groups, whereas DM prevalence differed modestly (p = 0.033). In every age group, higher PA categories were linked to significantly lower LDL-C (all p ≤ 0.006) and significantly better TUG times (all p < 0.001); PA was the only independent predictor shared by both outcomes across all groups in multivariable models (all p < 0.01). The standardized effect of PA on TUG was greatest among older-old adults (≥75 years: β = −1.609, 95% CI: −2.114 to −1.104, R2 = 0.260). Neither the PA–LDL-C nor the PA–TUG interaction with age group reached statistical significance (p = 0.571 and p = 0.349, respectively). Conclusions: Associations between PA and both cardiometabolic and functional performance outcomes were present across all four adult lifespan groups, including adults aged ≥75 years, with no statistically significant age modification detected in this sample. Given the exploratory nature of the interaction analysis and the limited size of the oldest-old subgroup, these results should be regarded as hypothesis-generating rather than conclusive evidence of age-invariance. The pattern seen among older-old adults (≥75 years) reinforces the clinical value of routine PA assessment for evaluating functional health in advanced age. Taken together, these results point to PA assessment as a candidate age-independent component of cardiometabolic and functional health evaluation across the adult lifespan in primary care, a possibility that larger, adequately powered samples should confirm.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070306

Authors: Petar Peev Danail Ivanov Grigor Gutev

Muscle strength and bilateral asymmetry of the lower limbs are relevant to injury risk and performance in football, yet their age-related development in adolescent players outside elite Western European cohorts is insufficiently described. This study determined age-related differences in lower-limb strength and muscular balance in Bulgarian male football players. A total of 122 players aged 13 to over 19 years from three clubs were assessed at the end of the competitive season. Maximal concentric knee extension and flexion peak force of both legs was measured at 60°/s using a system with electronically controlled resistance (Kineo); relative strength (force per body mass) was used for the main between-age comparisons to control for growth. Age differences were analysed with ANOVA and Tukey tests (extension) and Kruskal–Wallis with DSCF comparisons (flexion) across seven age groups. Relative strength differed significantly with age (extension η2p = 0.28–0.36; flexion ε2 = 0.43–0.49), rising most up to 16 years and then plateauing. The concentric H/Q balance index ranged from 0.48 to 0.62. The findings provide a descriptive developmental profile relevant to individualised strength programming in youth football.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070305

Authors: Daniel Marcos-Frutos Kevin Méndez-Bouza David Colomer-Poveda Amador García-Ramos Gonzalo Márquez

Objective: To compare the between-session reliability of motor units (MUs) behavior derived from high-density surface electromyography (HD-sEMG) during isometric knee extension across three analytical approaches: all identified MUs averaged per participant, tracked MUs averaged per participant, and tracked MUs using individual MUs as the statistical unit. Methods: Seventeen resistance-trained volunteers completed one familiarization and two identical experimental sessions. HD-sEMG signals were assessed in vastus lateralis at 30%, 50%, and 70% of maximum voluntary torque (MVT). Plateau discharge rate, recruitment discharge rate, and recruitment threshold (expressed in %MVT and Nm) were calculated. Reliability was quantified with the Standard error of the measurement (SEM), Coefficient of variation (CV), and Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Results: All identified MUs averaged per participant (CV = 11.7%, ICC = 0.73) yielded comparable reliability than tracked MUs averaged per participant (CV = 13.7%, ICC = 0.68). Using the individual MU as the statistical unit produced the lowest reliability (CV = 16.6%, ICC = 0.58). Conclusions: Averaging all identified MUs per participant achieved reliability comparable to tracking, without the associated sample loss or workload, supporting it as the preferable analytical approach for training interventions.