Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060215

Authors: Liliana C. Baptista Aristides M. Machado-Rodrigues Marco Antônio Rabelo Da Silva Elias De França Raul A. Martins

Statins’ effects on cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and their interaction with exercise training remain unclear in older adults with dyslipidemia. This cohort study enrolled nine hundred and eighty-one older adults with dyslipidemia who underwent one of three interventions: (i) multicomponent exercise training (MEX; n = 298; 74% females), (ii) daily statin monotherapy (ST; n = 178; 65% females), or (iii) combined treatment with statins and multicomponent exercise training (STMEX; n = 505; 79% females). CRF, functional status, and lipid profile were assessed at baseline and after 24 months. After follow-up, statin therapy reduced CRF by 4% in women (p < 0.001), but not in men. The statin groups also showed reduced upper- and lower-limb strength in both sexes. Exercise alone significantly improved CRF (women: 27% vs. men: 21%, p < 0.001) and functional status, regardless of sex. The combined treatment significantly increased women’s CRF, whereas men showed an attenuated CRF benefit (women: 27% vs. men: 1%, p < 0.001). Our findings suggest sex-specific patterns in the effects of statin therapy on CRF in older adults with dyslipidemia. Statin therapy was associated with lower CRF over time in women, but not in men, whereas multicomponent exercise training may reverse these effects.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050214

Authors: Igor E. Anpilogov Nicolas H. Kruchynsky Eugene B. Postnikov

Tracking biomechanical changes associated with different training modalities remains a methodological challenge in applied sports science. This pilot longitudinal study examined stroke technique stability in seven junior rowers (aged 16.6 ± 0.5 years) across three measurement sessions (March, April, June), separated by two training mesocycles emphasising strength training and intensive rowing, respectively. Upper body angular velocity was recorded using a smartphone-based MEMS sensor fixed to the upper back during incremental ergometer exercise. Overall stroke duration and its standard deviation remained stable throughout the study period, whereas the durations of the two stroke phases corresponding to forward (drive) and backward (recovery) body motion changed systematically across mesocycles. Phase-specific changes were statistically significant in 10 of 12 paired comparisons (rank-sum test) and 7 of 12 within-subject comparisons (Wilcoxon signed-rank test) for phase durations, and in 9 and 5 of 12 comparisons for their standard deviations, respectively. These findings suggest that the internal structure of the rowing stroke is sensitive to training load specificity, even when overall stroke timing remains unchanged, and that smartphone-based angular velocity analysis provides a feasible tool for individualized biomechanical monitoring in young athletes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050213

Authors: Gabriel de Souza Zanini David Michel de Oliveira Pedro Luiz Santorsula de Paula Oliveira Eduarda Corteze Santos Renata da Silva Alves Bolzam Víctor Hernández-Beltrán José M. Gamonales Mário Cunha Espada Danilo Alexandre Massini Dalton Muller Pessôa Filho

Scientific production on CrossFit® has expanded alongside the growing popularity of the modality; however, multi-database scientometric analysis describing its structure, research trends, and knowledge gaps remains limited. Objective: This study conducted a scientometric analysis to identify patterns within the literature and to provide directions for future research. Methods: Searches were performed in the databases Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus, including all publications available up to December 2024. The search identified 3927 records. After removing duplicates and excluding reviews, meta-analyses, and studies outside the scope, 526 original articles were included in the analysis. Scientometric analyses were conducted using Bibliometrix (version 4.3.2) implemented in R (version 4.4.2), with additional support from Microsoft Excel and VOSviewer (v1.6.20). Results: The results indicate a marked growth in publication output, with an average annual increase of approximately 37.5%, reflecting the increasing academic interest in the modality. The United States and Brazil emerged as leading contributors, supported by strong research infrastructure and expanding scientific communities. The thematic structure of the field is predominantly centered on physiological responses, performance outcomes, and injury-related topics, while psychosocial, behavioral, and population-specific dimensions remain comparatively underexplored. Despite the observed expansion, the findings suggest that quantitative growth has outpaced methodological diversification and longitudinal development within the field. In addition, a limited integration between scientific findings and applied training contexts was identified, highlighting a gap between research production and real-world practice. Conclusion: Overall, CrossFit® research appears to be expanding toward a more diversified and structured scientific field; however, advancing the field will require greater methodological rigor, increased focus on longitudinal and integrative approaches, and stronger translation of scientific evidence into applied settings.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050212

Authors: Yuxuan Zhang Yajun Qiu

Obesity is a significant risk factor for metabolic diseases and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Exercise exerts beneficial effects partly through myokines secreted by skeletal muscle. This narrative review summarizes current evidence on exercise-induced myokines in obesity. We searched PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar up to Jan 2026 using keywords “myokines”, “obesity”, “resistance training”, “aerobic exercise”, and “HIIT”. We focused on six myokines (IL-6, irisin, FGF21, myostatin, apelin, and Metrnl) that are consistently linked to metabolic and cardiovascular health. Key findings are as follows: resistance training effectively increases irisin and decreases myostatin, promoting muscle mass and fat browning; high-intensity interval training (HIIT) induces rapid IL-6 peaks and elevates Metrnl, enhancing anti-inflammatory responses and cardiac function; aerobic exercise improves FGF21 sensitivity and supports long-term metabolic homeostasis. For clinicians and exercise practitioners, a preliminary exercise framework can be suggested based on available human evidence. In obese patients, ≥3 sessions per week of resistance training (60–80% of one-repetition maximum, 8–12 repetitions, 3–4 sets) may be considered to optimize irisin/myostatin balance, combined with ≥150 min per week of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (50–70% of maximum heart rate) or 75 min per week of HIIT (85–95% of peak heart rate, 4 × 4 min intervals) to improve FGF21 sensitivity and Metrnl levels. These suggestions should be interpreted as hypothesis-generating rather than definitive clinical guidance, given the heterogeneity of included studies and the absence of quantitative synthesis. Nevertheless, they offer a molecular basis for hypothesis-driven precision exercise prescription that requires validation in future prospective studies and randomized controlled trials.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050211

Authors: Dominic Richmond Caroline White Thomas Gomulko

The association between return-to-sport test batteries (RTS-TBs) and clinical outcomes remains unclear. Previous systematic reviews of RTS-TBs have reported low pass rates; however, these reviews have been limited by substantial heterogeneity. This systematic review aimed to quantify RTS-TB pass rates and examine their association with timing (post-op). Five electronic databases (AMED, CINAHL, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, PubMed) were searched on 22 December 2024. Observational studies reporting RTS-TB outcomes as a single pass or fail were included. A random-effects proportion meta-analysis was used to estimate the pooled prevalence of pass rates. A meta-regression was performed to assess the association between test timing and pass rate. Twelve studies (n = 1977) met the eligibility criteria, but five were excluded from the meta-analysis and meta-regression due to overlapping cohorts. From the remaining eight studies (n = 1449), the pooled prevalence of pass rates was 33% overall (95% CI 19 to 47%), 26% (95% CI 18 to 33%) for non-professional athletes, and 73% (95% CI 66 to 80%) for professional athletes, although only a single study focused on professional athletes. No association was observed between the post-operative timing of the test and passing RTS-TB (p = 0.73). The observed RTS-TB pass rates are low, and this may be influenced by the extreme heterogeneity. Although no association was observed between the RTS-TB timing and pass rates, this finding alone cannot confirm causality.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050210

Authors: Diego Hernán Villarejo-García Carlos Navarro-Martínez José Pino-Ortega

Elite women’s rugby has often been analysed using the male performance model as a reference, despite evidence that women’s rugby presents distinct game demands and potentially different risk profiles. This study aimed to compare the frequency of key contact-related events between elite men’s and women’s rugby. An observational, retrospective, comparative cohort study was conducted using official performance data from 135 international matches from the men’s and women’s Six Nations Championships. Variables were grouped into three categories: Open-Play, Static Phases, and Discipline. Independent samples t-tests, Mann–Whitney U tests, and Linear Discriminant Analysis were used to identify sex-based differences. The results showed that men presented a higher frequency of rucks lasting more than 6 s (p < 0.001), whereas no significant differences were found in total tackles (p = 0.378) or total rucks (p = 0.634). In Static Phases, women’s teams recorded significantly more scrums (p < 0.001). In Discipline, women conceded fewer free kicks (p = 0.003) but received more red cards (p = 0.020). In conclusion, elite women’s rugby shares some open-play characteristics with the men’s game but differs in scrum frequency and disciplinary profile, supporting the existence of a distinct contact and risk exposure profile that should be considered when designing training and prevention strategies.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050209

Authors: Nejmeddine Ouerghi Wissal Abassi Nidhal Jebabli Mohamed Bessem Hammami Anissa Bouassida Katja Weiss Thomas Rosemann Moncef Feki Beat Knechtle

The study investigated the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on cardiorespiratory fitness, hormonal, and psychological markers in adolescents. Twenty-eight healthy male adolescents were randomized to a HIIT group or a non-training control group. HIIT comprises three sessions per week for 10 weeks, alternating 30 s runs at high-intensity and low-intensity. VO2max was estimated using the incremental running test. Plasma testosterone and cortisol were assessed by ELISA methods. Depression, anxiety, and stress scores were determined using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21. Data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA with repeated measures. Significant “group × time” interactions were detected for VO2max, testosterone, cortisol, testosterone-to-cortisol ratio, and stress score, but not for anxiety and depression scores. HIIT resulted in increased VO2max (p < 0.001, d = 1.04), testosterone (p = 0.005, d = 0.52), and testosterone-to-cortisol ratio (p = 0.008, d = 1.05), and decreased cortisol (p = 0.036, d = 1.09) and stress score (p = 0.020, d = 0.98). Ten-week HIIT resulted in an improvement in physical fitness, steroid hormonal balance, and self-reported stress symptoms, but no changes in depressive and anxiety symptoms in comparison to the control group. The findings should be interpreted with caution due to limitations, including the small sample size and the lack of assessment of sex-related differences. Further research is required to elucidate the topic.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050208

Authors: Khalid Yaseen Mohannad Felemban Layan Barassin Elan Alnakeeb Anfal Astek Ziyad Neamatallah Mazen Homoud Khalid Alsayed Mishari Rowished Mazen Almutairi Ayah Ismail

Background: Padel is a rapidly growing sport, yet limited evidence is available regarding movement quality and injury history among competitive players. The Functional Movement Screen (FMS) may help describe movement patterns associated with previous injury, although its predictive value remains uncertain. This study examined the association between FMS total and component scores and self-reported injury history among competitive male padel players. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 17 competitive male padel players, with 9 injured and 8 uninjured based on self-reported musculoskeletal injury history within the preceding 12 months. Movement quality was assessed using the seven-item FMS. Spearman’s rank correlation was used to examine the association between FMS total score and injury history, while Mann–Whitney U tests were used to compare FMS total and component scores between groups. The seven component-level comparisons were considered exploratory. Bonferroni correction was applied by using an adjusted significance threshold of α = 0.05/7 = 0.007; therefore, unadjusted p-values were interpreted against this corrected threshold. Results: Lower FMS total scores were associated with previous injury history (ρ = −0.703, 95% CI: −0.89 to −0.38, p = 0.002). Previously injured players demonstrated lower FMS total scores than uninjured players (p = 0.005). Among individual components, the In-Line Lunge showed a significant between-group difference after Bonferroni correction (p = 0.004), suggesting lower performance in a task requiring lower-limb stability, mobility, and trunk control. Conclusions: In this small exploratory cross-sectional study, lower FMS scores were associated with self-reported previous injury among competitive male padel players. These findings should be interpreted cautiously, as the study design does not allow causal or predictive conclusions. Larger prospective studies are needed to clarify whether FMS scores have practical value in monitoring movement quality in padel athletes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050207

Authors: Artur Avelino Birk Preissler Filipe Manuel Clemente Marcela Zimmermann Casal Rui Miguel Silva Ana Filipa Silva João Vitor Silveira Pedro Schons

Combat-sport performance depends on the interaction between technical skills and physical capacities, yet direct comparisons between grappling disciplines remain limited. The aim of this study was to compare the anthropometric profile and physical performance of elite judo and jiu-jitsu athletes. This cross-sectional study included 25 elite male athletes (judo—n = 12; jiu-jitsu—n = 13) assessed during a preparatory training phase. Anthropometric measures included age, training experience, height, and body mass, while physical performance was evaluated using dominant and non-dominant handgrip strength, squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), medicine ball throw with and without countermovement, and dynamic and isometric judogi-grip pull-up tests. Between-group comparisons were performed using independent sample tests, with effect sizes (ES) calculated. Judo athletes had greater training experience (13.25 ± 2.73 vs. 7.85 ± 4.36 years; p = 0.001; ES = 1.472) and higher SJ performance (38.71 ± 6.69 vs. 33.82 ± 4.74 cm; p = 0.045; ES = 0.850) compared to jiu-jitsu athletes. No significant between-group differences were observed for the remaining variables (p > 0.05). These findings indicate that no statistically significant differences were detected in most anthropometric and physical performance variables between elite judo and jiu-jitsu athletes, and the initially higher squat jump performance observed in judo athletes was no longer statistically significant after adjustment for training experience.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050206

Authors: Artur Avelino Birk Preissler Filipe Manuel Clemente Ewerton Luiz Bourscheid da Rocha Rui Miguel Silva Ana Filipa Silva Jocelito Bijoldo Martins Pedro Schons

Monitoring performance in football often combines physical testing and GPS-derived external-load measures, although their relationships remain unclear. This study examined the relationships between physical-test outcomes and GPS-derived external-load variables during the pre-season in professional female football players and whether these measures appear to capture distinct dimensions of performance. This observational study monitored 24 outfield players from a Brazilian Women’s First Division team during a 6-week pre-season. Players performed the countermovement jump, 10 m and 30 m sprints, change-of-direction test, and 30–15 intermittent fitness test while external load was recorded across field sessions. Associations were examined using Pearson’s or Spearman’s correlations, and principal component analysis (PCA) was applied. Significant correlations were more frequent within than between domains. Total distance correlated with accelerations (ρ = 0.740, p < 0.001), decelerations (ρ = 0.684, p < 0.001), Z3 distance (ρ = 0.595, p = 0.003), and Z4 distance (ρ = 0.584, p = 0.003), while sprint count correlated with sprint distance (r = 0.950, p < 0.001). Estimated VO2max correlated positively with CMJ (r = 0.533, p = 0.007) and negatively with 10 m (r = −0.445, p = 0.029) and 30 m sprint times (r = −0.476, p = 0.019). PCA identified two components explaining 61.4% of the total variance: external load (40.6%) and physical performance (20.8%). These findings indicate that both approaches capture distinct and complementary aspects of performance.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050205

Authors: Luiz Paulo Milares Ricardo Luís Fernandes Guerra

Crossfit® is a high-intensity interval training modality that combines weightlifting, aerobic exercises, and gymnastics. Although it has gained widespread popularity, it also presents a considerable injury rate without clarity on the extent to which experience categories exhibit distinct temporal patterns. This study identifies the most common injuries and their progression across CrossFit® categories over 12 months. We defined injury as any Crossfit-related event requiring healthcare consultation and interrupting an athlete’s activity. An observational, longitudinal study was conducted with 102 participants categorized into three groups (n = 34): beginner, scale, and rx. An adapted injury index questionnaire was applied, and descriptive statistics were performed. Results showed that the most frequent injuries affected the shoulder and knee, with variations across the different athlete categories. Beginners exhibited the highest injury rates: knee (56%) and shoulder (35%). The scale group presented a greater concentration of shoulder injuries, whereas rx demonstrated the lowest injury incidence overall. Over the 12-month follow-up, 135 injuries were reported at baseline, decreasing to 116 at six months and 101 at the final evaluation. Dropout rates were 35% among beginners, 12% in the scale group, and 0% in the rx group. Crossfit-related injuries primarily affect the shoulders and knees, with a higher incidence in beginners. Future studies should investigate movement technique, strength, mobility, and limb dominance considering the overhead demands and the associated injury risk, in addition studies should examine training programming too

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050204

Authors: Citlali Campos-Hernández Tatiana Romero-García Héctor Frayde-Gómez Cristhian Emmanuel López-Campos María Jossé Navarro-Ibarra Juan Carlos Borbón-Román Juan Pablo Machado-Parra Victor Enrique Porras-Alvarado Mario Israel Oregel-Cortez

Combined functional training (FT), high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and aquatic exercise may improve health-related fitness in aging populations; however, the influence of baseline adiposity on training responses remains unclear. This study evaluated the effects of a 12-week multicomponent training program on aerobic capacity, body composition, metabolic health, and physical performance in middle-aged and older women and explored whether baseline body fat percentage modulated these responses. Thirty-four women (50–72 years) were assigned to a control group (Ctrl, n = 10) or an exercise group, stratified into normal fat (NF%, n = 10) and high fat (HF%, n = 14). The intervention included three weekly 60 min sessions consisting of HIIT, FT, and aquatic-based interval and resistance exercises, while controls maintained their habitual lifestyle without structured exercise. Significant improvements were observed in VO2max, skeletal muscle mass, fasting insulin, triglycerides, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and functional performance. Baseline adiposity influenced metabolic adaptations, with greater improvements in the HF% group. These findings suggest that multicomponent training may improve cardiometabolic health and physical performance; however, the results should be interpreted cautiously due to the quasi-experimental design and small sample size.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050203

Authors: Andrea Pagliaro Alessia Boatta Anna Alioto Roberta Cottone Domenico Nuzzo Pasquale Picone Cristina Cortis Andrea Fusco Magdalena Dzitkowska-Zabielska Giuseppe Messina Patrizia Proia

Overhead sports place high demands on the shoulder complex, making warm-up specificity relevant for acute readiness. This randomized controlled pilot trial compared the immediate effects of a shoulder-specific warm-up with a habitual routine in 24 youth competitive overhead athletes (14–20 years), allocated to an experimental group (EG = 12) and a habitual warm-up group (SWG = 12). The warm-up protocol was administered bilaterally to both shoulders, whereas outcome measurements were collected unilaterally, with each shoulder tested separately. Assessments were performed before and immediately after the warm-up protocol. Outcome measures included shoulder flexion range of motion (ROM), handgrip strength, Closed Kinetic Chain Upper Extremity Stability (CKCUES) performance, and post-warm-up Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE; Borg CR-10). A significant group-by-time interaction was found for right shoulder flexion ROM (p = 0.003, η2p = 0.346), with a significant increase in the EG from baseline to post-test (p = 0.008). No significant effects were observed for left shoulder flexion ROM, handgrip strength, or CKCUES performance. Post-warm-up RPE was statistically significant in the EG compared to the SWG (p = 0.041). These preliminary findings may suggest the potential practical value of more targeted warm-up strategies in overhead sports, while larger longitudinal studies are needed to confirm their broader functional relevance.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050202

Authors: Marco Beato Paolo Troiani Chiara Zinco Dario Pompa Maurizio Bertollo Cristian Savoia

This study aimed to evaluate the within-system agreement and interchangeability of real-time and post-processed external load metrics in elite football. Data were collected from 50 official Serie A matches using Dynamix (K-Sport World S.R.L., Pesaro, Italy), the platform for acquiring and standardizing tracking inputs. SmartLive, a real-time monitoring module embedded within Dynamix, was compared with post-processed data from the league-approved optical tracking provider (Hawk-Eye Innovations Limited, Basingstoke, UK) in Serie A. The external load metrics analyzed included total distance covered; distances at speeds exceeding 15, 20, and 25 km·h−1; distances within the 15–20 km·h−1 and 20–25 km·h−1 ranges; distance covered during accelerations > 2 m·s−2 and decelerations < −2 m·s−2; and peak speed. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) demonstrated excellent agreement across all metrics, with values ranging from 0.929 to 0.999. Bland–Altman analysis revealed small mean differences between systems, indicating strong agreement. Overall, the findings confirm that both real-time and post-processed data are in close agreement across a wide range of performance metrics. Minor discrepancies were observed in intermediate speed zones and acceleration/deceleration events. This study provides the first validation of SmartLive’s within-system agreement with post-processed data, supporting its use alongside post-processed data in elite football environments.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050201

Authors: Mima Stanković Ilma Čaprić Emir Biševac Raid Mekić Aldina Ajdinović Zerina Salihagić Goran Jelaska Luka Pezelj Igor Jelaska

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) and small-sided games (SSG) are popular conditioning tactics in team sports, but their relative efficiency among female basketball players is uncertain. The aim of this study was to examine and compare the effects of a six-week HIIT and SSG intervention on the physical performance of elite female basketball players. Forty-four participants (20.98 ± 4.58 years) were randomly assigned to one of three groups: HIIT (n = 14), SSG (n = 14), or control (n = 16). Pre- and post-intervention evaluations assessed sprint performance (0–10, 0–20, 0–30 m), agility (Pro-agility, Zig-zag, 9-6-3-6-9 tests), vertical jump height (CMJ, CMJA, SJ), repeated sprint ability (RSA), and aerobic capacity (VO2max, VIFT, MAS). HIIT and SSG significantly improved all performance measures compared to the control group (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.365–0.809); however, there were no significant differences between the two experimental groups. HIIT had a slightly greater effect on linear sprinting, but SSG was more effective for agility and aerobic performance. Body composition remained unchanged. These data suggest that HIIT and SSG are both effective training methods for improving speed, agility, explosive power, RSA, and aerobic capacity in female basketball players. Incorporating both strategies into an organized training program can improve sport-specific performance and overall conditioning.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050200

Authors: Daniel Alexander Bizjak Lucas John Moritz Munk Marie Reiter Nea Lüders Johannes Kirsten Alexander-Stephan Henze Sebastian Viktor Waldemar Schulz

Endurance training camps are well established in elite sports, but one-week camps for recreational endurance athletes have recently gained popularity despite limited scientific evidence. This study investigated the effects of a one-week endurance training camp on body composition, endurance performance, and markers of metabolic stress and mitochondrial adaptation in recreational athletes. Female and male endurance athletes (≥18 years) participated in a professionally guided one-week endurance training camp. Assessments included body composition, running diagnostics, sleep-quality/recovery-stress questionnaires, nutrition/energy balance diaries, blood profiling, and mitochondrial biogenesis markers. Measurements were conducted before (pre), during (camp), and after the camp (post). A total of 35 participants (18 male/17 female) were included. Body mass and body fat decreased from pre- to post-camp. Lactate concentrations at threshold levels changed, while velocities at fixed lactate concentrations and maximal oxygen uptake did not significantly improve. Post-camp, lactate dehydrogenase, klotho, and vitamin D increased, whereas interferon-γ, kynurenine, cortisol, creatinine, and ferritin decreased. Plasma mitochondrial and nuclear DNA abundance, as well as PGC1-α expression, increased, while vascular endothelial growth factor decreased. A one-week endurance training camp in a holiday-like setting induces measurable physiological, metabolic, and mitochondrial adaptations in recreational athletes and is associated with reduced systemic and psychological stress. However, the concurrent increase in muscle- and cell-stress markers indicates a substantial physiological load.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050199

Authors: Pedro E. Alcaraz Anthony J. Blazevich Tomás T. Freitas Elena Marín-Cascales Truls Raastad

On behalf of the Strength and Conditioning Society (SCS), we are pleased to present the abstracts submitted for the SCS 8th Annual Meeting. The event was held at the Norwegian School of Sport Sciences in Oslo, Norway, on 8–10 October 2025, and comprised several invited sessions held by international and national speakers on a variety of topics related to biochemistry and exercise physiology, strength and conditioning practices and their application to health, injury prevention, and sports performance. These included strength training in high-performance sports, sport science and training–competition load management in elite environments, biochemistry and exercise physiology and prescription, nutrition and biomechanics, among others. The conference also included practical workshops held by renowned academics and practitioners on eccentric training, change of direction ability, and strength and power training in professional team sports, combat sports, and ergospirometry and exercise prescription in specific populations. Finally, the event disseminated up-to-date strength and conditioning research by providing practitioners and researchers with the opportunity to present their most recent findings. All abstracts presented at the SCS 8th Annual Meeting can be found in this Conference Report.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050198

Authors: Rosalyn Cooke Lee Herrington James Martin Alison Rushton Nicola Heneghan Andy Soundy

Pre-elite female field hockey players have a high incidence of lower extremity injury, highlighting the need for practical and reliable screening approaches. A dual assessment combining Functional Performance Tests (FPTs) with movement quality scoring (QASLS) may provide a more comprehensive evaluation; however, its reliability in this population is unclear. Fifteen pre-elite female field hockey players (16.7 ± 0.7 years) completed an FPT battery (anterior reach (AR), single leg drop vertical jump–land (DVJL), single hop for distance (SHFD), side hop (SH)) on two occasions, 28 days apart. Movement quality was assessed by three raters using QASLS. Reliability was evaluated using ICC with 95% confidence intervals (CI), alongside standard error of measurement (SEM), smallest detectable difference (SDD), and percentage exact agreement (PEA). Test–retest reliability varied across tasks (ICC2,1 0.33–0.90), with wide confidence intervals indicating uncertainty in several estimates. AR demonstrated the most consistent reliability, supporting its use for monitoring over time. In contrast, the DVJL and SH showed the greatest variability, likely reflecting higher task complexity, while the SHFD required relatively large performance changes to exceed measurement error. Intra-rater reliability for QASLS was consistent across the FPT battery (ICC2,k 0.79–0.90), whereas inter-rater reliability was more variable (0.38–0.82), indicating rater-dependent differences. PEA demonstrated generally high agreement (60–100%), although lower agreement was observed for pelvic alignment components. These findings support the use of a dual assessment approach as a practicable profiling approach in pre-elite female field hockey, enabling practitioners to identify movement deficits not captured by performance metrics alone. However, variability in complex tasks and between raters highlights the need to consider measurement error and implement standardised rater training when profiling or monitoring performance.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050197

Authors: Afroditi Lola Eleni Bassa Georgia Stavropoulou George Giatsis Konstantinos Chatzinikolaou

Perceptual–cognitive abilities are essential components of performance in volleyball, where players must quickly interpret visual information and respond effectively to rapidly changing game situations. The present study aimed to examine perceptual–cognitive abilities and reaction performance in competitive female volleyball players and to explore how these abilities may contribute to athlete development and training design. Thirty-nine young female volleyball athletes participated in the study and underwent an evaluation of perceptual–cognitive abilities considered critical for volleyball performance. These abilities were assessed through specially designed computer-based tasks delivered via dedicated experimental software, enabling the measurement of reaction time and response accuracy during perceptual–motor processing. Group comparisons did not reveal significant differences between playing positions or competitive levels in the measured perceptual–cognitive abilities. Multivariate and clustering analyses suggested the presence of potential performance patterns characterized by different combinations of reaction speed, response accuracy, and perceptual–cognitive processing. However, these patterns should be interpreted with caution, as the clustering solution showed limited separation (silhouette score = 0.02), indicating an exploratory and non-definitive structure. Overall, the findings highlight the multidimensional nature of perceptual–cognitive performance in volleyball and suggest that athletes may rely on different perceptual–motor strategies when responding to game-related stimuli. From an applied perspective, integrating perceptual–cognitive challenges into training environments may support athlete development and improve decision-making efficiency in dynamic game situations.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050196

Authors: Souhail Bchini Ismail Dergaa Wissem Dhahbi Halil İbrahim Ceylan Valentina Stefanica Taoufik Selmi Dhouha Moussaoui Nadhir Hammami

Background: Childhood and adolescence represent critical developmental periods characterized by rapid somatic growth, endocrine changes, and the progressive attainment of biological maturity. These maturational processes substantially influence the development of physical fitness, yet are often overlooked when evaluating performance in youth populations. This structured narrative review aims to synthesize current knowledge regarding the relationships between somatic growth, biological maturity, and physical fitness in children and adolescents. Methods: A structured narrative review was conducted by systematically searching PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases for peer-reviewed articles published up to February 2026. Keywords included ‘biological maturation’, ‘physical fitness’, ‘youth’, ‘adolescence’, ‘peak height velocity’, and ‘bio-banding’. Studies were eligible if they examined relationships between biological maturity indicators and physical fitness outcomes in children and adolescents aged 8–19 years. No publication date restrictions were applied, although priority was given to articles from the past 15 years. Results: Evidence consistently indicates that biological maturity substantially influences muscular strength, power, and speed in males; findings among females and for cardiorespiratory fitness are more nuanced and context-dependent. Early-maturing boys typically exhibit superior strength and power performances, whereas findings among girls are more variable. Earlier maturation in girls is frequently associated with increased adiposity, which may attenuate performance in weight-bearing activities. When maturity status is ignored, physical fitness evaluations may misrepresent the capabilities of late-maturing youth and potentially discourage long-term participation in physical activity. Conclusions: Integrating biological maturity into youth fitness evaluation frameworks is essential for accurately interpreting performance data and for providing developmentally appropriate interventions. Three implementation strategies are recommended: (i) adoption of maturity offset or percentage of predicted adult stature as standard covariates; (ii) development of maturity-stratified normative standards; and (iii) implementation of bio-banding in youth sport development.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050195

Authors: Ed Daly John Mackersie Lisa Ryan

Tactical athletes, including military service members, are exposed to occupational demands that increase their risk of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), particularly through blast exposure, falls, collisions, and repeated sub-concussive events. Although clinical tools and progressive return-to-activity protocols support acute management, recovery may remain fragmented when physical, cognitive, psychological, and performance domains are not integrated. Military personnel require recovery models which extend beyond symptom resolution and return-to-duty clearance. Holistic performance programming offers a multidimensional framework which incorporates subject matter experts across strength and conditioning, rehabilitation, nutrition, behavioural health, cognitive performance, and human performance optimisation. This narrative review examines the role of holistic performance programming in optimising recovery from mTBI among tactical athletes, with emphasis on interdisciplinary care, structured assessment, recovery periodisation, monitoring technologies, and return-to-duty readiness. The role of embedded subject matter experts in identifying and monitoring mTBI; interdisciplinary care models which integrate clinical and performance expertise; structured recovery pathways from assessment to reintegration; and the importance of flexibility, communication, and service member engagement are examined. In addition, the review assesses the potential use of biomarkers, wearable technologies, and multi-domain assessment tools to guide individualised recovery. Holistic performance programming may bridge the gap between clinical recovery and operational readiness following mTBI. By integrating physical, cognitive, psychological, nutritional, and sleep-related strategies, this approach may reduce fragmented care and better address the complex nature of mTBI recovery. Interdisciplinary performance teams may improve early recognition, individualised rehabilitation, safer return-to-duty decisions, and long-term readiness. Future practice should prioritise standardised assessment, real-time monitoring, education, and stigma reduction.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050194

Authors: Manuel Pinto João Crisóstomo Christopher Kirk Javier Abián-Vicén Luís Monteiro

Punch impact power is crucial for boxing performance and varies with punch biomechanics. Straight punches rely primarily on linear force production, whereas Hook punches depend more on rotational and lateral force generation; however, the effectiveness of strength and conditioning (S&C) interventions remains insufficiently explored. This study investigated the effects of targeted S&C programs on Straight and Hook punch impact power in trained boxers compared with regular boxing training. Thirty-one boxers completed an eight-week intervention and were allocated to three groups: a Linear-Oriented Training Group (LOTG), a Rotational-Oriented Training Group (ROTG), or a Control Group (CG). Punch impact power (Jab, Cross, Lead Hook, and Rear Hook) was assessed using PowerKube at baseline and post-intervention. One-repetition maximum bench press (1 RM BP), countermovement jump (CMJ), and handgrip strength (HS) were also evaluated. Data were analyzed using mixed-design repeated-measures ANOVA and one-way ANOVA on post–pre change scores (Δ). A significant main effect of time was observed for all punch types (p < 0.001), with significant group × time interactions for the Cross, Lead Hook, and Rear Hook (p < 0.05). The ROTG showed the greatest improvements, particularly in Hook punches. Targeted S&C interventions, particularly rotational training, improved punching impact power and neuromuscular performance.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050193

Authors: Amir Romdhani Ahmed Ghorbel Ghada Regaieg Vlad Adrian Geantă Alexandra Reta Iacobini Alexandru Ioan Băltean Makram Zghibi Omar Trabelsi

This study examined whether pre-existing situational motivation correlates with the magnitude of performance improvement elicited by verbal encouragement (VE) in long jump. A total of 134 physically active sports science students (21.1 ± 1.4 years) performed a long jump task under two conditions: with and without peer VE. Situational motivation, differentiated into autonomous (Intrinsic Motivation [IM], Identified Regulation [IR]) and controlled (External Regulation [ER], Amotivation [AM]) forms, was assessed immediately prior to trials using the Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS). Performance improvement was calculated as the percentage change (Δ%) between conditions. Paired t-tests evaluated the overall effect of VE, while multiple linear regression analysis was used to assess the predictive relationship between situational motivation subscales and performance gains (Δ%), with sex included as a covariate. The results showed that VE significantly enhanced performance across both sexes (p < 0.001; d = 1.109–1.331). The regression models indicated that Δ% was positively predicted by autonomous forms of motivation (IM: R2 = 0.252; IR: R2 = 0.262) and negatively predicted by controlled forms (ER: R2 = 0.27; AM: R2 = 0.249). Sex was not a significant predictor in any model (p > 0.05), indicating that all observed relationships were consistent across both male and female participants. These findings indicate that the performance-enhancing effect of VE in long jump is associated with the initial motivational state of the practitioners, being greater in autonomously motivated individuals and attenuated in those with controlled motivation. Consequently, situational motivation should be assessed before implementing VE in long jump, as its effectiveness is limited in individuals with low autonomous drive and may require preliminary strategies to enhance task engagement.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050192

Authors: Viktorija Maconytė Loreta Stasiulė Arvydas Stasiulis

Background: Blood volume (BV), haemoglobin mass (Hb-mass) are key determinants of blood oxygen transport. The aim of this study was to assess BV and Hb-mass in elite junior rowers and evaluate their relationship with fat-free mass (FFM) and aerobic capacity. Methods: Twenty-five males (18.4 ± 2.4 y, 1.92 ± 0.5 m, 89.3 ± 4.7 kg) and fourteen females (17.0 ± 1.9 y, 1.77 ± 0.7 m, 74.2 ± 11.3 kg) participated. BV, plasma volume (PV), and Hb-mass were assessed via CO rebreathing. Pulmonary gas exchange was measured during a graded rowing test. Results: Males had higher absolute BV (7270 ± 717 vs. 5388 ± 471 mL) and Hb-mass (1083 ± 91 vs. 720 ± 49 g). After adjusting for FFM, most differences disappeared, except PV, which remained higher in females (57.2 ± 4.8 vs. 49.9 ± 6.5 mL·FFM·kg−1). V̇O2max was higher in males in absolute (6.28 ± 0.40 vs. 4.48 ± 0.29 L·min−1) and body-mass-relative terms (70.2 ± 5.6 vs. 61.3 ± 7.3 mL·kg−1·min−1), but not when expressed per FFM (79.4 ± 5.3 vs. 81.1 ± 7.3 mL·FFM·kg−1·min−1). BV, PV, and Hb-mass correlated positively with V̇O2max in both sexes, with stronger associations in females. Conclusions: Sex differences in blood parameters among junior rowers are largely explained by FFM, except for PV, which is relatively higher in females. Stronger associations between blood variables and aerobic capacity in females suggest greater reliance on central oxygen transport.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050191

Authors: Hiroto Takahashi Tatsuya Igawa Ryunosuke Urata Shomaru Ito Kosuke Suzuki Riyaka Ito Mika Toda Chiaki Matsumoto Masahiro Ishizaka

The Y Balance Test (YBT) is widely used to assess dynamic balance and lower-limb function in both clinical and sports settings. However, substantial variability exists in YBT measurement procedures across studies, which may complicate interpretation of the reliability and validity findings. This scoping review aimed to systematically map the reporting frequency and heterogeneity of participant characteristics and measurement procedures in studies evaluating the reliability and/or validity of the YBT. This scoping review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA extension for Scoping Reviews and the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology. MEDLINE, CENTRAL, CINAHL, and clinical trial registries were searched from inception to 20 September 2025. Observational studies assessing the reliability and/or validity of the YBT were also included. Data on participant attributes and key measurement procedures, including practice trials, rest periods, upper-limb restrictions, heel lift allowance, and other protocol components, were extracted. A total of 32 studies involving 1701 participants were analyzed. Considerable heterogeneity was observed in the reporting of YBT measurement procedures across studies, with differences according to study design and participant characteristics. While practice trials and error criteria were frequently described, other factors that may influence outcomes, including warm-up protocols, rest periods, heel lift allowance, and trial order, were less consistently reported. Such variability may limit the interpretability and comparability of YBT findings. Notable gaps were identified in both reliability and validity studies, as well as in studies involving injured or clinical populations. These findings highlight the need for greater transparency and consistency in YBT reporting. Clearer reporting standards may improve evidence synthesis and the application of YBT findings.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050190

Authors: Carlo della Valle Giulia Di Martino Alessio Melis Lorenzo Persichini Chiara De Santis Del Tavano Claudia Cerulli Giovanni Fiorilli Giuseppe Calcagno Enzo Iuliano Alessandra di Cagno

Background: Equine-assisted therapy (EAT) is a supportive intervention for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Aim: This pilot study evaluated the feasibility of a cognitive–motor EAT intervention to explore its preliminary effects on motor coordination in children with ASD. Methods: A single-group pre-test–post-test design was adopted. Twelve children (mean age: 10.08 ± 1.51 years; ASD level 1–2) participated in a 16-week EAT program. The intervention integrated EAT with cognitive dual-task activities targeting attention and perceptual processing. Motor performance was assessed before and after the intervention using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC-2). Results: The RM-ANOVA examined pre–post changes. A significant improvement in the MABC-2 Total Test Score was observed (p = 0.036; ηp2 = 0.34; 95% CI [0.541, 13.792]), indicating a trend of improvement of global motor coordination. No significant improvements were observed in Manual Dexterity, Aiming and Catching, and Balance subscale scores. Conclusions: A cognitively enriched EAT program promoted improvements in overall motor competence in ASD children, even without measurable changes in specific motor skills. The intervention was feasible and well-tolerated, with high adherence and no adverse events. These preliminary findings support the feasibility and potential value of integrating cognitive–motor demands into EAT and provide a rationale for larger randomized controlled studies.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050189

Authors: Rocco De Vitis Luca Lombardi Matteo Guzzini Arturo Militerno Giuseppe Taccardo Marco Passiatore

Background: Soccer kicking biomechanics has traditionally focused on lower limbs, overlooking whole-body integration. Three-dimensional motion analyses have demonstrated that upper limbs contribute substantially through tension arc formation, counterbalancing, and kinetic chain coordination. The hand–wrist complex may influence performance through proprioceptive pathways, yet this remains untested. Methods: Following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, we searched PubMed/MEDLINE, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus (inception—February 2026). Peer-reviewed studies examining kicking mechanics, kinetic chains, and joint proprioception were included. Two reviewers independently screened records and extracted data. Narrative synthesis was used to organize findings across four thematic categories: upper limb biomechanics, kinetic chain principles, wrist–hand stability, and proprioceptive enhancement. Results: From 3847 records, 51 studies (1988–2025) were included. Upper limbs are essential for kicking through tension arc formation, energy transfer, and balance maintenance. Kinetic chains operate bidirectionally; available evidence suggests that proximal segment deficits are associated with substantially increased compensatory demands at distal segments. External joint support has been shown to enhance proprioception and force perception. Conclusions: This scoping review identifies a theoretical rationale and a critical research gap: no direct empirical evidence exists that hand–wrist bandaging affects kicking performance. Evidence from adjacent domains (upper limb kicking biomechanics, kinetic chain theory and proprioceptive enhancement with external supports) provides indirect, translational support for the plausibility of a hypothesis that remains entirely untested. Future research should employ within-subject crossover designs in elite soccer players to determine whether this intervention produces any measurable effect. Practical recommendations to athletes or practitioners are premature and are not supported by the current evidence base.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050187

Authors: Wiktor Kłobuchowski Maciej Skorulski Kajetan Ornowski Robert Roczniok Adam Maszczyk Bianca Callegari Givago Silva Souza Przemysław Pietraszewski Szymon Kuliś

Background: Targeted training interventions, including neuromuscular warm-up protocols, eccentric resistance training, and dynamic stretching exercises, with limited and heterogeneous evidence on recovery strategies, have shown potential benefits for muscle performance and reductions in injury risk. Objective: To synthesize and structure contemporary evidence on exercise-based interventions spanning the pre-activity warm-up through post-activity recovery, emphasizing performance outcomes, injury-related effects, reported dose–response patterns, and implementation characteristics. Methods: This systematic review with structured qualitative synthesis was based on a systematic database search and eligibility screening process (n = 40 studies). Studies evaluating exercise-based interventions targeting injury prevention and/or performance in athletes were included. Data extraction included study design, population characteristics, intervention components, outcomes, and risk-of-bias assessments, which were summarized using comparative tables and descriptive analyses. Due to heterogeneity, results were synthesized qualitatively without meta-analysis. Results: Neuromuscular warm-ups (e.g., FIFA 11+) were frequently linked to reduced reported lower-extremity injury risk, alongside improvements in sprint, jump, and balance performance. Eccentric hamstring training was linked in several studies to lower reported hamstring injury rates and increased eccentric strength and fascicle length, while dynamic warm-ups may acutely improve sprint and jump performance. Evidence regarding recovery modalities was heterogeneous, supporting a cautious and individualized emphasis on sleep, nutrition, and hydration. However, heterogeneity in study designs, outcome measures, and populations limits the comparability and generalizability of the findings. Conclusions: Exercise-based interventions, including neuromuscular warm-ups, eccentric strengthening, dynamic stretching, and progressive load and recovery strategies, may support performance enhancement and injury-risk reduction in youth and adult athletes when appropriately implemented, although interpretation is limited by study heterogeneity.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050188

Authors: Rubén Roldán-Roldán Sara Suárez-Manzano Alba Rusillo-Magdaleno José Enrique Moral-García

Physical activity (PA) has been associated with improvements in cognitive function and psychological well-being in the school population; however, its specific impact on gifted students has been scarcely investigated. This systematic review analyzes the effects of PA, as well as the associations between PA and cognitive performance, emotional well-being, and social integration in students with high abilities (HA), also considering moderating variables such as sex and type of intervention. A total of four studies published between 2004 and 2025 were identified through searches in Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed, including cross-sectional and quasi-experimental designs with more than 700 participants aged 8 to 13 years. The findings suggest that PA may be associated with improvements in memory, attention, and creativity, as well as lower levels of anxiety and stress. Benefits were also observed in body perception and social integration, although these effects appear to be influenced by factors such as gender and academic demands. Overall, the evidence suggests that PA may represent a potentially valuable educational resource for the comprehensive development of these students; however, further longitudinal and experimental studies are needed to establish more robust and context-sensitive intervention protocols.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050185

Authors: Gréta Csilla Sinka Attila Pavlik Ágnes Mayer Dávid Fábián András Pavlik András Tállay

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries in youth athletes are multifactorial, and the relative contributions of neuromuscular and neurocognitive variables remain inadequately comprehended. Methods: In this prospective cohort study, 220 young handball players (104 girls and 116 boys; mean age 16.3 ± 1.4 years) participated in functional testing with the Back in Action system and baseline neurocognitive evaluation with the ImPACT battery. During the 24-month follow-up period, orthopedic specialists identified ACL damage, which was confirmed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Univariable logistic regression and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses were conducted to evaluate predictive capability. Results: During the 24-month follow-up, 26 athletes sustained an ACL injury. Prolonged plyometric ground contact time was significantly associated with ACL injury occurrence in logistic regression analysis (p = 0.019) and demonstrated fair discriminatory ability (AUC = 0.63) (OR = 0.98 per ms; 0.98 95% CI: 0.964–0.997). Female sex emerged as a profound and independent risk factor (OR = 5.74). Conclusions: Neuromuscular performance, specifically plyometric ground contact time and female sex, has predictive ability for ACL damage in youth handball players, while separate cognition assessments failed to independently differentiate injury risk. These findings support the use of objective neuromuscular evaluation in comprehensive injury prevention strategies in youth sport.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050184

Authors: Dídac Navarro-Martínez Javier Zahonero Pablo Vera José Martí-Martí Florentino Huertas Carlos Barrios

Background: Plantar pressure analysis provides insight into load distribution at the foot–pedal interface during cycling; however, its modulation by pedaling power, cadence, and overuse injury status remains poorly understood by professional cyclists. It is unclear whether common overuse injuries, such as Achilles tendinopathy, patellofemoral pathology, and iliotibial band syndrome, are associated with distinct plantar loading patterns. This study aimed to characterize plantar pressure distribution in elite cyclists and determine how power, cadence, and injury status influence this pattern. Methods: Professional cyclists completed a single integrated protocol using a high-resolution in-shoe pressure system. Plantar forces were recorded across nine anatomical regions and grouped into the transverse and longitudinal segments of the foot. Three phases were included: absolute power manipulation (100 and 200 W), cadence manipulation (80 and 100 rpm) at fixed power, and an ecological combined protocol using relative power (1.5 and 3 W·kg−1) with individualized cadence. The cyclists used their habitual bike setups. Participants were classified into the non-pathological (NP), AT, PFP, or ITBS groups. Mixed repeated-measures ANOVAs were used to analyze the effects of power, cadence, zone, foot, and injury status. Results: The plantar pressure distribution was consistently dominated by the medial forefoot. Increasing the absolute power from 100 to 200 W increased the maximal plantar pressures by 84.74% (p < 0.001), whereas increasing the cadence from 80 to 100 rpm at a fixed power increased the pressures by 15.90% (p = 0.003). Under individualized conditions, increasing relative power from 1.5 to 3 W·kg−1 increased pressures by 39.59% (p < 0.001), whereas cadence had no global main effect but significantly altered the regional pressure distribution (p < 0.001). Injury groups showed pathology-specific deviations, including higher overall pressures and asymmetry in Achilles tendinopathy, bilateral asymmetry in patellofemoral pathology, and asymmetric loading patterns in iliotibial band syndrome. Conclusions: Power is the main determinant of plantar pressure, and cadence modulates load distribution. Overuse injuries induce pathology-specific pressure patterns, supporting plantar pressure analysis for injury prevention and performance optimization in athletes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050186

Authors: Achraf Ammar Atef Salem Khaled Trabelsi Martha Montalvan Bassem Bouaziz Mohamed Ali Boujelbane Mohamed Kerkeni Liwa Masmoudi Hadeel Ali Ghazzawi Adam Tawfiq Amawi Bekir Erhan Orhan Raynier Zambrano-Villacres Juliane Heydenreich Christiana Schallhorn Tarak Driss Evelyn Frias-Toral Piotr Zmijewski Haitham Jahrami Waqar Husain Hamdi Chtourou Wolfgang I. Schöllhorn

Background/Objectives: Physical activity and sedentary behaviour represent related yet distinct movement behaviours with potentially different behavioural, psychosocial, and lifestyle correlates. However, multinational evidence examining these behaviours within the Mediterranean lifestyle framework remains limited. This study investigated correlates of physical activity and sedentary behaviour among adults from Mediterranean and neighbouring countries participating in the MEDIET4ALL survey. Methods: Data were collected from 4010 adults (37.2 ± 15.4 years; 59.5% female) across 10 Mediterranean and neighbouring countries using a standardized multilingual e-survey. Physical activity was assessed using the short International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ-SF; MET-min/week), and sedentary behaviour was assessed by daily sitting time. Hierarchical multiple linear regression analyses were conducted separately for physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Exploratory bootstrapped mediation analyses examined whether life satisfaction (SLSQ) or social participation (SSPQ) mediated associations between MEDLIFE dietary dimensions and sitting time. Results: Higher physical activity was associated with more rural living environments, lower body mass index, more favourable smoking status, higher alcohol consumption, stronger adherence to Mediterranean dietary habits, longer sleep latency, higher stress, and greater social participation (β ≈ 0.05–0.11), whereas female sex, longer sleep duration, and higher anxiety were associated with lower physical activity (β = −0.04 to −0.23); the positive association with alcohol consumption should be interpreted cautiously in light of potential residual confounding. By contrast, sedentary behaviour was positively associated with higher education, higher body mass index, and more favourable smoking-status (β ≈ 0.04–0.09) and inversely associated with better self-reported health status, Mediterranean dietary consumption patterns, life satisfaction, and social participation (β = −0.04 to −0.07). Mediation analyses showed significant but small-magnitude indirect effects for the pathways linking MEDLIFE dietary consumption patterns and MEDLIFE dietary habits with sitting time through social participation (indirect β = −0.0032 and −0.0045, respectively), which should be interpreted with caution, whereas no significant indirect effects were observed through life satisfaction. Conclusions: Physical activity and sedentary behaviour are associated with different, though partially overlapping, lifestyle and psychosocial correlates within the MEDIET4ALL framework. Social participation may represent a modest behavioural pathway linking Mediterranean dietary dimensions with lower sitting time. Given the cross-sectional design, these findings should be interpreted as associative rather than causal, but they nonetheless reinforce the importance of integrated and context-sensitive lifestyle promotion strategies.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050183

Authors: Ricardo Ferraz Henrique P. Neiva Fernanda M. Silva Pedro Duarte-Mendes

Recent estimates indicate that the prevalence of insufficient physical activity has been increasing globally, with nearly one third of adults (31 [...]

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050182

Authors: Samuel Hormiga López Alex Ojeda-Aravena María Alejandra Camacho-Villa Luis Gabriel Rangel Caballero Jorge Enrique Buitrago-Espitia Adrián De la Rosa

Background: Sunfish sailing requires a combination of morphological and neuromuscular characteristics to effectively manage sail control and maintain postural stability during hiking maneuvers. Objectives: We aimed to describe the anthropometric and neuromuscular characteristics of elite Colombian Sunfish sailors and explore potential sex-related patterns. Methods: Six competitive sailors (three men and three women) underwent anthropometric assessment and somatotype calculation. Neuromuscular performance was evaluated using handgrip strength (HGS), quadriceps maximal voluntary isometric contraction, rate of force development (RFD), one-repetition maximum (1RM) lower-limb assessment, countermovement jump (CMJ), trunk endurance tests, and the Y-balance test for dynamic balance. Descriptive statistics and standardized effect sizes (Hedges’ g) were used to characterize between-sex patterns. Results: Anthropometric assessments suggested descriptive sex-related differences in body composition and skeletal dimensions, with a predominance of mesomorphic characteristics. Descriptive data suggested higher HGS values among men (g = 2.27–4.85), while lower-limb neuromuscular performance showed higher values among men across several RFD time windows (g = 0.81–1.45). Conversely, dynamic balance and trunk endurance outcomes showed minimal variation between sexes. Conclusions: This pilot study provides a preliminary physical profile of elite Colombian Sunfish sailors. The observed patterns in strength-related and morphological variables, especially HGS, quadriceps MVIC, and lower-limb power, should be interpreted as exploratory. Further research with larger samples is required to confirm these findings.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050181

Authors: Lawrence W. Judge Exal Garcia-Carrillo

This case report documents the multi-season development of a 38-year-old elite F12 shot putter with macular degeneration (<10% functional vision) who improved from 13.00 m to a personal best of 14.41 m between 2021 and 2023. Athletes classified as F11–F13 compete with significant visual impairment that limits spatial feedback during rotational tasks, yet longitudinal evidence describing integrated training frameworks remains scarce. A 12-month macrocycle integrated phase-dependent velocity-based resistance training using mean concentric velocity targets (0.70–1.00 m·s−1) monitored via linear position transducers with a 10% velocity loss threshold, combined with structured auditory and tactile cueing, including metronome pacing and environmental anchors. High-volume warm-ups and prehabilitation addressed a prior L4–L5 disk herniation. The athlete achieved 14.41 m at the 2023 U.S. Para Athletics Trials, with TrackMan®-verified release velocity of 11.3 m·s−1. Bench throw velocity improved by 35.4% (0.65 to 0.88 m·s−1) and squat jump velocity improved by 22.9% (1.18 to 1.45 m·s−1), while post-session RPE remained manageable, indicating improved neuromuscular readiness and training tolerance. No lumbar symptom recurrence occurred. This case illustrates that integrating velocity autoregulation, multisensory stabilization, and injury-informed preparation can support meaningful performance gains in visually impaired throwers and offers an applied framework for coaches working with F11–F13 athletes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050180

Authors: Alberto Canzone Jessica Brusa Valerio Giustino Francesco Martines Pietro Salvago Simona Pajaujiene Antonino Patti Daniele Zangla Giuseppe Messina Elvira Padua Antonino Bianco

Background: An important role in postural control is played by the plantar proprioceptive inputs, as they contribute to the sensorimotor integration of the Tonic Postural System (TPS). Although plantar stimulation is an excellent strategy for improving balance, evidence remains limited. Therefore, the aim of this pilot study was to examine the acute effects of plantar proprioceptive training on dynamic balance performance and ankle range of motion (ROM). Methods: In this randomized controlled trial, 26 physically active young adults were divided into an experimental group (EG; n = 13) and a control group (CG; n = 13). The EG performed plantar proprioceptive training including walking on a reflexology mat and balance exercises on a proprioceptive pad. The CG remained lying supine on a couch for the same amount of time as the experimental intervention. The Y-Balance Test (YBT) was used to assess dynamic balance, while the ankle ROM (i.e., dorsiflexion and plantarflexion) was measured using an inertial sensor. All measurements were taken before (T0) and immediately after (T1) the experimental or control condition. Results: Improvements in the YBT were found in the EG from T0 to T1 for both right (p = 0.002; SE = 1.24) and left (p = 0.015) foot, but no changes from T0 to T1 were observed in the CG for both right and left foot (p > 0.05). No changes were observed for ankle ROM in both groups (p > 0.05). Conclusions: These preliminary results suggest that plantar proprioceptive training can provide acute improvements in dynamic balance with no significant changes in ankle ROM. The findings support a potential role of plantar stimulation in postural control mechanisms.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050179

Authors: Adele Broodryk Retief Broodryk

Background: Sleep is a critical recovery mechanism for athletes, supporting hormonal regulation, muscle repair, and cognitive function. Dual-career athletes are particularly vulnerable to sleep disruption, which may impair performance and stress regulation. This study examined the effects of a 14-day sleep hygiene intervention protocol (SHIP) on aerobic and anaerobic performance, as well as anticipatory cortisol responses, in university-level soccer players. Methods: Thirty athletes (females: n = 14, 22.1 ± 3.3 y, 157.8 ± 6.0 cm, 53.5 ± 3.9 kg, males: n = 16, 21.5 ± 1.7 y, 167.5 ± 5.9 cm, 62.7 ± 5.4 kg) completed the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), provided pre-test salivary cortisol samples, and performed the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (YYIR1) and Repeated Anaerobic Sprint Test (RAST) before and after the intervention (adhering daily to 10–18 individualized sleep hygiene). Results: The SHIP significantly reduced sleep latency (p = 0.04) and increased sleep duration (p = 0.03), and PSQI scores (p < 0.001) in both sexes. Females showed marked increases in sleep duration (p = 0.002), while males showed improved latency (p = 0.07). Five behaviourally coherent clusters derived from the SHIP adherence explained a substantial proportion of variance (74.99%). Stimulant and metabolic regulation, and bedroom light and thermal environment control consistently predicted sprint and physiological outcomes (p < 0.05). Anticipatory cortisol decreased before both tests (p = 0.03–0.04). YYIR1 performance improved for the full cohort (p = 0.001). RAST times slowed slightly (p = 0.02), though fatigue index improved (p = 0.05). Conclusions: A short-term SHIP effectively enhanced sleep, reduced physiological stress, and improved key performance outcomes in collegiate athletes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050178

Authors: Rebeka Stojkovic Ivan Peric Zvonimir Tomac Hrvoje Ajman Zoran Spoljaric

Background: Balance is a key ability in rhythmic gymnastics, affecting not only technical performance but also the aesthetic and expressive quality of routines. Standard tests often do not reflect the real demands of the sport, where gymnasts must simultaneously maintain stability, manipulate apparatus, and follow the musical rhythm. Therefore, there is a need for a specific test that combines motor and cognitive challenges to provide a precise and reliable assessment of athletes’ functional abilities. Methods: The study involved 12 girls with an average age of 9 years. Participants underwent anthropometric measurements and were tested using standard motor tests as well as a specific balance test for rhythmic gymnasts (BTRG). Test reliability was assessed using a test–retest procedure, and construct validity was evaluated through factor analysis in comparison with existing balance tests. Results: The BTRG demonstrated high reliability (ICC = 0.96; CV = 6.4%; SEM = 0.18) and the ability to distinguish gymnasts from different programs. Factor analysis confirmed that the BTRG effectively measures specific balance in accordance with theoretical expectations. Conclusions: The new test provides a potentially valid and reliable tool for assessing specific balance in rhythmic gymnasts and maybe useful in the training process, athlete evaluation, and talent development; however, these finding should be interpreted with caution as they are preliminary and derived from pilot study.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050177

Authors: Seiichiro Takei Kei Kato Mamiko Ichikawa Kana Iwano

This study examined the effects of a 16-week periodized resistance training program on the strength, power, and body composition of elite collegiate cheerleaders. Thirteen female athletes from a nationally top-ranked university team completed a structured program comprising hypertrophy and strength/power phases. Performance testing at pre-, mid-, and post-intervention included one-repetition maximum (1RM) assessments for the front squat, power clean, and shoulder press, as well as measurements of body mass, lean body mass, and body fat percentage. All strength measures improved significantly across the intervention (front squat: +14.0%, power clean: +17.7%, and shoulder press: +18.3%). Body fat percentage decreased by 6.7%, and lean body mass increased by 2.6%, while total body mass remained statistically unchanged. These results demonstrate that periodized resistance training can elicit meaningful improvements in performance and body composition without increases in body mass. Moreover, the final post-intervention 1RM values—1.43× body mass for the front squat, 1.11× for the power clean, and 0.73× for the shoulder press—offer preliminary benchmarks for the strength performance of high-level collegiate cheerleaders.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050176

Authors: Nourhène Mahdi Slaheddine Delleli Arwa Jebabli Khouloud Ben Maaoui Juan Del Coso Hamdi Chtourou Luca Paolo Ardigò Ibrahim Ouergui

In the published paper [...]

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050175

Authors: Yuki Muramoto Takeshi Kimura Akira Kinoda Yoshinori Katsumata Kazuki Sato

Background/Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the occurrence of sport-related concussions (SRCs) in Japanese university sports and to identify factors associated with experiencing multiple SRCs within a single season. Methods: Data were collected through a web-based survey conducted from June to October 2022, focusing on injuries sustained between April 2021 and March 2022. Participants were recruited from universities affiliated with the Japan Association for University Athletics and Sport and were required to be actively participating in sports. Results: Overall, 10,978 participants were analyzed; 195 reported SRCs, whereas 10,783 did not. Athletes who reported SRCs were significantly taller and heavier, had a higher body mass index, and included a higher proportion of male athletes than those who did not report SRCs. SRCs were most frequently reported in rugby football, American football, soccer, and lacrosse. Among athletes with SRCs, those with multiple SRCs tended to be taller and were significantly heavier. They also had a significantly higher proportion of severe first SRCs during the season. Conclusions: SRCs were most frequently reported in rugby football, American football, soccer, and lacrosse, and greater severity of the initial SRC in a season was associated with multiple SRC occurrence. These findings should be interpreted with caution because SRCs were self-reported and not clinically verified, mild cases may have been underreported, and time-loss-based severity may not reflect clinical severity.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050174

Authors: Noelia Vigil-Torres María del Carmen Carcelén-Fraile Teresa Martínez-Redecillas Daniela Cecic-Mladinic

Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) frequently present impairments in executive functions and motor skills, which can negatively affect academic performance, adaptive behavior, and daily functioning. Exergames have emerged as a potentially engaging cognitive–motor intervention. The objective of this systematic review was to analyze the effects of exergame-based interventions on executive function components (particularly inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility) and motor skills in children with ASD. A systematic review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines, with the protocol registered in PROSPERO. Electronic searches were performed in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and ERIC. Intervention studies published within the last five years and assessing exergame-based interventions in children with ASD were included. Methodological quality was evaluated using the PEDro scale. Six studies met the inclusion criteria. Exergame-based interventions were associated with improvements in executive functions, particularly inhibitory control (reported in two studies using Stroop- and Flanker-type tasks) and cognitive flexibility (assessed in two studies using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test), although results varied depending on intervention duration and design. Acute interventions (single-session) primarily influenced inhibitory control, whereas longer-term programs showed broader cognitive and motor adaptations. Improvements in motor outcomes, including gross motor development, coordination, and fundamental motor skills, were reported in four studies. Methodological quality ranged from 4 to 6 points on the PEDro scale, indicating fair to good quality. Considerable heterogeneity was observed in intervention protocols, duration, and outcome measures. Exergame-based interventions may represent a potentially promising approach for targeting executive functions and motor skills in children with ASD; however, the current evidence is limited and heterogeneous. Not all included studies assessed both cognitive and motor outcomes, and findings should therefore be interpreted with caution. Further high-quality randomized controlled trials are needed to confirm these effects and establish optimal intervention parameters.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050173

Authors: Elena Liebrenz Alexander Smith Michael Liebrenz Jill Colangelo Ana Buadze

Background: Although menstrual cycle-based training has attracted increasing attention in endurance sports, research has predominantly focused on ergometric parameters. However, the subjective perspectives and lived realities of athletes remain relatively underexamined. Accordingly, this study aimed to explore performance perceptions and self-regulatory experiences of female endurance athletes within real-life training and competitive contexts. Methods: Qualitative semi-structured interviews were conducted with twelve female endurance athletes (ages 18–42) across triathlon, running, swimming, cycling, and skiing. Data were analysed inductively using descriptive thematic analysis in MaxQDA. Results: Six themes emerged related to menstrual cycle experiences: body awareness and cycle-related perceptions; the influence of expectations and self-efficacy on perceived performance; heterogeneous approaches to cycle-based training; training and recovery adjustments; the ambivalent role of digital tracking tools; and communication openness and barriers. Overall, cycle-based training was applied inconsistently and served more as a framework for interpreting physical symptoms than as a means of optimising performance. Conclusions: In this sample of endurance athletes, cycle-related effects on performance and symptom perceptions were primarily shaped by biopsychosocial factors rather than physiological considerations alone. The menstrual cycle supported self-regulation, but rigid interpretations may risk reinforcing negative expectancies. These insights extend existing work by foregrounding athlete-centred, flexible approaches over deterministic training models.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050172

Authors: Pablo Larrumbide Gabriel Daza Víctor Toro-Román Roger Font Maria Cadens Bruno Fernández-Valdés

Throwing velocity is a key performance factor in handball and may be enhanced through strength training. The aim of the present study was to quantify improvements in throwing velocity in handball players and to compare the effects of a free-weight strength training programme (FW; n = 14; 18.07 ± 1.27 years; 86.19 ± 9.67 kg; 1.85 ± 0.08 m) and a flywheel-based eccentric overload training programme (FLYW; n = 13; 17.77 ± 1.17 years; 85.5 ± 8.38 kg; 1.85 ± 0.06 m). A total of 27 elite male youth handball players (n = 27; 17.93 ± 1.21 years; 85.86 ± 8.90 kg; 1.85 ± 0.07 m) participated in the study. Participants were allocated to groups using a stratified randomisation approach based on team and playing position. Of these, 14 performed the FW training program and 13 completed the FLYW training protocol. The FW group performed 3 sets of 6 repetitions at 80% of 1RM, with 3 min of rest between sets, using the exercises half squats, bench presses and pullovers. The FLYW training group trained with flywheel devices, executing 3 sets of 6 repetitions using four inertial loads, performing each repetition at maximal intended velocity, with 3 min of rest between sets, using the exercises unilateral press, overhead elbow extension, and trunk rotation. Both groups trained twice per week for 8 weeks, in combination with regular handball-specific training. Pre- and post-intervention assessments included the indirect estimation of one-repetition maximum (1RM) in the half squats, bench presses, and pullovers, as well as throwing velocity. The FW group showed significant improvements in all variables (bench press, half squat, pullover, and throwing velocity; all p < 0.05). In contrast, the FLYW group showed significant improvements only in half squats (p = 0.034) and throwing velocity (p = 0.008). An 8-week strength training program using free weights and flywheel methods improved throwing velocity in elite youth handball players; however, neither method demonstrates clear superiority when throwing velocity is the primary outcome.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050171

Authors: Ioannis Tsartsapakis Aglaia Zafeiroudi Charilaos Kouthouris

This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the impact of Pilates-based exercise on mental health, psychological well-being, and quality of life (QoL) across clinical and healthy populations. Thirty-two randomized and quasi-experimental trials (total N = 1264) were included, representing adolescents, adults, and older adults across diverse clinical and non-clinical groups. Outcomes encompassed depressive symptoms, anxiety, QoL, self-esteem, and well-being. The unadjusted random-effects model indicated a suggestive but statistically inconclusive overall effect (p = 0.061). However, adjusting for outcome type via meta-regression yielded a statistically significant pooled effect (g = 0.393, p = 0.023). Substantial heterogeneity remained across studies (I2 = 91.7%). Meta-regression identified outcome type as the only significant moderator, whereas age group, delivery mode, and clinical status did not significantly influence the pooled effect. Subgroup analyses suggested comparable benefits between remote and in-person delivery formats in general adult samples. Evidence from individual studies indicated that supervised, face-to-face instruction may be advantageous for older adults. Low-frequency programs, including once-weekly sessions, were also associated with improvements, although variability in intervention duration and structure limits conclusions regarding optimal dosage. Sensitivity analyses confirmed the stability of the pooled effect. Overall, the findings support Pilates as a feasible exercise modality with demonstrated benefits for positive psychosocial outcomes (QoL and self-esteem), while evidence for negative psychological indicators (e.g., depression, anxiety) remains limited or non-significant. Future research should standardize outcome measures, report training parameters consistently, and examine contextual factors contributing to heterogeneity in psychosocial responses.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050170

Authors: Bence Cselik Alexandra Makai Pongrác Ács Nikolett Ildikó Tumpek Gábor László Bátor Norbert Fóris Tamás Laczkó Csilla Filo

Regular physical activity is essential for health promotion, yet participation patterns and the motivational determinants of exercise vary widely among recreational exercisers. This study examined exercise behavior and motivational profiles among members of two Hungarian fitness centers using the Physical Activity and Leisure Motivation Scale (PALMS). A cross-sectional survey was completed by 1087 adults, assessing demographics, BMI, exercise frequency, service use, and eight motivational dimensions. Health- and body-related motives were most strongly endorsed, while intrinsic motives (Mastery, Enjoyment) and social or external motives showed greater variability. Exercise frequency was positively associated with Mastery and Competition/Ego motivation, and regression analysis identified Mastery as a significant predictor of attendance, whereas age and female gender were negative predictors. Appearance motivation was positively related to BMI, Affiliation predicted participation in group fitness classes, and Others’ Expectations predicted the use of personal training services. Significant gender- and age-specific motivational differences were also observed. The findings demonstrate that although health and appearance motives dominate, intrinsic and social motives are more strongly linked to sustained engagement. These results highlight the need for motivation-sensitive approaches in fitness programming and public health strategies aimed at promoting long-term exercise adherence and disease prevention.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050169

Authors: Julio Alberto Morales Viscaya Ricardo López Garcia José Omar Lagunes Carrasco Erik Ramirez López Ximena Martínez Mireles

Obesity represents a major public health crisis in Mexico, affecting over 70% of adults, and although strength training is effective for improving body composition, direct maximal strength testing (1RM) poses risks in this population. Mobile applications have emerged as popular tools for exercise prescription, yet their effectiveness compared to supervised, scientifically-based protocols remains unknown. To compare the effects of a supervised strength training program based on indirect 1RM estimation (S1RM group) versus a mobile application-generated program (App group) on body composition, anthropometric measures, and strength gains in male adults with obesity. Twenty male participants (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2) were randomly assigned to either the S1RM group or the App group. Both groups trained three times per week for 12 weeks. Body composition (bioelectrical impedance), anthropometric measures (waist and hip circumference), and estimated 1RM were assessed pre- and post-intervention. A mixed repeated-measures ANOVA (Group × Time) was conducted, with effect sizes (η2p) and 95% confidence intervals calculated. Both groups showed significant improvements in most outcomes (p < 0.05). However, significant group × time interactions favored the S1RM group for waist circumference (F(1,18) = 14.50, p = 0.001, η2p = 0.45) and hip circumference (F(1,18) = 217.90, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.92). A significant between-group difference was also observed for visceral fat (F(1,18) = 4.91, p = 0.040, η2p = 0.21). For muscle and fat mass, interactions showed large effect sizes (η2p = 0.18–0.19) with trends toward significance (p = 0.057–0.096). Strength increased significantly in all exercises for the S1RM group (14.9–22.0%, p < 0.01). These findings support the implementation of indirect 1RM estimation methods in obesity populations and highlight the added value of professional supervision in strength training programs.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050168

Authors: Markus Gassner Johanna Diewald Linda Leichtfried Lucie Zeller Serena Ryan Karl-Heinz Wagner Daniel König

Biological differences between sexes—particularly due to fluctuating levels of 17β-estradiol and menstrual cycle dynamics—may influence exercise-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, inflammation and exercise performance. Despite these considerations, there is a lack of research exploring how estradiol and menstrual cycle phases may impact exercise performance, exercise-induced ROS formation and inflammation. This study aimed to examine whether estradiol concentration or menstrual cycle phase may be significantly associated with resistance circuit high-intensity interval training (HIIT) performance, as well as exercise-induced formation of ROS and Interleukin-6 (IL-6). A total of 30 young healthy female participants completed a single bout of resistance-based HIIT in a fasted state. Blood samples were collected at four time points: at baseline after overnight fasting, two hours after consumption of 0.5 L of water (pre-HIIT), immediately post exercise (post-HIIT) and after 15 min of recovery (15-post-HIIT). Additionally, participants attended six fasting baseline assessments scheduled across various menstrual cycle days. These sessions enabled the assessment of estradiol, ROS and IL-6 concentrations throughout the menstrual cycle without being confounded by nutritional factors. Neither baseline levels of ROS nor IL-6 differed significantly between menstrual cycle phases (luteal vs. follicular ROS: 0.013 µmol/min, p = 0.716; IL-6: 0.052, p = 0.679) menstruation status (yes vs. no ROS: −0.056 µmol/min, p = 0.259; IL-6: −0.302 pg/mL, p = 0.088) or 17β-estradiol concentrations (low (11–≤72.5 pg/mL) vs. high (>72.5–394 pg/mL) ROS: −0.038 µmol/min, p = 0.266; IL-6: +0.015 pg/mL, p = 0.906). On the resistance-circuit-HIIT intervention day, no significant differences in ROS or IL-6 were observed between estradiol concentrations (ROS: p = 0.477; IL-6: p = 0.249), menstrual cycle phase (ROS; p = 0.752; IL-6: p = 0.557) or menstruation status (ROS: p = 0.383; IL-6: p = 0.808) from baseline to pre-HIIT, post-HIIT or 15-post-HIIT. These findings should be interpreted with caution, as the menstrual cycle phases were assigned using a calendar-based approach without biochemical ovulation confirmation and the subgroup sizes were relatively small. These findings suggest that natural 17-beta-Estradiol fluctuations within the menstrual cycle, as well as differences in the menstrual cycle itself, may not substantially modulate ROS or IL-6 responses to acute resistance-based HIIT in young healthy female adults.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050167

Authors: Agnieszka Wasiluk Viktoriia Kyrychenko Grațiela-Flavia Deak Robert Wilczewski

Background: Body mass index (BMI) is widely used as a simple anthropometric indicator, but its functional relevance to physical fitness in physically active populations, such as Physical Education students, remains debated. Aim: This study examined the association between BMI and selected components of physical fitness in Physical Education students, considering sex and country differences. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among undergraduate Physical Education students from Poland and Romania (n = 515; mean age: 21.64 ± 1.34 years). BMI was calculated from measured height and body mass and analyzed as both a continuous and categorical variable. Physical fitness was assessed using three Eurofit tests evaluating upper-limb movement speed, trunk muscular endurance, and lower-limb explosive power. Analyses included correlation methods and multiple linear regression models with subgroup analyses, interaction terms, and quadratic BMI terms to assess nonlinearity. Results: Associations between BMI and fitness components were small in magnitude and inconsistent (r = −0.28 to 0.143; β = −1.614 to 0.005) and varied across tests and subgroups. No significant interaction effects by sex or country were observed, as interaction terms were not statistically significant, and no clear nonlinear relationships were identified. Sex and country were significantly associated with performance levels, whereas BMI contributed only marginally to explaining variability (ΔR2 = 0.005–0.011). Conclusions: BMI showed limited and inconsistent associations with the assessed fitness components in this relatively homogeneous group of Physical Education students. It should be interpreted cautiously as a functional indicator and complemented with more precise measures of body composition and physical fitness.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050166

Authors: Katherine Mommaerts Ruby Johnson Sydney Joy Varner Nathalia Marchese

This narrative review synthesizes existing literature on outdoor physical activity and youth well-being, with mountain biking considered as an illustrative example of a high-engagement, nature-based activity. A comprehensive literature search was conducted across multiple academic databases, including Academic Search Complete, MEDLINE, APA PsycINFO, CINAHL Plus, SocINDEX, ERIC, and additional hand searches in Google Scholar and Web of Science. Seventeen studies met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed using an iterative thematic approach. Three primary themes emerged: resilience, mood and emotional well-being, and social connectedness. Across studies, outdoor physical activity was associated with improvements in self-efficacy, stress reduction, and peer relationships. However, most studies examined outdoor activity broadly, with limited evidence specific to mountain biking. While prior literature suggests that biological and psychosocial processes (e.g., engagement with nature, social interaction, and perceived competence) may underlie these associations, these mechanisms were not directly tested in most included studies. Findings should therefore be interpreted as indicative of associations rather than causal effects. Overall, outdoor physical activity represents a promising, accessible approach for supporting youth well-being. Future research should further examine activity-specific impacts, including mountain biking, and prioritize longitudinal and experimental designs to better understand mechanisms and long-term outcomes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050165

Authors: Yajuvendra Singh Rajpoot Prashant Kumar Choudhary Suchishrava Choudhary Vasile-Cătălin Ciocan Sohom Saha Constantin Șufaru Voinea Nicolae Lucian Sema Arslan Kabasakal Cristuta Alina Mihaela Mihai Adrian Sava Silviu-Ioan Pavel Jolita Vveinhardt

Background: Psychological determinants are increasingly recognized as central contributors to both performance decline and recovery in competitive sport; however, contemporary evidence integrating injury-related and non-injury performance contexts remains fragmented. Objective: This systematic review synthesized empirical evidence (2016–2025) examining psychological determinants associated with return to sport (RTS), reinjury risk, burnout, injury incidence, and performance decline among competitive athletes. Methods: Conducted in accordance with PRISMA 2020 guidelines, a systematic search of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus identified peer-reviewed studies published between January 2016 and December 2025. Eligibility criteria were defined using a PICO framework. Prospective cohort studies, longitudinal multi-wave investigations, one randomized controlled trial, matched cohort studies, diary-based designs, and injury-related observational studies were included. Due to heterogeneity in constructs and outcomes, findings were synthesized narratively. Results: Fourteen studies met the inclusion criteria, including prospective cohort studies, multi-wave longitudinal designs, one randomized controlled trial, one matched cohort study, and a diary-based investigation. Seven independent cohorts examined psychological readiness using the Anterior Cruciate Ligament—Return to Sport after Injury scale (ACL-RSI) in athletes with anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries (sample sizes ranging from n = 39 to n = 384), consistently demonstrating that higher readiness predicted successful RTS at 6–24 months, while two prospective studies reported contrasting associations with second ACL injury risk. Four longitudinal studies (n = 93–491) showed that increased burnout and controlled motivation predicted performance decline and dropout trajectories, whereas higher resilience and mental toughness reduced burnout progression. One seasonal longitudinal study (n = 21) linked elevated cognitive anxiety and mood disturbance to increased injury incidence. Conclusion: Psychological determinants operate across deterioration and restoration pathways. Psychological readiness shows the strongest predictive consistency for RTS, while burnout, motivational climate, and resilience significantly shape long-term performance sustainability and injury-related outcomes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040164

Authors: Francisco A. Ferreira Mário J. Costa Catarina C. Santos

The aim of this study was to understand the female swimmers’ annual performance progression and stability between 10 and 18 years across swimming distances and techniques. Data from female Portuguese Top-50 rankings in the short-course pool was extracted from an open access database (swimrankings.net). Performances were grouped by distances (50-, 100- and 200 m) and techniques (freestyle, backstroke, breaststroke and butterfly), totalizing 12 events as performance metrics. A total of 343 swimmers and 3087 performances distributed by nine consecutive competitive seasons were retrospectively assessed. The mean and normative stability were computed for tracking performance trends, while reporting the year-to-year percentage improvement. The differences across distances and techniques were tested with a linear mixed-effects model using intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). The performance progression was characterized by marked improvements during the early ages (up to 13% yearly) and an emerging plateau around the 15–16 years. The stability patterns varied between events, with the backstroke technique (ICC = 0.13) demonstrating greater consistency of individual differences on developmental trajectories, whereas shorter races (i.e., 50 m; ICC = 0.15) tended to be more stable than 100 m or 200 m (ICC = 0.12). It can be concluded that female swimmers’ performance stabilizes at the 15–16 years of age. Despite reduced differences, the backstroke technique and short distances seem to show a slightly more stable trend in progressing from childhood to adulthood.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040163

Authors: Gennaro Boccia Giulia Paurini Daniele Villano Roberto Marocco Alexandru Nicolae Ungureanu Luca Beratto Paolo Riccardo Brustio Alberto Rainoldi Corrado Lupo

This study investigated interlimb asymmetries in lower limb performance using both vertical and horizontal jump tests in elite young basketball players. Specifically, it aimed to determine whether (1) unilateral jump performance and (2) the magnitude of interlimb asymmetry differed across maturity groups, whether (3) limb dominance influences performance, and whether (4) asymmetry direction is consistent across tests. One hundred elite male basketball players (U13 to U19) were categorised into three maturational stages: Pre-PHV (n = 19), Circa-PHV (n = 29), and Post-PHV (n = 52). Each athlete performed the following unilateral tests with both the dominant and non-dominant leg: single-leg hop, triple hop for distance, 6 m timed hop, single-leg countermovement jump (SL-CMJ), and single-leg drop jump (SL-DJ) from a 30 cm box. The Bilateral Strength Asymmetry (BSA) index was computed for each test. All tests showed significant differences between Pre-PHV and Circa-PHV groups (p < 0.001), whereas only the 6 m timed hop differed between Circa-PHV and Post-PHV (p < 0.01). BSA did not differ significantly across maturation stages in any test, except for the single-leg hop. Agreement in asymmetry direction between test pairs was slight to fair (kappa ≤ 0.29). BSA values remained largely stable across maturational stages, suggesting that interlimb asymmetries are established before PHV, likely during childhood. Limb dominance did not affect jump performance, and asymmetry direction varied between tests, confirming they are not interchangeable.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040162

Authors: Georgia M. Black Madison Wells Brooke L. Devlin

Bone health in highly trained female athletes is critical for performance and long-term wellbeing, yet systematic evidence regarding seasonal changes remains limited. The main objective of this systematic review (PROSPERO ID: 420251230393) is to determine changes in bone mineral density (BMD) and bone mineral content (BMC) across the sport macrocycle in highly trained female athletes, encompassing both elite and collegiate (NCAA) populations. Six databases were searched for studies published between 2010 and 2025, with inclusion requiring female athletes, BMD/BMC measurements, and longitudinal assessment across a macrocycle. Fourteen studies involving 522 premenopausal athletes were included, with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry measurements conducted approximately six months apart. Study quality was assessed using the NIH Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies and indicated a predominantly good quality. Five studies reported no significant change in BMD/BMC, five demonstrated improvements, three reported mixed findings across sports or athlete subgroups, and one reported a significant decline. Only two studies attempted to account for all three primary confounders—menstrual cycle status, dietary intake, and physical activity monitoring—while seven reported no confounding variables. While bone health appears largely maintained across the sport macrocycle in highly trained premenopausal female athletes, these findings should be interpreted cautiously given the inadequate confounder reporting, heterogeneous sport exposures, variability in skeletal sites measured, and inconsistent measurement timing. Future research must comprehensively assess these variables alongside sport-specific skeletal measurements to identify athletes at risk of bone health deterioration.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040161

Authors: Juan Gavala-González Juan Gamboa González José Carlos Fernández-García Elena Porras-García

This study analysed the potential influence of crew size on performance (stroke rate, strokes/min; distance travelled, m/min; and average power, W), physiological responses (post-exercise heart rate and heart rate measured three minutes after exercise) and perceptual responses (Borg scale). A total of 136 adolescent athletes (100 males and 36 females; mean age = 15.79 ± 1.14 years) performed four three-minute maximal-effort trials on a rowing ergometer across four conditions: individual trials (C1), two-person crews (C2), four-person crews (C3), and eight-person crews (C4). Results showed a significant increase in stroke rate (strokes/min) in both sexes as crew size increased (C1 33.16 ± 2.54 vs. C4 34.19 ± 2.21 strokes/min; C1–C4 p = 0.01; C2–C4 p = 0.003). Men reported greater perceived exertion in C1 compared with C4 (Borg 7.80 ± 0.79 vs. 7.46 ± 0.74; p = 0.032), despite no associated changes in performance (863.88 ± 45.10 vs. 863.26 ± 47.63 m/min) or average power (311.71 ± 46.43 vs. 311.44 ± 50.43 W), whereas no differences in perceived exertion were observed in women (Borg 7.59 ± 0.84 vs. 7.56 ± 0.76). Cardiovascular responses were similar across sexes and experimental conditions. In summary, these preliminary findings could point toward the existence of sex-differentiated patterns. The data appear to suggest a more pronounced tendency toward the ‘crew-size effect’ among the men in the sample, whereas an inclination toward maintaining individual responsibility is observed in the women.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040160

Authors: Eduarda Coelho Carla Lourenço Antonino Pereira Maria Isabel Mourão-Carvalhal Sandra Fonseca

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic posed unprecedented challenges for elite athletes, disrupting training routines and affecting mental health. This study examined the impact of social isolation on training, sleep, motivation, and psychological well-being among Portuguese Paralympic athletes. Methods: Forty-five athletes (31.36 ± 10.81 years) from the Paralympic Preparation Program participated, divided into the Paralympic Preparation Project (PPP; n = 21) and the Paralympic Hopes and Talents Project (PHTP; n = 24). Training routines before and during social isolation were compared. Sleep duration, training motivation, and mental health were assessed using the Mental Health Inventory-5 (MHI-5). The analysis employed paired and independent t-tests and a multiple linear regression (Enter method) to examine predictors of mental health. Results: Daily training duration declined by 34.3% (p < 0.001), though weekly frequency remained stable (p = 0.061). PPP athletes reported higher mental health scores than PHTP athletes (66.24 vs. 60.37; p = 0.048). The regression model explained 42.8% of the variance in mental health (R2 = 0.428). Sleep duration was positively associated with mental health and showed the highest standardized coefficient in the regression (β = 0.351; p = 0.008), followed by PPP status (β = 0.315; p = 0.024) and motivation (β = 0.278; p = 0.041). Conclusions: Maintaining biological routines, particularly sleep and motivation, supports mental health under social isolation. Higher well-being among PPP athletes underscores the need for targeted interventions for less experienced athletes. Sports organizations should prioritize sleep hygiene and psychological support to mitigate vulnerability during crises.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040159

Authors: Bernadett Wágner Petra Halmi Martina Uvacsek

This study aimed to collect survey data on physical activity and organized sport participation among children across different weight categories. Using online data collection, 906 parents provided information about 1002 children (age = 10.9 ± 2.5 years, body height = 150.2 ± 16.4 cm, and body mass = 42.4 ± 15.8 kg). Most children (79%) achieved the recommended 60 min. of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) per day; 50% participated in club sports; and 41% took part in organized sports. Most of them (69%) were in the healthy weight category, 7% were underweight, and 22% of the children were overweight or obese. Participation in sports activities among overweight and obese children was nearly as high as among their peers. Achieving 60 min. of MVPA/day was associated with significantly lower odds (OR = 0.51 CI: 0.30–0.85; p < 0.01) of childhood obesity in the total sample. Football was the most popular club and organized sport among boys, while dancing was most preferred among girls. The preferred sports were generally well-suited to the respective weight categories. The relatively high levels of physical activity observed may be explained by daily physical education (PE) classes in schools and governmental support for sports. Our findings suggest that further research is needed to support effective obesity prevention, particularly those examining dietary habits and other lifestyle factors.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040158

Authors: Laura Carrasco-Fernández Álvaro Gómez-del Pino Manuel García-Sillero Pablo González-Cañizares Jerónimo García-Romero María Teresa Tomás Javier Benítez-Porres

Background: Handball involves unilateral, high-demand actions that increase injury risk. The Windlass mechanism (WM) is a position-dependent plantar fascia tensioning system, activated by dorsiflexion of the first metatarsophalangeal joint, which increases medial longitudinal arch stiffness and contributes to foot stability. WM activation can be mechanically simulated using hallux wedges to induce controlled dorsiflexion, allowing graded engagement of the mechanism under standardized conditions. The primary aim of this study was to investigate how different wedge inclinations, with and without visual biofeedback, affect foot muscle activity during squats in elite female handball players. Methods: Seventeen elite female handball players performed squats at 65% of one-repetition maximum under six conditions combining three wedge inclinations (0°, 10°, 30°) with the presence or absence of visual biofeedback. Electromyographic activity (RMS and %MVC) of intrinsic and extrinsic foot muscles was recorded. Results: A significant increase in left abductor hallucis activation with the 10° wedge without biofeedback. Visual biofeedback significantly increased RMS and %MVC in intrinsic foot muscles and increased RMS in the left gastrocnemius (p < 0.05). No significant interaction was observed between wedge inclination and biofeedback. Conclusions: Controlled activation of the WM via hallux wedges and the use of visual biofeedback modulate foot muscle activity during squats. These strategies may be considered in training programs aimed at improving foot stability and reducing injury risk in elite female handball players.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040157

Authors: Shizuka Murano Yoko Amano Tomoko Kaburagi

Post-exercise appetite loss may interfere with adequate recovery nutrition in athletes; however, the substantial inter-individual variability in appetite responses remains insufficiently understood. This exploratory cross-sectional study investigated lifestyle- and health-related factors associated with post-exercise appetite loss in 35 female university athletes. Appetite loss was assessed as a self-reported binary outcome (often, sometimes/never). Associations with subjective sleep quality and other lifestyle-related variables were examined using contingency analysis, followed by exploratory logistic regression. Post-exercise appetite loss was reported by 74.3% of participants and did not differ across sports disciplines, indicating that the sport type alone did not explain the observed variability. Poor/fair subjective sleep quality was associated with appetite loss (OR = 11.6, 95% CI: 1.9–73.6) and remained associated in the multivariate model. Other lifestyle-related variables were not independently associated. These findings imply a potential connection linking post-exercise appetite responses in female university athletes to broader lifestyle-related factors, particularly subjective sleep quality, rather than exercise characteristics alone. Monitoring sleep quality may therefore help identify athletes who may be at risk of insufficient post-exercise energy intake and compromised recovery. Further studies with larger samples and longitudinal designs are needed to clarify these relationships.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040156

Authors: Marios Hadjicharalambous Andreas Apostolidis Nikolaos Zaras Eleanna Chalari Tooba Tooba Rabia Faiz Omid Razi

This study examined whether different body fat percentages (BF%) may influence performance, physiological responses, and fatigue in professional soccer players during a simulated soccer game protocol on a treadmill. Twenty professional male soccer players were categorized in higher (HBF%) and lower (LBF%) body fat percentage groups [HBF% > 11.5%; n = 11, BF% = 14.2 ± 2, LBM = 65.3 ± 8 kg, age = 22.7 ± 4 years, height = 177 ± 7 cm, weight = 76 ± 9 kg, V̇O2max = 60.1 ± 4.5]; [LBF% < 11.5%, n = 9; BF% = 8.1 ± 1, LBM = 65.9 ± 5 kg, age = 20.1 ± 3 years, height = 179 ± 4 cm, weight = 72 ± 5 kg, V̇O2max = 61.6 ± 4). Players underwent a simulated soccer game protocol on a treadmill. Cardiometabolic and hormonal responses, and fuel oxidation and performance, were evaluated. At baseline, apart from the BF% variable (p < 0.0001), the groups did not differ in any other physiological or physical characteristic (p > 0.05). There were no differences between the groups in any performance or biological parameters evaluated (p > 0.05), except for plasma glucose, which was higher in the HBF% group at rest and during the soccer game protocol (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the theory of a uniform ideal (~10 ± 2%) of BF% in elite soccer is not supported by the present study. This study suggests that when muscle mass and fitness levels of the soccer players are maintained at high levels during the competitive period, BF% represents a highly individualized characteristic rather than a uniform target across players. However, a higher BF% increased resting and exercising blood glucose concentrations, even in highly trained professional soccer players, without concomitant effects on metabolism or fuel oxidation during match play.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040155

Authors: Richárd Bauer Bálint István Ruppert Bálint Kilvinger Árpád Petrov István Barthalos László Suszter Ferenc Ihász Zoltán Alföldi

Background/Objectives: The aim of this study was to describe seasonal trends in match-average External Load (EL) variables across three (2022/23, 2023/24, 2024/25) consecutive competitive seasons in a Hungarian professional second-division soccer team (Gyirmót FC Győr), using the Catapult Vector S7 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). Specifically, Average Distance (AD; m), Average Player LoadTM (PL; AU), and Acceleration–Deceleration Efforts (>2 m·s−2) (ADE) were examined. The study aimed to provide descriptive reference values and characterize seasonal variation in match EL demands within a professional second-division context. Methods: A descriptive seasonal comparison was conducted based exclusively on aggregated match average EL values. The unit of analysis was the match, with each match contributing one aggregated value per variable derived from players who completed the full match. A total of 94 matches were included (2022/23: N = 38; 2023/24: N = 29; 2024/25: N = 27); matches with red cards were excluded. EL data were collected using a 10 Hz Catapult Vector S7 GNSS. Results: The median AD decreased continuously from the 2022/23 season (10.210 m) to the 2024/25 season (9.795 m). The median PL decreased from 1002 (2022/23 and 2023/24) to 846 in the 2024/25 season. The median ADE decreased from 220.8 (2022/23) to 199.0 (2024/25). Conclusions: Lower values were observed across match EL variables, with the most pronounced reduction in PL. These findings provide descriptive reference values and may support the interpretation of seasonal variation in match EL demands in professional second-division soccer.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040154

Authors: Maria Giannioti Konstantinos Fousekis Eleftherios Paraskevopoulos Dimitris Mandalidis

Ankle dorsiflexion range of motion (ADF-ROM) deficits has been linked to impaired function, altered gait, and injury risk. This study’s objective was to examine the acute effects of static self-stretching (SSS), foam rolling (FR), and instrument-assisted soft tissue mobilization (IASTM) of the posterior lower-leg on ADF-ROM and functional ankle outcomes in individuals with ADF-ROM deficits. Thirteen healthy, physically active college students with active ADF-ROM ≤ 13°, assessed in a non-weight-bearing position, completed all three interventions in a randomized, within-subject repeated-measures design. Pre- and post-intervention assessments included ADF-ROM, ankle plantar flexor isometric strength (APF-IS), single-leg countermovement vertical jump (SLCVJ), anterior reach distance in the Y-Balance Test (A-YBT), and gait parameters (contact time and plantar pressure). A two-way repeated-measures ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc tests was used. Effect sizes reported as partial eta squared (ηp2) and Cohen dz. All interventions significantly improved ADF-ROM (p < 0.001; ηp2 = 0.885), with IASTM showing the largest increase (50.7%, dz = 2.15), followed by FR (35.4%, dz = 2.20) and SSS (21.5%, dz = 1.82). Differences between IASTM and FR (p > 0.05, dz = 0.40) and between FR and SSS (p > 0.05, dz = 0.69) were nonsignificant, while IASTM was significantly greater than SSS (p < 0.05, dz = 0.92). Significant gains were also seen in A-YBT (p < 0.05; ηp2 = 0.302) and rearfoot plantar pressure (p < 0.01; ηp2 = 0.482), although pairwise comparisons were nonsignificant and demonstrated small-to-moderate effect sizes (dz = 0.35–0.52). No significant changes occurred in APF-IS, SLCVJ, or contact time and mid- and forefoot plantar pressures during roll-off. In conclusion, all interventions improved ADF-ROM, with IASTM and FR being comparably effective. However, only slight improvements in dynamic balance and certain gait parameters were noted, with no effect on strength or power.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040153

Authors: Matthew S. Chapelski Tyler Tait Stacey Woods Sarah Benson Marta C. Erlandson M. Louise Humbert Adam D. G. Baxter-Jones

Background: Gross movement skills (GMS) development is important for long-term physical activity participation. Despite this, the influence maturation has on GMS is understudied. The purpose of this pilot study was to evaluate the effect of maturation and sex on GMS in adolescents and identify numbers for a definitive study. Methods: We recruited seventy-one athletes (21 male, 50 female) from 8 to 17 years of age. Height, sitting height, and body mass were measured, and biological age (indexed as years from peak height velocity [PHV]) was predicted. Athletes were classified into three maturational categories: pre-PHV, peri-PHV, and post-PHV. The Test of Gross Motor Development-2 was used to assess GMS. Differences in overall GMS, locomotor skill, and object control skills were evaluated using ANCOVA controlling for height, weight, sex, physical activity, and sport specialization. Results: We found that GMS scores were greater for athletes post-PHV (83.62 ± 6.09) when compared to athletes peri-PHV (74.25 ± 12.92; p = 0.01). There were no differences between the pre-PHV and post-PHV groups (p = 0.13). Between sexes, males had greater GMS scores than females within each maturational category (p < 0.05). Conclusion: Our pilot study is inconclusive but suggests that factors such as sex, exposure to different GMS, and time spent practicing GMS may influence GMS performance to a greater extent than maturation. However, these findings are underpowered; a sample of 154 would be required for a definitive study.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040152

Authors: Krisztián Havanecz János Matlák Ferenc Ihász Gábor Géczi Bence Kopper Sándor Sáfár Gábor Schuth

Background: Global positioning system (GPS) technology is widely used to quantify external training load (ETL) in youth soccer. Despite its extensive application in training and match contexts, considerable heterogeneity is present in the selection, definition, and interpretation of GPS-derived variables, limiting comparability between studies and practical implementation by coaches. Objective: This narrative review aimed to summarize and critically evaluate the current literature on GPS-based ETL monitoring in youth soccer players, with a focus on commonly used variables, methodological considerations, and practical applications in training and match contexts. Methods: A narrative literature search was conducted using PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and Scopus databases. Peer-reviewed studies published in English between the years of 2012 and 2025 were included. Data were extracted on participant characteristics, GPS technology, monitored ETL variables, and contextual settings. Results: The 34 reviewed studies primarily reported total distance (TD; m), high-speed running distance (HSR; m), sprint distance (SD; m), distance per minute (m·min−1), peak speed (km·h−1), and acceleration- and deceleration-based (ACC, DEC; count) ETL variables. Substantial variability was observed in speed thresholds, acceleration definitions, and data processing methods. Positional roles, training formats (e.g., small-sided games), and seasonal phase influenced ETL demands, although methodological inconsistencies limited cross-study comparisons. Conclusion: GPS technology provides valuable insights into the ETL demands of youth soccer. The lack of standardized variable definitions and thresholds remains a major limitation. Greater methodological consistency and clearer reporting standards are required to enhance the practical usefulness of GPS monitoring for coaches in youth soccer.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040151

Authors: Bilel Cherni Hamza Marzouki Okba Selmi Wesam Al Attar Karim Chamari Katsuhiko Suzuki

Traditional deadlift guidelines prioritize maintaining a neutral spine to prevent low back injuries. However, recent evidence questions whether moderate spinal flexion under load is inherently harmful, especially among trained individuals. This article proposes a modern, multifactorial framework for deadlift-related injury prevention that moves beyond rigid postural prescriptions. It integrates biomechanical evidence, load management strategies, movement variability principles, and dynamic trunk control. This narrative review synthesizes literature identified through structured searches of PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar, prioritizing peer-reviewed studies examining spinal biomechanics, load management, motor control, and injury epidemiology. Evidence suggests that trained lifters often exhibit natural lumbar flexion without clear prospective evidence of increased injury risk. Abrupt increases in training load appear to be consistently associated with elevated injury incidence, although relationships remain probabilistic and context-dependent. While technical factors, including spinal posture, may influence local tissue loading, current evidence suggests that rapid changes in training exposure and cumulative load management appear to be more consistent predictors of injury risk than isolated deviations from an externally defined “neutral” alignment. Movement variability appears protective, and dynamic trunk control is more functionally relevant than static core strength. A paradigm shift is needed in how deadlifts are coached and programmed. Injury prevention should emphasize progressive loading, adaptive movement strategies, and dynamic stability, rather than rigid technique enforcement. Rather than systematically appraising all available evidence, this review offers an interpretative synthesis to guide modern, evidence-informed coaching and rehabilitation practice.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040150

Authors: Gerasimos V. Grivas Walaa Jumah Alkasasbeh

Endurance performance is regulated through dynamic interactions between physiological capacity, nutritional status, and psychological control processes. While traditional endurance models have emphasized metabolic and cardiorespiratory determinants, growing evidence indicates that energy availability also influences cognitive function, perceived effort, and decision-making during prolonged exercise. This narrative review synthesizes current literature on the interplay between nutritional strategies and psychological regulation in endurance sports, with particular emphasis on low energy availability, carbohydrate availability, mental fatigue, and pacing behavior. Acute and chronic reductions in energy availability are associated not only with endocrine and metabolic disturbances but also with amplified perceived exertion, impaired executive functioning, reduced effort tolerance, and altered risk-related decision-making, even in the absence of overt physiological failure. Carbohydrate availability emerges as a central modulator operating through both peripheral mechanisms (substrate supply and glycogen preservation) and central neurocognitive pathways influencing perception, motivation, and fatigue regulation. Hydration status, caffeine ingestion, and gastrointestinal tolerance further interact with perceptual and cognitive processes to shape real-time pacing and endurance sustainability. Integrating sport nutrition and sport psychology provides a unifying framework for understanding endurance regulation as a multilevel process linking metabolic state to perceptual experience and behavioral decision-making. From an applied perspective, optimizing endurance performance requires maintenance of adequate long-term energy availability, strategic carbohydrate periodization aligned with training demands, and systematic monitoring of perceived effort alongside physiological load. Future research should prioritize interdisciplinary, ecologically valid designs combining metabolic, perceptual, and cognitive measurements, supported by wearable and data-driven technologies capable of capturing real-time endurance regulation. Bridging nutritional and psychological mechanisms within a unified conceptual model offers a stronger scientific basis for improving performance sustainability while safeguarding athlete health in modern endurance sport.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040149

Authors: Wissal Abassi Nejmeddine Ouerghi Georges Jabbour Moncef Feki Anissa Bouassida Mykolas Deikus Jolita Vveinhardt Antonella Muscella

Postmenopausal women with obesity often show blood abnormalities and low plasma volume, which reduce aerobic capacity and raise health risks. The purpose is to compare the effects of high-intensity (HIIWT) versus moderate-intensity interval walking training (MIIWT) on body composition, plasma volume variations (PVV), hematological parameters, muscle damage, and aerobic capacity in postmenopausal women with overweight/obesity. Thirty-two postmenopausal women with overweight/obesity were randomly assigned to HIIWT (n = 11), MIIWT (n = 11), or control (CON, n = 10) groups. The HIIWT and MIIWT groups performed intermittent walking at 90–110% and 60–80% of their 6-min-walk-test (6MWT) distance, respectively, four times per week for 10 weeks. Body composition, hematological and muscle damage markers, and 6MWT performance were assessed pre- and post-intervention. After ten weeks, PVV was calculated in all three groups. A significant group × time interaction was observed for body composition, erythrocytes, hemoglobin levels, hematocrit, creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and 6MWT performance (p < 0.05). Both the HIIWT and MIIWT groups showed significant reductions in body mass, body fat, waist circumference (p < 0.05), and erythrocyte count (p = 0.010 and 0.028, respectively). Only the HIIWT group showed significant reductions in hemoglobin (p < 0.001), hematocrit (p = 0.005), CK (p = 0.002), and LDH (p = 0.009), along with a significant increase in 6MWT-performance (p = 0.002). The HIIWT group demonstrated a significantly greater increase in PVV compared to both MIIWT (p = 0.018) and CON (p < 0.001) groups. HIIWT induced superior improvements in body composition, aerobic capacity, plasma volume, and hematological and muscle-damage markers compared to MIIWT. HIIWT represents a practical strategy for improving health outcomes in postmenopausal women with overweight/obesity.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040148

Authors: Pierpaolo Sansone Suzanna Russell Carlotta Longo Damiano Polverari Bart Roelands

Mental fatigue (MF) has been hypothesized to contribute to injury risk in athletes, but observational studies have not directly investigated this relationship. Therefore, the current study evaluates potential relationships between mental fatigue and subsequent injury occurrence in basketball. Using an observational design, we monitored fourteen male semi-professional basketball players (age: 22 ± 4 years; stature: 192.6 ± 8.8 cm; body mass: 85.5 ± 9.1 kg; Tier 3) from a single team for 21 weeks throughout the competitive season. Each week, the players participated in 5 team-based training sessions, 2–4 individual training sessions, and 1–2 official games. Subjective MF ratings were collected using 100 mm visual analogue scales twice a week (the day before and after the official game) and then averaged. Time-loss injuries were registered, noting the body location, mechanism, and context (training and games). Generalized logistic mixed models were employed to evaluate whether MF levels were associated with injury occurrence in the subsequent 1, 3, and 5 days and 1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks of basketball activity. A total of 11 injuries were registered during the study (7.40 per 1000 h of basketball activity), with an average time loss of 12 ± 19 days. There were no associations between MF and injury occurrence in the following 1, 3, 5 days nor 1, 2, 3, 4 weeks (all p > 0.05, odds ratios: 1.00–1.28). In male semi-professional basketball settings, preliminary evidence indicates that MF might not be associated with injury occurrence. However, due to the dearth of injury events, the statistical power of this study is insufficient to detect potential small–medium effects. Therefore, the current results should be considered exploratory as opposed to a definitive rejection of the hypothesis. Future studies should evaluate the relationship between MF and injury risk in larger samples and among professional athletes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040147

Authors: Héctor Fuentes-Barría Raúl Aguilera-Eguía Miguel Alarcón-Rivera Lisse Angarita-Davila Eduardo Pena Samia El Alam Cherie Flores-Fernández

Objectives: This overview of systematic reviews aimed to synthesize and critically evaluate the current evidence on the effects of exercise performed under hypoxic or altitude conditions in adults, with particular attention to studies reporting altitude-related clinical outcomes. Materials and Methods: Following PRIOR and PRISMA guidelines, and with the protocol registered in PROSPERO CRD420261325746, a comprehensive search was conducted on 22 February 2026 across Medline/PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Epistemonikos, and Preprints.org, using the query “Exercise AND Hypoxic AND Altitude Sickness.” Because the search included “Altitude Sickness,” this review may miss some studies on performance or physiological adaptations under hypoxia. Eligibility was defined according to the PICOS framework, including only systematic reviews with or without meta-analyses in adults exposed to normobaric or hypobaric hypoxia. Methodological quality was assessed using AMSTAR 2. Results: A total of 137 records were identified (114 from databases and 23 through citation tracking), of which 28 systematic reviews met inclusion criteria. Nineteen included quantitative meta-analyses. Structured altitude training strategies—live high–train low (LHTL), live low–train high (LLTH), and live high–train high (LHTH)—were generally associated with improvements in maximal oxygen uptake and hematological parameters, particularly in trained and athletic populations. In contrast, acute hypoxic exposure was consistently associated with reduced exercise performance and increased susceptibility to altitude-related symptoms in unacclimatized individuals. Evidence regarding effects on body composition and metabolic outcomes was heterogeneous and inconsistent. According to AMSTAR 2, most meta-analyses presented critically low or low methodological quality. Conclusions: Exercise under hypoxic conditions may enhances aerobic and hematological adaptations in trained populations, whereas acute exposure tends to impair performance and entails clinical risks. However, given the restricted search strategy, substantial heterogeneity, lack of formal overlap quantification, and the predominance of low methodological quality reviews, these findings should be interpreted with caution. Evidence on metabolic benefits remains limited, highlighting the need for further high-quality systematic reviews and meta-analyses to clarify optimal hypoxic training protocols and outcomes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040146

Authors: Miguel Alarcón-Rivera Leonardo Poblete-Sánchez Cristian Salazar-Orellana Eduardo Guzmán-Muñoz Exal Garcia-Carrillo Pablo Luna-Villouta Héctor Fuentes-Barría

The purpose of this study was to examine differences between squat variations performed with a traditional barbell (TRAD) and a safety squat bar (SSB) in university athletes, focusing on mean propulsive velocity (MPV), peak velocity (PV), and velocity loss (VL). Nineteen university athletes participated in a randomized crossover repeated-measures design. Participants performed squat exercises with both barbell types at 65% and 85% of one-repetition maximum (1RM) across multiple testing sessions. Neuromuscular performance indicators were assessed using a linear velocity transducer. Two-way repeated-measures ANOVA revealed significant main effects of barbell type and load for MPV and PV (all p < 0.05). Higher MPV values were observed with the SSB at both loading intensities, whereas higher PV values were observed only at 85% 1RM. For VL, a significant main effect of barbell type was found (p = 0.013), with no significant effect of load (p = 0.155) or interaction (p = 0.507). In conclusion, the SSB elicited higher movement velocities compared with the traditional barbell. These findings suggest that barbell selection may influence velocity-based performance outcomes during squat exercise. However, due to the cross-sectional design, these results should be considered preliminary.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040145

Authors: Alvaro Murillo-Ortiz Javier Raya-Gonzalez Moises Falces-Prieto Samuel Lopez-Mariscal Francisco Javier Iglesias-Garcia Luis Manuel Martinez-Aranda

Inter-limb asymmetries are common in soccer players and are frequently monitored in high-performance settings; however, their expression across different flywheel-based strength exercises, movement phases, and over time remains unclear. This study aimed to (i) compare inter-limb power asymmetry magnitudes across multiple unilateral flywheel exercises and between concentric (CON) and eccentric (ECC) phases, and (ii) describe changes in these asymmetries over an 8-week period of routine soccer training, stratified by baseline asymmetry magnitude. The present study was designed as an observational and descriptive study. Twenty-one professional male soccer players completed two testing sessions separated by eight weeks. Players performed six unilateral flywheel exercises targeting hip- and knee-dominant quadriceps (Qhip, Qknee), hip- and knee-dominant hamstrings (Hhip, Hknee), adductors (ADD), and abductors (ABD). For each exercise and limb, the repetition with the highest CON mean power and its consecutive ECC phase were selected for analysis. Inter-limb asymmetry (%) was calculated for mean and peak power in both phases. Across exercises, ECC asymmetries were generally greater than CON asymmetries, with the largest values observed for Qknee peak power (CON: 12.86 ± 11.04%; ECC: 27.60 ± 13.65%) and Hknee peak power (CON: 10.45 ± 11.26%; ECC: 24.01 ± 20.46%). Exercise-specific patterns were evident, with generally weak associations between asymmetries across tasks. Over time, players classified with higher baseline asymmetry (≥10%) presented lower values at follow-up in several outcomes (particularly ECC-related measures), whereas players with lower baseline asymmetry (<10%) showed small increases or remained stable; These between-group patterns should be interpreted cautiously, as they may be more strongly influenced by regression to the mean and measurement variability than by underlying physiological changes. Overall, inter-limb power asymmetries assessed with flywheel technology were phase- and exercise-specific in this professional soccer sample. These descriptive findings may help contextualize phase-specific and multi-exercise asymmetry monitoring in professional soccer settings.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040144

Authors: Luca Cavaggioni Athos Trecroci Raffaele Scurati Massimiliano Tosin Linda Casalini Paolo Castiglioni Giampiero Merati Damiano Formenti

Optimizing neuromuscular strength and balance is essential for performance and injury prevention in elite Paralympic sport. However, limited evidence describes how these parameters change over time during specific phases of the training season in athletes with lower limb deficiencies. This retrospective case series aimed to describe longitudinal changes in neuromuscular and balance performance during the fundamental preparation period in elite athletes using prosthetic devices. Routinely collected performance data from five international-level Paralympic athletes (Para-swimming and Para-athletics) were retrospectively analyzed across two preparatory observation windows conducted in consecutive competitive seasons. Neuromuscular performance was assessed using countermovement jump variables, while static balance was evaluated through Inertial Measurement Unit-derived sway metrics. Within-athlete changes were examined using descriptive and exploratory analyses. At the group level, changes were observed in selected neuromuscular and balance outcomes over time, including jump height and path length. Individual analyses revealed substantial inter-athlete variability in the magnitude and direction of changes across all outcomes. Overall, the findings indicate that neuromuscular and postural performance may fluctuate meaningfully during preparatory phases in elite athletes with lower limb deficiencies. This study provides exploratory insights derived from real-world training settings and highlights the value of longitudinal monitoring to support individualized performance management in Paralympic sport.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040143

Authors: Ryo Yamanaka Kenichi Abe Ryo Kojima Tsubasa Nagai Yoichi Maekawa

Strategies that support repeated high-intensity sprint performance are of considerable interest in competitive sprinting and team sports; however, evidence regarding acute citrulline malate (CM) supplementation during recovery intervals remains limited. This study examined the effects of acute CM supplementation on repeated 100 m sprint performance and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) in trained sprinters. Eleven trained male collegiate sprinters (100 m personal best: 11.22 ± 0.47 s; range: 10.35–12.16 s) completed randomized, double-blind, crossover trials (CM vs. placebo) on separate days. Each trial consisted of two maximal 100 m sprints separated by an 80–90 min recovery interval, during which 8 g of CM or placebo was ingested. Sprint performance was primarily evaluated using wind-adjusted 100 m sprint time based on Mureika’s model. A significant condition × trial interaction was observed for wind-adjusted sprint time (p = 0.010), with a greater improvement in the CM condition (p = 0.008). RPE (Borg 6–20 scale) before the second sprint was lower (p = 0.004) following CM supplementation. These findings suggest that acute CM supplementation may modestly support repeated sprint performance under extended recovery conditions; however, the results should be interpreted with caution.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040142

Authors: Liam Bartlett Anthony Scott Leicht Wade Heath Sinclair Jonathan Douglas Connor Kenji Doma

Despite the widespread use of periodized resistance training by athletes, the acute physiological and performance responses when athletes transition between mesocycles with differing workload volumes remain poorly understood. This study examined the acute effect of increasing resistance training workload volume on muscle damage markers and field-specific performance in heavy resistance-trained youth athletes. Eighteen male, rugby league players (age 17.4 ± 0.8 years; body mass 80.2 ± 13.7 kg; height 1.8 ± 0.1 m) completed a four-week mesocycle to develop maximal strength (70–100% of one repetition maximum [1RM]). Muscle damage (i.e., delayed onset muscle soreness [DOMS] and creatine kinase [CK]) and performance measures (i.e., drop jump, plyometric push-up, 40 m sprint and repeated agility) were assessed prior to and at 24 h (T24) and 48 h (T48) following the last session of the strength mesocycle (Week 5). A hypertrophy session (35–70% of 1RM) was then included in Week 6 with data collected prior to and at T24 and T48. Compared with the strength (Week 5) modality, the hypertrophy (Week 6) modality resulted in greater DOMS (41.6 ± 22.7%; effect size [ES] = 0.97–1.12) and modestly higher CK (26.7 ± 47.8%; ES = 0.6). Larger declines in field-specific performance measures were also shown during the HYP modality than STR modality for 20 m sprint performance (−2.1 ± 4.3%; ES = 0.7) and agility performance (−1.1 ± 4.2%; ES = 0.6). There were more modest reductions in drop jump performance (−4.1 ± 7.2%; ES = 0.7) during the HYP modality than in the STR modality, although caution should be given as two separate force plate systems were combined due to technical difficulties. Increasing workload volume was associated with greater muscle damage and modest differences in selected field-specific performance measures following several weeks of maximal strength training. These findings provide preliminary insight into the acute responses to increases in resistance training workload volume. Coaches should monitor athletes’ acute responses during fluctuations in workload volume and consider strategies to help maintain training quality in youth athletes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040141

Authors: Francisco Hermosilla-Perona Adrián Martín-Castellanos Marcos R. Pereira-Monteiro Javier Iglesias García Manuel Barba-Ruíz Juan R. Heredia-Elvar

Introduction: Circuit resistance training is widely used to enhance physical performance. However, the acute-performance- and fatigue-related effects of exercise order and volume in circuit training, particularly between upper and lower limbs, remain unclear. Objectives: This study examined acute velocity-based responses to different exercise orders and volumes during full-body circuit resistance training. Methods: Thirty resistance-trained adults completed four circuit protocols: alternating exercises with maximal repetitions per exercise (A1), grouped exercises with maximal repetitions per exercise (G1), alternating exercises with 50% of maximal repetitions in the first round (A2), and grouped exercises with 50% of maximal repetitions in the first round (G2). Mean propulsive velocity (MPV) in the bench press and squat at 60% 1RM was assessed before and after each circuit. Results: A significant main effect of Time was observed for both bench press and squat MPV (p < 0.001), with no Intervention × Time interactions. Alternating configurations showed larger effect sizes, indicating greater velocity loss. Under equal volume, upper limbs exhibited greater performance decline than lower limbs. Conclusions: Although exercise order did not result in statistically significant differences, alternating configurations induced a greater magnitude of fatigue-related performance decline than grouped configurations, particularly in upper-body exercises.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040140

Authors: Luis Gerardo Vázquez-Villarreal Luis Felipe Talavera-Hernández Martha Patricia Dergal-Irigoyen Claudia Maceroni Eleanor Louise Travis-Carr José Miguel Martínez-Sanz Nidia Rodriguez-Sanchez

Although Flag Football (FF) is growing worldwide, the literature to guide sports sciences in preventing injuries is scarce. The aim of this study was to analyse how anthropometric characteristics were associated with injury in elite FF players. Athletes completed a full profile according to the International Society of Advances in Kinanthropometry (ISAK), including weight, height, sitting height, arm span length, skinfolds, girths, length and breadth bones, and an injury questionnaire was administered. Logistic regression models and Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves were conducted. In total, 108 FF national team players, 34 female (26.7 ± 4.3 years old) and 74 male (26.9 ± 5.1 years old), participated. Of these, 62% FF players reported injuries. Relaxed arm and flexed and contracted arm girths are related to increased or reduced injury risks (Odds = 2.932, p = 0.008; Odds = 0.335, p = 0.009, respectively), while longer tibia length and higher muscle mass also increase the risk (Odds = 1.407, p = 0.034; Odds = 1.223, p = 0.010, respectively). Specific cut-off points were defined by sex, such as hip circumference, established at 103 cm in the Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) model for males, increasing the risk by 5 times. Anthropometric characteristics were related to injury incidence and could be used by sports science practitioners as an efficient decision-making tool to describe and analyse the static and dynamic components of FF players in injury prevention.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040139

Authors: María del Carmen Carcelén-Fraile María Luisa Montánchez-Torres Daniela Cecic-Mladinic

Background: Physical exercise has been increasingly recognized as a potential strategy to enhance cognitive development during childhood and adolescence. Among cognitive functions, attention plays a critical role in academic performance, behavioral regulation, and information processing. However, evidence regarding the specific effects of physical exercise on attentional performance in youth remains heterogeneous. Objective: This systematic review aimed to examine the effects of physical exercise interventions on attentional performance in children and adolescents. Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and CINAHL databases. Randomized controlled trials evaluating the effects of physical exercise interventions on attentional outcomes in participants aged 8 to 17 years were included. Study selection followed PRISMA guidelines. Nine studies met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed qualitatively. Results: The included studies consistently reported improvements in attentional performance following physical exercise interventions. Positive effects were observed across several attentional domains, including concentration, selective attention, sustained attention, processing speed, and response accuracy. Both acute and chronic exercise programs demonstrated cognitive benefits, although longer interventions appeared to produce more stable improvements. Coordinative and cognitively demanding exercise modalities tended to generate greater attentional gains compared with traditional physical activity programs. Conclusions: Physical exercise appears to be an effective non-pharmacological intervention for enhancing attentional performance in children and adolescents. Structured and cognitively engaging exercise programs may provide additional benefits for attentional development. Further research is needed to determine optimal exercise characteristics and to clarify the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying exercise-related attentional improvements.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040138

Authors: Alexandre Galvão da Silva Caroline Cavalcanti de Freitas Alef Serrat Pinheiro Débora Dias Ferraretto Moura Rocco Caroline Simões Teixeira Luis Alberto Rosan Rodrigo Kallás Zogaib

Soccer is an intermittent sport that requires complex and well-adjusted physiological responses from athletes. The training load allows athletes to optimize physical adaptations and reduces the risk of musculoskeletal injuries. In women’s soccer, the implementation of load control and individualization strategies has shown promise for enhancing anaerobic performance and injury prevention. This study aimed to compare the performance levels of professional women’s soccer players before and after the implementation of relative external load (RELC) for training prescription. Twenty-seven female professional soccer athletes (mean age 29.4 ± 6.2 years) were evaluated. Metrics such as total distance, sprint distance, number of sprints, accelerations, and decelerations were collected using the GPS-based device Catapult One (Catapult). Athletes were assessed in two games, with 6 months’ difference between matches: Game 1, without RELC implementation, and Game 2, with RELC. Significant differences were found between both periods. Sprint distance increased from 391 m to 450 m (+15%, d = 0.49, p ≤ 0.05), and sprint count increased from 14 to 17 (+21%, d = 0.35, p ≤ 0.05), showing improved performance related to increased physical output in the second half of the season. These findings suggest potential performance improvements associated with individualized load control over the course of the season.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040137

Authors: Drew E. Gonzalez Broderick L. Dickerson Kelly Hines Jisun Chun Adriana Gil Scott C. Forbes Darren G. Candow Richard B. Kreider

There are concerns that high-dose and/or long-term creatine monohydrate supplementation (CrM) leads to greater side effects (SEs) compared to placebo. This analysis investigated whether the dose or duration of CrM was associated with SEs. Data from trials involving more than 12,800 participants within CrM and placebo study arms of 684 randomized clinical trials were analyzed. SEs were combined into categories and total absolute dose and CrM duration were grouped into tertiles (low, moderate, and high). Crosstabs with chi-square tests were used to compare the prevalence of SEs across CrM dose and duration tertiles. Logistic regression models, adjusted for biological sex, age, and population categories, were used to test dose and duration as continuous predictors. Across 684 randomized controlled trials, reported SEs were infrequent. Although dose and duration tertiles were statistically associated with study-level side effect reporting, the effect sizes were uniformly small, events were infrequent, and the reported symptoms were primarily mild and nonspecific. No consistent exposure–response pattern indicative of clinically meaningful risk was observed. Adjusted logistic regression and frequency-based analyses showed no consistent dose- or duration-dependent increase in SE risk, with placebo groups often reporting similar or greater SE frequencies at the study-reporting level. CrM appears to be well-tolerated and, at the study-level, does not increase the risk of gastrointestinal, renal, liver, musculoskeletal, or other SEs compared to placebo, even at high doses or longer durations.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040136

Authors: Mariem Bousselmi Amira Ben Moussa Zouita Manel Darragi Houssem M. Karamti Sghaeir Zouita Juan Del Coso Ahlem Ben Hmid Anthony C. Hackney Urs Granacher Hassane Zouhal

Strength training (ST) is commonly implemented to enhance soccer-related fitness qualities such as sprinting, jumping, and changes-of-direction while also contributing to injury risk reduction. It is traditionally emphasized in the pre-season period. In-season ST may confer these benefits, but it can also induce muscle damage and inflammation. To examine the effects of a 12-week in-season ST program on maximal dynamic strength, muscle damage biomarkers, and inflammatory biomarkers, 24 elite young female soccer players (Tier 4 according to the McKay et al. classification) aged 14.9 ± 0.8 years and a maturity offset of +2.6 ± 1.1 years were randomly allocated to an ST group (STG, n = 12) or an active control group (CG, n = 12). Both groups followed the same soccer training program. However, in the STG, two weekly soccer sessions were replaced with ST. Overall training volume was comparable between groups. Maximal dynamic strength (1-RM tests for bench press, lat pull-down, and leg press), blood biomarkers of muscle damage (creatine phosphokinase [CPK], lactate dehydrogenase [LDH]), and inflammation (interleukin-6 [IL-6], tumor necrosis factor-α [TNF-α]) were assessed before (T1) and after (T2) the interventions. Analyses showed significant increases for STG for the 1-RM bench press, the 1-RM lat pull-down, and the 1-RM leg press (p < 0.001). No significant interactions were detected for any blood marker of muscle damage (LDH and CPK) or inflammation (IL-6 and TNF-α) (all p > 0.05). Results support a 12-week in-season ST program improved maximal dynamic strength in elite young female soccer players without altering resting levels of muscle damage or inflammatory markers measured 48 h after training compared to regular soccer training. These findings suggest that ST can be safely implemented during the competitive season in young female soccer players without overreaching or overtraining.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040135

Authors: Alessandro Petrelli Ilaria Pepe Luca Poli Gianpiero Greco Carla Minoia Antonella Daniele Patrizia Dicillo Francesca Romito Francesco Fischetti Stefania Cataldi

Background: Cancer survivors frequently experience persistent physical and psychological sequelae, including impaired physical function, fatigue, anxiety/depressive symptoms, and reduced health-related quality of life (HRQoL). Exercise is an effective non-pharmacological intervention; however, comparative evidence between multicomponent training (MCT) and aerobic training (AT) using a multidomain framework remains limited. Methods: In this randomized controlled parallel-group trial, 47 cancer survivors (mean age 63.0 ± 8.9 years) were allocated to a 24-week supervised MCT programme (n = 16), an AT programme (n = 16), or a non-exercise control group (CG; n = 15). Outcomes were assessed at baseline and post-intervention including body composition (BIA), physical performance, fatigue (FSS), anxiety (STAI-Y1/Y2), depressive symptoms (BDI), and HRQoL (EORTC QLQ-C30). Results: Fat mass decreased in both MCT (p = 0.005) and AT (p = 0.034), whereas arm circumference increased only in MCT (p < 0.001). Significant Group × Time interactions were observed for major physical performance outcomes; improvements were broader in MCT, while AT showed its largest change in aerobic endurance. Between-group contrasts indicated greater gains with MCT than AT for chair-stand (p = 0.046), sit-and-reach (p = 0.048), and handgrip strength (p = 0.049). Significant interaction effects were also observed for fatigue and psychological outcomes (FSS: p = 0.003; STAI-Y1 and STAI-Y2: p < 0.001; BDI: p < 0.001) and for HRQoL global health (p = 0.003), with larger improvements in MCT than AT for fatigue, state anxiety, and depressive symptoms (all p < 0.05), but not for trait anxiety (p > 0.05). Conclusions: A 24-week supervised MCT programme produced broader benefits than AT alone across physical function and selected psychological outcomes in cancer survivors. These findings support the incorporation of multicomponent exercise into survivorship care as a feasible and effective strategy for addressing multidimensional treatment sequelae.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040134

Authors: Linguo Chen Hongwei Yan Yuqiao Zhu Wei Shan

Among lower-body techniques in karate, the Mawashi Geri Jodan is regarded as the most frequently applied, technically sophisticated, and potentially hazardous skill. Yet, whether karate athletes of varying proficiency levels exhibit differential mastery of this technique remains empirically unexamined. This study aimed to reveal movement control strategies of elite athletes by comparing kinematic and surface electromyography (sEMG) characteristics of Mawashi Geri Jodan between elite and sub-elite female karate practitioners. A total of eight female karate athletes (4 elite, 4 sub-elite) were recruited. During the execution of the dominant-leg Mawashi Geri Jodan, they struck a karate punching bag positioned at head height, while kinematic and sEMG data were synchronously collected. Analyzed metrics included phase durations, center of mass (COM) displacement, joint angles/angular velocities, and integral electromyography (IEMG) with muscle work percentage of 8 lower limb muscles. Independent-sample t-tests were used for intergroup comparisons (α = 0.05). Compared with the sub-elite group, elite athletes completed the full Mawashi Geri Jodan in significantly less time (0.825 ± 0.07 s vs. 1.030 ± 0.05 s, p < 0.01) and exhibited a shorter core striking phase (p < 0.05). Kinematically, elite athletes showed smaller vertical COM displacement during the striking phase (p < 0.05) and greater hip joint range of motion (p < 0.05). sEMG data revealed significantly higher activation of lower limb prime movers (vastus lateralis, gastrocnemius) during the striking phase and greater rectus femoris contribution during the recovery phase in elite athletes. Elite female karate practitioners demonstrate superior movement efficiency, body stability, and neuromuscular coordination in Mawashi Geri Jodan. Technical training should prioritize hip joint flexibility and stability, synergistic explosive force generation of the lower limb kinetic chain during the striking phase, and active rectus femoris activation during the recovery phase to enhance execution precision and efficiency.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040133

Authors: Rachel Matthews Ankur Verma Derek Calvert Nathan P. Lemoine Jack Marucci Stephen Etheredge Robert Zura Guillaume Spielmann Neil M. Johannsen

Background: Symptom scales are routinely used in sport during concussion screening and return-to-play. Limited research has explored the presence of concussion symptoms in the absence of a diagnosed concussion. This study analyzed concussion symptom scores in concussed vs. non-concussed football players after football activities and evaluated the effect of field of play variables. Methods: NCAA Division I football players with (n = 9) and without (n = 30) diagnosed concussion completed concussion symptom scales (C3 Logix) following practice for 1 week. Wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT), play duration, equipment, and location (inside/outside) were recorded. Mixed models analyzed the effect of day, WBGT, equipment, location, and play duration on concussion-like symptoms in non-concussed players and determined the time course of symptom relief in concussed players. Results: Fatigue or low energy (27.6%), neck pain (16.8%), feeling slowed down (14.8%), and headache (12.8%) were most reported. In non-concussed players, total symptoms scores were higher early in the week (Monday/Tuesday) and decreased throughout the week (p < 0.01). No effect of play duration (p = 0.49), WBGT (p = 0.12), equipment (p = 0.40), or location (p = 0.83) was found. Symptom scores were greater in the concussed vs. non-concussed groups on days 1–3. Conclusions: Football players report concussion-like symptoms in the absence of a concussion diagnosis, particularly following the first few practices after a game.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040132

Authors: José M. Palao Ruth Alvarado-Ruano Jesús Salado Enrique Ortega-Toro

The aim was to assess the effect of changes in both the net height and the court size, as well as serve limitations on the manner of execution of the technical-tactical actions in youth volleyball. A total of 29 female under-14 volleyball players from three regional club teams participated in the study. A quasi-experimental design was applied. The independent variables included: (a) Tournament following the standard rules, (b) Experimental Tournament 1 (lowering of the net height from 2.10 m to 2 m, no jump serves, and a two serve per-player and -rotation maximum), and (c) Experimental Tournament 2 (lowering of net height from 2.10 m to 2 m, reduced court size from 9 × 9 m to 8 × 8 m, no jump serves, and a two serve per-player and -rotation maximum). Experimental Tournament 1 involved reductions in ball control, duration of the game phases, the occurrence of actions, and their efficacy. Experimental Tournament 2 involved increases in ball control, the duration of the game phase, the occurrence and variability of actions, and their efficacy. Lowering the net height and reducing the court size while adapting the serve rules (Experimental Tournament 2) resulted in situations that were better adapted to this population.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040131

Authors: Amund Riiser Liam Paul Satchell Dominic Sagoe Vidar Andersen Tom Erik Jorung Solstad Fredrik Lauritzen Matthew Shaw

Background: The incremental model of doping behavior (IMDB) posits that doping develops over time through the habit of using performance enhancers such as dietary supplements. We investigated the association between dietary supplement use and beliefs and doping attitudes among Norwegian sportspersons. Methods: A total of 1441 subjects (females: 44%; age 31.3 ± 11.6 years) responded to an online questionnaire including measures of dietary supplement use and beliefs, performance enhancement attitude (PEAS), and a doping likelihood vignette. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlations, and multiple regression analysis. Results: 58% used dietary supplements. Dietary supplement beliefs were positively correlated with doping attitudes (r = 0.27 (PEAS) and r = 0.16 (vignette), p < 0.001). Among non-competitive respondents, younger respondents were more likely to endorse supplement use (r = −0.08, p = 0.073 vs. r = −0.30, p < 0.001) and doping use (r = −0.17, p < 0.001 and r = −0.21, p < 0.001). Males endorsed supplement use (Welch’s t tests > 5.19, p < 0.001) and doping (Welch’s t tests > 4.08, p < 0.001) more than females. Norwegian sportspersons are generally ambivalent about dietary supplements but opposed to doping practices in sport. Results of multiple regression analysis indicated that younger, male, non-competitive, and supplement-endorsing participants were more likely to endorse doping likelihood. However, these differences were small, and participants were generally against doping. Conclusions: The associations between dietary supplement use and beliefs and doping attitudes are weak but compatible with the IMDB. The differences between groups are small; however, focusing on beliefs about dietary supplements in young, male, non-competitive persons may improve the effectiveness of anti-doping interventions.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040130

Authors: Ryota Tsuchiya Hisashi Naito Shuichi Machida Keisuke Takamiya Koji Sugiyama

Upper-limb involvement during walking increases metabolic demand compared with normal walking (WK); however, methods such as Nordic walking or hand-held weights require technical skills or may increase mechanical load. This study examined the effects of upper-limb-resisted walking using a novel portable elastic resistance device (band-pull walking; BPW) on cardiorespiratory and neuromuscular responses in healthy young adults. Fourteen healthy young adults performed BPW and WK on a treadmill at 60, 80, and 100 m·min−1 in a randomized crossover design. Upper-limb resistance was individually standardized using triceps brachii activity (8% maximum voluntary contraction). Surface electromyography (EMG) of upper- and lower-limb muscles, oxygen uptake, heart rate, and perceived exertion were recorded. BPW significantly increased triceps brachii, biceps brachii, and deltoid muscle activity compared with WK at all or higher speeds (p < 0.05), whereas vastus lateralis and gastrocnemius lateralis activity remained unchanged. Metabolic equivalents and heart rate were higher during BPW across all speeds (p < 0.01), with increases of 8–12%. Upper-limb and whole-body perceived exertion were elevated, whereas lower-limb perceived exertion remained stable. These findings suggest that BPW was associated with increases in upper-limb muscle activation and metabolic demand, whereas no detectable increases were observed in vastus lateralis or gastrocnemius lateralis EMG activity or perceived lower-limb exertion under the present experimental conditions.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040129

Authors: Áron Mészáros Bence Kopper Annamária Zsákai József Horváth Lukasz Trzaskoma Tamás Szabó

Change-of-direction (COD) ability is a key determinant of performance in youth basketball, yet the relative contribution of braking, re-acceleration, trunk motion, and body composition remains unclear. Thirty-two male U18 national-team level players (17.6 ± 0.7 y; 194.8 ± 4.5 cm; 89.1 ± 9.4 kg) completed whole-body and segmental DEXA assessment, bilateral countermovement jump (CMJ) testing and a 505 agility test (505) instrumented with a local positioning system. Mean COD times were 2.36 ± 0.09 s (505) and 1.84 ± 0.08 s (303), with maximal deceleration (DcMax) of −7.26 ± 0.52 m·s−2. Paired t-tests showed no significant differences between right- and left-leg turns for any variable (all p > 0.25), indicating symmetrical COD performance. General linear models revealed that DcMax was the only consistent predictor of COD time (505: R2 = 0.53, F (7,24) = 3.91, p = 0.006, partial η2 = 0.31; 303: R2 = 0.49, F(9,22) = 2.34, p = 0.050, partial η2 = 0.34), with a smaller additional effect of approach speed for the 303 segment (p = 0.049). Body-composition indices and CMJ variables showed only weak, non-significant correlations with COD time (|r| < 0.30, p > 0.05), and neither centripetal force nor trunk angular speed was associated with performance. These findings indicate that high-intensity braking capacity, rather than muscle mass or jump power per se, is the primary mechanical determinant of COD in elite youth basketball, suggesting that deceleration-focused training should be prioritized in performance development.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040128

Authors: Jeongwon Kim Dongwon Yook Sojin Han

This study investigated the effects of mental fatigue induced by social media (SM) use and the Stroop task on decision-making, visual search strategies, and reaction time in elite collegiate handball players (n = 16). Using a randomized, counterbalanced cross-over design, both interventions successfully induced subjective mental fatigue, as confirmed by visual analog scale (VAS) ratings. Decision-making accuracy and reaction time improved following the Stroop task, likely due to compensatory mechanisms described in the regulatory-control model. In the SM condition, no significant impairments were observed in decision-making performance; however, visual reaction time was specifically delayed, while auditory reaction time remained unaffected, suggesting modality-specific effects of SM-induced fatigue. Visual search behaviors remained largely stable, with only marginal alterations observed in non-task-relevant areas following the Stroop task. These findings highlight the cognitive resilience and adaptive control mechanisms of elite athletes in maintaining and, in some cases, enhancing performance under mental fatigue. Future studies should integrate neurophysiological indices and manipulate motivational factors to further clarify these mechanisms across diverse athletic populations.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040127

Authors: Heinz-Lothar Meyer Ilka Finkemeyer Christina Polan Lisa Wienhöfer Bastian Mester Marcel Dudda Manuel Burggraf

Electronic sport (esport) refers to competition in video games. Injuries in esports have hardly been studied so far. A total of 1229 e-athletes of all levels and genres answered a retrospective questionnaire about injuries and overuse damages that occurred in the course of their careers. The average age of the 1229 participants was 23.8 ± 5.5 years. A total of 198 (16.1%) of the e-athletes take part in competitions. The most common injury location was the trunk/spine (319, 26.0%) followed by the wrist region (225, 18.3%). Degenerative and overuse injuries were in the foreground. Professional athletes were injured more frequently than amateur athletes (p = 0.006). Tactical shooter players have significantly more injuries than sports game players (p = 0.021) and MMO (Massively Multiplayer Online) players (p = 0.042). E-athletes are just as susceptible to injury as athletes in traditional disciplines. The high injury rate is certainly not due to acute injuries but to overloading and overuse injuries, with a focus on the thoracocervical area and the upper extremities. Terms such as “Nintenditis”, “gamer’s thumb” and “PlayStation thumb”, which describe injuries caused by repetitive strain, are becoming increasingly common. Injuries in esports should be taken seriously, as they can cause long-term health problems in the event of overuse injuries. Prevention is a critical and promising approach for such a young patient clientele, especially in a sport that is growing so rapidly and is unknown to the majority.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040126

Authors: Jennifer A. Kurtz Mabry Watson Briana Robinson Casey Edmondson Laurel Wentz

Ginger supplementation is proposed as a natural ergogenic aid due to its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, but its effects on endurance performance remain unclear. Methods: In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial, 30 trained cyclists (27 male, 3 females, aged 36 ± 11 yr) completed three visits: a baseline 75 km time trial, a post-supplementation time trial, and a second post-supplementation trial under the alternate condition. Participants consumed either ginger or placebo for four weeks. Statistics: Performance outcomes (i.e., 75 km time, VO2, power output, heart rate, and RPE) were analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA, with repeated-measures ANCOVA to assess dietary and age influences (p < 0.05). Results: Energy and carbohydrate intake were consistent across trials and unrelated to performance. Protein intake per kg body mass predicted performance time in the placebo trial and average VO2 in the ginger trial; other macronutrients were not associated with outcomes. No significant differences were observed between ginger and placebo conditions for time to completion, VO2, power output, heart rate, or perceived muscle soreness. Conclusions: Four weeks of ginger supplementation does not improve prolonged cycling performance, recovery, or muscle soreness in trained cyclists when dietary intake is controlled. Future research should explore cellular mechanisms to determine whether ginger supplementation could influence performance or recovery in endurance athletes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14040125

Authors: Aaron Miralles-Iborra Tomas Urban Javier De Los Ríos-Calonge Jose L. L. Elvira Juan Del Coso María Isabel Tomás-Rodríguez Casto Juan-Recio Víctor Moreno-Pérez

Assessing hip adductor muscle strength is important for identifying weakness or side-to-side imbalances associated with groin injury risk. Although the Copenhagen adductor exercise is widely used to evaluate adductor function, the quantification of strength-related outcomes using inertial sensors integrated in smartphones during this task has not been systematically examined. This study aimed to evaluate the reliability of a smartphone-based Copenhagen adductor field test and its associations with established isometric hip adductor strength assessments. Twenty amateur male football players (21.1 ± 3.2 years) completed two laboratory sessions separated by one week. The reliability of the smartphone-based Copenhagen test was assessed for endurance-related outcome (repetition count) and strength-related outcomes (mean repetition time and peak velocity) using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC), standard error of measurement (SEM), and minimum detectable change (MDC). Participants also performed unilateral and bilateral isometric hip adductor tests using load cells to obtain isometric peak force (IPF) and rate of force development at 150 ms (RFD150). Associations were examined using Pearson correlation coefficients. The smartphone-based Copenhagen test showed ICC point estimates ranging from 0.63 to 0.83, although several 95% confidence intervals were relatively wide (ICC = 0.63–0.83; SEM = 6.7–18.5%). Endurance-related outcomes were not significantly associated with IPF or RFD150. In contrast, peak velocity showed low-to-moderate correlations with RFD150 (r = 0.48–0.63) and moderate correlations with IPF (r = 0.50–0.64; p < 0.05). These findings suggest that the peak velocity obtained during the Copenhagen adductor test may provide a practical field-based complement to conventional isometric assessments. However, given the moderate strength of the observed associations and the measurement error of peak velocity, these outcomes should be interpreted with caution and warrant further investigation.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14030124

Authors: Nikola Stojanović Branislav Majkić Jadranka Vlašić Valentin Barišić Damir Pekas

Background: This study examined the effects of an individualized weighted vest sprint training program on sprint performance and countermovement jump (CMJ) outcomes in post-peak height velocity (PHV) male youth soccer players while accounting for maturation status. Methods: Fifty players (mean age 17.76 ± 0.95 years) were randomly assigned to a weighted vest sprint group (WVG; n = 25) or a traditional unloaded sprint group (TS; n = 25). Sprint performance (5, 10, 20, and 30 m) and CMJ-derived variables (jump height, peak power output, reactive strength index modified (RSI-modified), and eccentric rate of force development) were assessed before and after an 11-week intervention performed twice weekly, with the WVG completing sprint drills while wearing a weighted vest (~11% body mass). Results: Weighted vest sprint training produced greater improvements in 10 m sprint performance and RSI-modified (d = 1.37 and 1.55, respectively). However, after Benjamini–Hochberg adjustment for multiple comparisons, the effects were no longer statistically significant and should therefore be interpreted with caution. Maturity offset did not meaningfully moderate training-induced adaptations. Conclusions: These findings suggest that weighted vest sprint training may provide potential benefits for mid-acceleration performance and reactive strength in post-PHV youth soccer players, although the magnitude of these effects remains uncertain.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14030123

Authors: Diego Camilo García-Chaves Juan Pablo Fernandez Zapata Tatiana Oyaga Álvarez Nelson Ortiz Escobar Alfonso Villegas Mazo Luisa Fernanda Corredor-Serrano

The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of acute caffeine intake on maximal aerobic speed (MAS) assessed using the 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test (IFT) in university soccer players. An experimental, randomized, double-blind, crossover design was employed, involving 26 male university team players (n = 26). Each participant completed the test under two conditions: caffeine supplementation (220 mg; 2.85 ± 0.27 mg/kg, range 2.60–3.16 mg/kg) and placebo, separated by a 72 h washout period. The final running speed achieved (VIFT) was used as an estimator of MAS. Statistical analysis included descriptive statistics, normality testing, and paired Student’s t-test, with a significance level set at p < 0.05. The results revealed a significant improvement in VIFT under the caffeine condition (19.94 ± 1.67 km/h) compared with placebo (18.72 ± 1.50 km/h), with a mean difference of 1.22 km/h (6.5%) and a large effect size (dz = 1.24; p < 0.001). It is concluded that acute caffeine intake was associated with a significant improvement in intermittent aerobic performance in university soccer players under the conditions of the present study, suggesting that caffeine may represent a potentially useful strategy in similar applied contexts.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14030122

Authors: Javier Pérez-Murillo Pedro Cotolí-Suarez Borja Ricart-Luna Vicente Sebastià Alcacer Álvaro Domínguez García Marcelino Pérez-Bermejo María Teresa Murillo-Llorente Eloy Jaenada-Carrilero

Professional basketball entails high physical demands and a complex injury profile in which injury burden and time-loss distribution critically affect player availability. This study explored the association between preseason anthropometric body composition and in-season injury burden in male professional basketball and explored body phenotypes linked to greater injury accumulation. A retrospective longitudinal cohort design was applied using official injury records and standardized ISAK anthropometric assessments collected during preseason. Players from two male professional teams (first team, ACB; second team, LEB Plata) were included. Outcomes were the number of injuries and observed days lost during the season. Associations were assessed using Pearson correlations, principal component analysis (PCA), team-stratified logistic regression, and unsupervised k-means clustering. Injury burden demonstrated a highly skewed distribution, with a small subset of players accounting for a large proportion of total days lost. Preseason adiposity markers showed strong internal coherence, with PCA identifying a dominant component reflecting an adiposity gradient. Higher preseason body fat percentage was associated with a greater likelihood of high injury burden (≥3 injuries/season) in both teams. Clustering revealed two phenotypes: a higher-adiposity, higher-burden profile and a lower-adiposity, lower-burden profile. These exploratory findings suggest that preseason body composition, particularly adiposity, may be related to injury burden in male professional basketball. However, given the limited sample size and exploratory design, the results should be interpreted cautiously and considered hypothesis-generating. Precompetitive body phenotyping may therefore provide preliminary information for identifying players potentially at elevated risk of recurrent injury accumulation and reduced competitive availability.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14030121

Authors: Ľudmila Oreská Barbora Kundeková Lukáš Varga Katarína Stebelová Monika Okuliarová Juraj Payer Milan Sedliak

Endurance performance is influenced by age- and sex-specific physiological determinants, while emerging evidence indicates an increasing prevalence of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) among both young and master endurance runners. Despite its clinical relevance, limited data exist on how long-term endurance training modulates REDs risk, skeletal muscle characteristics, and physiological ageing in comparison with inactive individuals. Methods: This cross-sectional study protocol will examine 112 participants stratified by sex, age (20–35 vs. 65–80 years), and training status (endurance runners vs. inactive controls). Cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2max) is defined as the primary outcome. Secondary outcomes include body composition, musculoskeletal function, biochemical and hormonal markers, and REDs-related screening variables. Assessments will comprise cardiorespiratory testing, DXA-based bone and body composition analysis, isometric knee dynamometry, mobility testing, validated REDs screening tools (LEAF-Q, LEAM-Q, and IOC REDs CAT2), seven-day dietary and training monitoring, venous blood sampling, and skeletal muscle biopsies from the vastus lateralis. Results: This study is designed to generate an integrated overview of physiological, nutritional, metabolic, and muscle-cell characteristics across sex-, age-, and training-specific subgroups. Conclusions: This protocol provides comprehensive insight into how ageing and sex influence endurance physiology and REDs susceptibility and whether long-term endurance training preserves functional capacity across the lifespan. The findings aim to support evidence-based screening, prevention, and targeted interventions for REDs in endurance athletes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14030120

Authors: Ioannis Tsartsapakis Aglaia Zafeiroudi Athanasia Chatzipanteli Maria Gerou

This cross-sectional study compared somatometric, training, and behavioral characteristics of adult exercisers in Greece, contrasting self-identified resistance-training practitioners with recreational exercisers. A total of 1187 adults completed a structured questionnaire capturing demographics, self-reported height and weight (BMI), weekly training frequency, session duration, competition participation, and self-reported use of performance-enhancing substances. Given non-normal distributions, analyses used nonparametric tests, binary logistic regression, and two-step cluster analysis based on the elbow method. Resistance-training practitioners reported higher BMI, greater weekly training frequency, and longer session duration than recreational exercisers (all p < 0.001). Substance use was more prevalent among resistance-training practitioners and exhibited a marked gender asymmetry, with anabolic-agent use concentrated among men. A logistic regression predicting competition participation identified age, BMI, gender, and education as significant predictors; the model explained a modest proportion of variance (Nagelkerke R2 = 0.10). Cluster analysis produced four distinct participant profiles differing in BMI, training intensity, and behavioral orientation. These results indicate systematic somatometric and behavioral differences between exercise orientations and demonstrate the utility of multivariate profiling for characterizing heterogeneity in exercise engagement. Findings should be interpreted cautiously because all anthropometric and substance-use measures were self-reported, and BMI cannot distinguish lean from fat mass in resistance-trained populations; future research should prioritize representative sampling and objective somatometric assessment.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14030119

Authors: Carolina Oassé Paulafreitas Maia Diego Ignácio Vanezuela Pérez Rafael Pereira Azevedo Teixeira Ciro José Brito Esteban Aedo-Muñoz Bianca Miarka

Eccentric (ECC) and concentric (CON) muscle training produce distinct physiological responses, with potential implications for musculoskeletal, metabolic, and cardiovascular health. Therefore, our objective is to synthesize evidence from randomized controlled trials comparing the effects of ECC and CON training on strength, hypertrophy, metabolic function, and cardiovascular health across diverse adult populations. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines and registered in PROSPERO (ID: CRD42024627600). The review included eight randomized controlled trials, pooling data from a total of 441 participants. For strength-related outcomes, six studies (n = 322) were included; for hypertrophy, four studies (n = 210); and for cardiovascular measures, three studies (n = 154). Studies were assessed using the TESTEX scale. Standardized mean differences and random-effects models were applied (p ≤ 0.05). Results indicated that ECC training consistently produced moderate to large improvements in muscle strength (pooled ES = 0.95; I2 = 78.6%) and hypertrophy (pooled ES = 0.60; I2 = 62.3%), particularly in populations with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and older adults. The rate of force development (RFD) showed large effect sizes for ECC (RFD50: ES = 0.97; RFD100: ES = 0.95) but minimal change for CON (RFD50: ES = 0.04; RFD100: ES = 0.10). Both ECC and CON showed minimal effects on cardiovascular outcomes (heart rate and blood pressure: pooled ES range = −0.16 to 0.00; I2 = 41.8%) and limited tendon remodeling (ES = −0.18). In conclusion, ECC exercise demonstrates superior benefits for improving muscular strength, hypertrophy, and power across varied populations, particularly those with clinical conditions such as COPD. Its impact on cardiovascular health and tendon properties, however, appears limited. These findings support the integration of ECC modalities into targeted rehabilitation and performance programs.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14030118

Authors: Sultan Akel Çiğdem Öksüz

Background: Sensory processing and motor proficiency contribute to movement regulation in adolescent athletes. While motor competence has been widely studied in youth football, the role of trait-level sensory processing remains underexplored. This study examined associations between sensory processing patterns and motor proficiency in adolescent football players. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 116 male youth football players (mean age: 14.16 ± 1.55 years) from a professional academy completed the Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile and the Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition, Brief Form (BOT-2 BF). Spearman correlations were computed across 36 sensory–motor comparisons, with false discovery rate (FDR) correction applied. Partial correlations controlled for age and years of training. Results: After FDR correction, sensation seeking showed a moderate positive association with fine motor precision (ρ = 0.49, p < 0.001). Low registration demonstrated a large negative association with fine motor integration (ρ = −0.61, p < 0.001) and small-to-moderate negative associations with bilateral coordination and balance (|ρ| = 0.27–0.32). These associations remained significant after adjustment. Conclusions: Sensory processing patterns were differentially associated with coordination- and balance-related motor domains. Findings should be considered exploratory and warrant longitudinal and sport-specific investigation.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14030117

Authors: Nicola Mancini Nicola Mangione Siria Mancini Vlad Teodor Grosu Emilia Florina Grosu Mariasole Antonietta Guerriero Dan Monea Giovanni Messina Marcellino Monda Rita Polito Fiorenzo Moscatelli

Background: Kitesurfing is a wind-propelled water sport performed in highly variable environmental conditions. Scientific evidence describing internal load under standardized ecological sea constraints remains limited. Aim: This study aimed to characterize cardiovascular and perceptual responses during a standardized kitesurfing session and to examine associations among heart rate-based internal load indices, session rating of perceived exertion, and global navigation satellite system-derived external output variables. Methods: A total of 112 male recreational kitesurfers (32.1 ± 6.8 years) completed a 40–50 min standardized session under monitored wind conditions (17–22 knots) along a predefined approximately 800 m course. Heart rate was continuously recorded, and session rating of perceived exertion (Borg Category-Ratio 10 scale) was collected 30 ± 5 min post-session. Training impulse, mean percentage of maximal heart rate, and session rating of perceived exertion load were calculated. Pearson correlation analyses with bootstrapping (1000 resamples) and five percent trimming were performed, with statistical significance set at 0.05. Results: Sessions were performed at 78.4 ± 9.1 percent of maximal heart rate. Training impulse and mean percentage of maximal heart rate were strongly associated (correlation coefficient = 0.90, probability value < 0.001), reflecting the shared heart rate-based structure of these metrics. Training impulse showed a moderate association with session rating of perceived exertion load (correlation coefficient = 0.46, probability value < 0.001). No significant associations were observed between internal load indices and global navigation satellite system-derived mean speed (correlation coefficient = −0.14, probability value = 0.149) or distance (correlation coefficient = 0.06, probability value = 0.555). Sensitivity analyses confirmed the stability of the observed associations. Conclusions: Under standardized ecological sea conditions, kitesurfing sessions were characterized by sustained high submaximal cardiovascular intensity. Heart rate-based and perceptual measures showed consistent associations within this protocol, whereas global navigation satellite system-derived external outputs were not significantly related to internal load indices. Within the limits of this cross-sectional ecological design, the combined use of one heart rate-based indicator and session rating of perceived exertion offers a coherent and practically interpretable description of session internal load in open-water kitesurfing.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14030116

Authors: Tomasz Gabrys Radoslaw Chruscinski Anna Pilis Arkadiusz Stanula Kazimierz Mikolajec

Background: Ice hockey is characterized by repeated short-duration, high-intensity efforts interspersed with brief recovery periods, requiring a complex interaction of aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. The aim of this study was to determine the energetic structure of repeated high-intensity on-ice sprint exercise in ice hockey players by quantifying the relative contributions of the oxidative, glycolytic and ATP–PCr energy systems. Methods: 14 male semi-professional ice hockey players performed the 30–15IIT followed by the Repeated High-Intensity Effort (RHIE) on-ice. Oxygen uptake was measured breath-by-breath, blood lactate concentration and energy system contributions were estimated using a three-component PCr–La–O2 model. Results: The RHIE on-ice was characterized by a dominant aerobic contribution (63.1 ± 2.6%), followed by phosphagen metabolism (29.8 ± 2.9%), with a relatively small glycolytic contribution (7.4 ± 1.5%). Conclusions: No significant relationships were observed between maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and the RHIE performance parameters, energy system contributions or lactate responses, except for a moderate relationship between absolute VO2max and absolute aerobic work. In contrast, parameters determined at the anaerobic threshold showed more consistent relationships with absolute metabolic work. These findings indicate that repeated high-intensity on-ice performance in ice hockey is largely independent of VO2max and is more closely related to individual energetic profiles and metabolic tolerance.