Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070287

Authors: Jan Malecha Libor Staněk Vladimir Tuka Martin Sedlář Jiří Suchý Agáta Jeníšová Aleš Linhart

Ice hockey represents a sport with predominantly anaerobic efforts best reflected by repeated sprint ability (RSA) testing (5 × 5 s with 10 s recovery). A controversy persists about the usefulness of VO2max laboratory testing for the assessment of ice hockey players. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between laboratory-measured VO2max and RSA simulated on a supine ergometer and tested on ice. Elite male hockey players (n = 64) were tested in the laboratory (VO2max and RSA). RSA testing was performed by a modified Wingate test (5 × 5 s sprints with 10 s recovery). In 28 athletes RSA was assessed during on-ice testing (five maximal skating sprints between the goal and the blue line). The decrease in performance was assessed by fatigue indices. In the laboratory setting, VO2max correlated significantly with maximum workloads of the second, third, fourth and fifth bouts with increasing correlation strength (r = 0.26, p = 0.02; r = 0.48, p < 0.001; r = 0.57, p < 0.001; and r = 0.60, p < 0.001) and with fatigue indices—the percentage workload decrement index (r = 0.44, p < 0.001) and percentage maximum average workload decrement (%) (r = 0.38, p = 0.002). In addition, VO2max correlated with lactate levels after 10 min of recovery (r = 0.31, p = 0.01). There was no correlation between VO2max and on-ice testing results. Moreover, the results of RSA measured in the laboratory and on ice did not show any correlation. The lack of relationship between laboratory and on-ice testing further challenges the usefulness of bicycle ergometry laboratory testing in ice hockey.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070286

Authors: Beibei Luo Yujie Xu Yunya Zhang Rongda Wang Meifeng Gu Jingjing Wang Yanmei Shi Zhibei Zhou Rui Li Xuting Zhu

Background: As a traditional Chinese exercise, Wushu has been shown to effectively promote balance and postural stability in various populations. Preschoolers’ capacity for balance control, including static, dynamic, and dual-task balance, is linked to the later development of stability skills in adulthood. However, studies of Wushu intervention focusing on balance ability and the related physical fitness in preschool children are limited. Objectives: This study investigated the effects of a 10-week Wushu program on static, dynamic dual-task balance and physical fitness in children 5–6 years old. Methods: Seventy-three participants were randomly divided into an intervention (INT, n = 39) and a control (CON, n = 34) group. The INT group participated in a 10-week Wushu program that included three 30 min sessions per week, while the CON group engaged in unstructured free play with purposely designed materials. The three key primary outcomes were dominant-leg stance for static balance, the balance beam walk for dynamic balance, and the center of pressure (CoP) path length obtained via a force platform during dual-task balance testing, in which the participants were instructed to count numbers backward. The five derived primary outcomes were non-dominant-leg stance, CoP ML path length, CoP AP path length, CoP sway velocity, and CoP sway area. Secondary outcomes were physical fitness indicators, including sit and reach, grip strength, standing long jump (SLJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), 15 m zigzag run, double-leg continuous jump, height and body weight. The analysis of the outcomes was conducted using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and Pearson correlation. Results: At baseline, the CON and INT groups did not differ significantly. The INT demonstrated significant enhancements in comparison with CON in the dominant and non-dominant-leg stance (p = 0.017 and p = 0.005, respectively), the balance beam walk, SLJ, 15 m zigzag run and double-leg continuous jump (all p < 0.05), along with the mediolateral CoP path length (p = 0.012). A strong correlation was found between the balance beam walk and the double-leg continuous jump (r = 0.55, p = 0.001), and between the balance beam walk and the 15 m zigzag run (r = 0.43, p = 0.015). Conclusions: The present study demonstrates that a 10-week Wushu program significantly enhances preschool children’s static balance, dynamic balance, and mediolateral postural control during dual-task condition. The improvements in dynamic balance are correlated with lower-limb coordination and jumping agility.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070285

Authors: Vlassios Kakouris Maria Piagkou George Triantafyllou Karolina Akinosoglou

Strenuous exercise is a well-established physiological stimulus that enhances muscular strength and hypertrophy but can also increase reactive oxygen species production, leading to oxidative stress (OS). Numerous studies have investigated whether dietary supplements can attenuate exercise-induced OS, yet findings remain inconsistent, and methodological quality varies. This systematic review aimed to synthesize current clinical evidence on dietary supplementation for OS management in young adults undergoing intensive exercise and to evaluate study methodology critically. The review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA 2021 guidelines and the Cochrane Risk of Bias (RoB 2.0) framework and was prospectively registered in PROSPERO. A comprehensive search of MEDLINE (PubMed), Scopus, Cochrane Central, ClinicalTrials.gov, OpenGrey, and ISRCTN identified interventional and observational human studies assessing supplementation and OS biomarkers. Forty-six studies met the inclusion criteria. The analysis revealed substantial heterogeneity in study design and reporting quality. Frequent methodological limitations included incomplete reporting of allocation concealment, participant and investigator blinding, examiner involvement, and deviations from intended interventions. Despite these limitations, several studies reported favorable effects of specific supplements on OS modulation and post-exercise recovery. Overall, the findings highlight widespread methodological shortcomings and emphasize the need for standardized trial designs, consistent biomarker selection, and transparent reporting. Well-designed, long-term randomized controlled trials are required to establish robust, evidence-based guidelines for dietary supplement use in managing exercise-induced OS in young adults.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070284

Authors: Sara F. Oliveira Maria M. Castela Konstantinos Spyrou António P. Veloso João Brito

While systematic video analysis is widely used to understand anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury mechanisms and contexts, human observation reliability remains a source of concern. This study evaluates the intra- and inter-rater reliability of a systematic video-analysis checklist for assessing ACL injuries in elite men’s football. Twenty-five match-related injuries from the top six European leagues (2020–2024) were randomly selected. Independent observers assessed contextual and situational (sunny weather, match minute, playing phase, field location, injury side, dominant leg, and situational pattern), biomechanical (player contact and anatomical area of player contact), and neurocognitive (attentional inhibition and motor response inhibition) variables. Reliability was calculated using Cohen’s kappa (κ) and Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC). Quantitative variables and macro-contextual factors, including injury side, playing phase, and situational pattern (0.810 < κ < 1.000) revealed near-perfect to perfect agreement. Biomechanical details exhibited substantial agreement (0.601 < κ < 0.784). Neurocognitive variables only reached moderate to substantial agreement (0.503 < κ < 0.752), while visual speed estimations proved highly unreliable (−0.106 < κ < 0.412). The checklist is a highly reliable tool for evaluating the contextual and situational patterns of ACL injuries, but visual speed estimation should be removed or replaced by objective tracking technologies.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070283

Authors: Adam Maszczyk Mariola Gepfert Przemysław Pietraszewski Anna Zwierzchowska Adam Zając

The aim of this meta-analysis was to synthesize current evidence on inter-limb asymmetries in youth athletes and to determine their magnitude, developmental determinants, and functional relevance. The review followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines, and the protocol was registered in PROSPERO. Six databases were searched from inception to October 2025. Studies assessing asymmetry as a between-limb difference in athletes aged 6–18 years were included. A total of 25 studies (N = 4125) were included qualitatively, with 24 included in the quantitative analyses. Meta-analyses were conducted for comparable outcomes (single-leg countermovement jump [SLCMJ], change of direction speed [COD], association with sprint performance, and maturation effects) using random-effects models and heterogeneity assessment (I2, τ2). Mean asymmetry was 10.8% for SLCMJ (95% CI: 6.7–14.9; I2 = 78%) and 7.4% for COD (95% CI: 0.5–14.2; I2 = 64%). The association between asymmetry and sprint performance was small and not statistically significant (r = −0.27; 95% CI: −0.55 to 0.07). Maturation analysis showed a moderate effect (d = 0.35; 95% CI: 0.18–0.52), with peak asymmetry around peak height velocity (PHV). Heterogeneity was mainly explained by sport-specific demands and methodological differences. Asymmetries of approximately 10% are commonly observed in youth athletes in single-leg jump and change of direction tests, but their clinical relevance likely depends on sport-specific demands, maturation status, and testing modality, and should not be interpreted as a universal normative threshold. The lack of prospective injury data prevents the establishment of universal clinical thresholds. In conclusion, inter-limb asymmetries are common and developmentally dynamic in youth athletes, with functional relevance depending on biological and sport-specific context. Future research should prioritize methodological standardization and prospective designs.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070282

Authors: Zacharias Papadakis Andreas Stamatis

Mental toughness (MT) may contribute to within-athlete rowing performance variation, yet longitudinal evidence remains sparse. This pilot study examined within-athlete associations between MT and 2K ergometer performance across a competitive season in Division II female rowers. Twelve athletes (age 20.8 ± 2.1 years) completed the mental toughness index (MTI) before four standardized 2K time trials. Performance was modeled using a linear mixed-effects model with a random intercept for the athlete. The MTI was decomposed into within- and between-athlete components, with the timepoint as a categorical covariate. Small-sample inference used CR2 cluster-robust standard errors with Satterthwaite degrees of freedom. Performance improved mid-season relative to baseline (Timepoint 3: −7.29 s; 95% CI [−13.29, −1.29]; p = 0.023). The within-athlete MTI association was small and imprecise (β = −0.48 s/point; 95% CI [−1.56, 0.59]; p = 0.311), and the between-athlete MTI was unassociated with performance (β = 0.70; p = 0.667). Stable between-athlete differences dominated over variability (ICC = 0.946; R2m = 0.033; R2c = 0.948). The within-athlete MTI estimate was small and imprecise; given the wide compatibility interval, both the direction and magnitude of the association remain highly uncertain, and this inconclusive finding should not be interpreted as evidence of absence. Future studies with larger samples and key covariates (e.g., training load and illness/injury) are needed to confirm these preliminary estimates.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070281

Authors: José González Daniela Campos Rafael Gutiérrez-Pino Gerardo Weisstaub Carlos Sepúlveda Rodrigo Troncoso

Weekend cyclists are individuals who engage in vigorous physical activity only on weekends, as opposed to those who exercise regularly during the week. Research suggests that concentrating physical training on one or two days may benefit heart health and metabolism, similar to exercising regularly. However, it remains unclear whether weekend cyclists exhibit similar adaptations in metabolic, performance, and muscle oxygenation markers. The aim of this study is to compare cardiorespiratory fitness, body composition, cardiometabolic risk markers, muscle strength, and muscle oxygenation between cyclists who concentrated training on weekends and cyclists who distributed training across three or more days per week. In this study, we used an analytical, observational, non-experimental design that recruited 28 cyclists, divided into weekend cyclists (n = 14) and regular cyclists (n = 14). Body composition, blood tests, lower body strength, aerobic capacity, and muscle oxygen saturation were assessed. Results: Weekend cyclists exhibited lower VO2max (36.7 ± 3.9 vs. 48.9 ± 6.3 mL·kg−1·min−1), lower knee extension strength (3.16 ± 0.57 vs. 4.42 ± 0.83 Nm·kg−1), and reduced ΔSmO2 responses during exercise compared with regular cyclists (all p < 0.05). In addition, weekend cyclists presented higher body fat percentage (25.9 ± 3.8 vs. 17.2 ± 4.2%), greater waist circumference (90.5 ± 4.3 vs. 83.6 ± 5.1 cm), and lower HDL cholesterol levels (54.2 ± 8.4 vs. 64.1 ± 11.0 mg/dL). In conclusion, weekend cyclists have lower cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength, and reduced ΔSmO2 responses during incremental exercise, along with higher levels of visceral fat and triglycerides, compared to those who train three or more days a week. The distribution and frequency of training within their workout plans were associated with differences in cardiorespiratory fitness and cardiometabolic markers.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070280

Authors: Yousef Saad Aldabayan Ibrahim A. Elshaer Youssef Kooli Mansour Alyahya Chokri Kooli

The rapid evolution of Padel in Saudi Arabia (SA) has positioned the sport as a popular recreational and social activity, mainly among young adults. However, limited research has examined how different forms of sport motivation are associated with mental health outcomes in this emerging context. Drawing on Self-Determination Theory (SDT), this study investigated the associations between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and depression, stress, and anxiety among Padel players in SA. A quantitative, cross-sectional online survey was conducted with a sample of 475 players, the majority of whom were aged 17–35 and held at least a bachelor’s degree. Data were analysed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) to evaluate the relationships between multidimensional motivation factors and mental health symptoms. The findings revealed a nuanced, at times paradoxical, pattern of relationships. Intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation (engaging in an activity because of the positive sensations, excitement, enjoyment, or stimulation that the activity itself provides, rather than for external rewards or pressures) was consistently associated with lower levels of depression, stress, and anxiety, suggesting that enjoyment-driven involvement is associated with better mental health outcomes. In contrast, intrinsic motivation to accomplish was positively correlated with all three mental health indicators, indicating that achievement-oriented engagement might intensify emotional pressure. Among extrinsic motivations, external regulation was significantly associated with poorer mental health outcomes. In contrast, introjected regulation unexpectedly displayed a negative association with psychological distress, demonstrating a potentially adaptive role in this setting. Identified regulation, however, was not significantly associated with any mental health symptoms. These results underscore the “double-edged” nature of sport motivation, showing that not all internal or external motives yield uniformly positive consequences. The study contributed to the growing literature by providing a context-specific understanding of how motivational dynamics function within a rapidly growing sport in Saudi Arabia. In practice, the findings suggested that enjoyment-based involvement was associated with more favourable mental health outcomes, whereas performance-related pressures might be associated with less favourable outcomes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070278

Authors: Lucas Henrique Gonçalves de Brito Anderson Geremias Macedo Autran José da Silva Júnior Tiago André Freire de Almeida Danilo Alexandre Massini Dalton Muller Pessôa Filho Wonder Passoni Higino

Running is a widely practiced exercise modality in which central and peripheral fatigue can influence performance and pacing strategy. This study investigated the influence of cognitive–emotional factors, based on the psychobiological model of fatigue, on 5 km time trial performance using a randomized crossover design. Twenty-two recreational male runners (23.0 ± 3.05 years) completed four laboratory visits. During the first visit, participants underwent body composition assessment and an incremental test to determine maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and the velocity associated with VO2max. In the subsequent three visits, participants performed a 5 km treadmill time trial as fast as possible under three conditions: no feedback (5k-NF), distance-only feedback (5k-Dist), and full feedback (5k-FF). No significant differences in performance were observed between conditions (5k-FF: 24.3 ± 1.8 min; 5k-NF: 24.8 ± 2.1 min; 5k-Dist: 24.7 ± 2.7 min). Regardless of the condition, ratings of perceived exertion and heart rate increased progressively throughout the trials. Other physiological variables showed similar responses across conditions. These findings indicate that manipulating feedback availability during a 5 km time trial did not significantly alter performance or physiological responses under the specific laboratory conditions examined, despite that the true absolute absence of effect should be interpreted with appropriate caution.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070279

Authors: Natalia Durán-López Carlos Gómez-García Antonio Ranchal-Sanchez Valentina Lucena-Jurado Victoria Moyano-Ortega Ana Lara-Barahona Ostos Jose Manuel Jurado-Castro

High-intensity functional concurrent training (HIFCT) has emerged as a form of training characterized by constantly varied functional movements adapted to individual fitness levels. Previous studies have reported positive effects on muscular strength, cardiorespiratory fitness, body composition, and psychological well-being; however, evidence regarding HIFCT interventions in school-aged children remains limited. Therefore, the aim of the present study protocol is to evaluate the effects of an 8-week HIFCT programme on muscular strength, cardiorespiratory fitness, body composition, anxiety, stress, and self-esteem in children aged 10–12 years. Physical fitness, anthropometric variables, and psychological outcomes will be assessed before and after the intervention using validated field-based tests and questionnaires. This study may provide novel evidence regarding the feasibility, safety, and potential effects of HIFCT programmes in the school setting. The study protocol was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT07552844) and approved by the Córdoba Research Ethics Committee (IMIBIC, Córdoba, Spain; protocol code SICEIA-2025-000408).

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070277

Authors: Joshua Edward Till Yoko Tanabe Junsu Bae Rafael Lima Kons Ross Cloak Andrew M. Lane

Hypoxic training is widely used to enhance endurance performance, yet its application in combat sports such as judo is poorly understood. This study explored (1) hypoxic training practices, (2) perceptions, and (3) educational pathways among judo athletes and performance staff (coaches/practitioners). A total of 173 judo athletes and 39 performance staff completed an online questionnaire covering participant characteristics, hypoxic practices, education, and perceptions. Closed-ended responses were analysed using frequency statistics, and open-ended responses using thematic analysis. Hypoxic training was not widely used, with most respondents reporting no engagement. Among participants currently using hypoxic training, the primary aim was to enhance sea-level performance (13.7%), with limited use for altitude competition (8.5%). Natural altitude was the most common modality, with 7.1% respondents currently using it, typically at ≤1500 m. Only 20.8% of participants reported receiving or delivering education on hypoxic training. Perceptions were mixed, with 38.7% agreeing it benefits judo performance, although agreement was higher among performance staff than athletes. Thematic analysis identified perceived benefits (e.g., time-efficient fitness gains) and drawbacks (e.g., cost, access, and scheduling constraints). Hypoxic training is not a common practice in judo, but amongst some respondents it is perceived as potentially beneficial; these perceptions should not be interpreted as evidence of effectiveness. Its use is primarily oriented towards improving sea-level performance, and current knowledge appears largely informal. Greater sport-specific guidance and education may support more informed application in practice.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070276

Authors: Fernando Vilela Amilton Vieira Rafael Kons Ubiratan Contreira Padilha Denis César Leite Vieira Martim Bottaro

This study aimed to describe the upper-body bilateral deficit (BD) in recreational climbers and to examine its relationship with specific performance. Fifteen recreational climbers (11 men, 4 women; 25–45 years; ≥3 years of experience) performed unilateral and bilateral maximal isometric handgrip strength test (HGT), and unilateral and bilateral maximal isometric strength test using a climbing-specific fingerboard test (CSFT). The fatigue resistance index test (FRI) and the endurance capacity test (ECT) were used as performance tests. Paired Student’s T-tests were used to compare bilateral deficit results between CSFT and HGT. Pearson’s correlation was used to assess relationships between these variables with the level at 5%. The results showed a significant (p < 0.05) bilateral deficit in the CSFT (−2.53 ± 4.49%) and the HGT (−2.05 ± 3.29%), with no difference between methods. A positive correlation was found between bilateral deficit in the CSFT and the ECT (r = 0.53; p = 0.044), while no correlation was observed with the FRI. Relative bilateral strength to body mass was strongly associated with ECT (r = 0.92; p < 0.001). Greater bilateral deficit was associated with endurance capacity in climbers. In addition, the CSFT demonstrated good predictive accuracy and may be considered a specific and reliable tool for assessing BD in climbers.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070275

Authors: Marcos Michaelides Elena Mosfilioti Gabriela Souza de Vasconcelos Koulla Parpa Konstantina Intziegianni Evaggelos Nikolaou Milto Hadjikyriakou Marco Beato

This study investigated whether body-weight semi-squats (BWSSs) performed under blood-flow restriction (BFR) conditions were associated with higher post-conditioning drop-jump performance compared with the sham condition in adolescent female volleyball players. Thirteen players completed two experimental conditions (BFR and sham) in a randomized, counterbalanced crossover design. A pre-conditioning baseline jump assessment was not included. The BFR condition consisted of three sets of 16 repetitions with 80% of arterial occlusion pressure (AOP), whereas the sham condition was performed at 20% AOP. In each condition, participants performed one drop jump at 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 min after the activation protocol. Jump height, impulse, reactive strength index (RSI) and power-related variables were analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA. A significant main effect of condition indicated that jump height, RSI, impulse, and power-related variables were greater following the BFR than the sham condition across the post-conditioning assessment period. A significant main effect of time was also observed, with lower performance at 3 min compared to later time points. No condition-by-time interaction was found. These preliminary findings suggest that BWSSs performed under BFR conditions were associated with higher post-conditioning drop-jump performance than the sham condition. Low-load BFR exercise may therefore represent a practical strategy when heavy resistance equipment is unavailable. However, because no pre-conditioning baseline assessment was included, the magnitude of performance enhancement from baseline cannot be determined. Therefore, the findings should be interpreted as differences in post-conditioning performance between BFR and sham conditions rather than definite evidence of baseline to post enhancement.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070274

Authors: Leon Schwensfeier Christian Brinkmann

This review examined study characteristics and common practices in continuous glucose monitoring (CGM)-based exercise studies. Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search in the PubMed database was conducted. Data were extracted from 93 publications. A minority of studies (12.9%) focused on CGM system validation. Acute exercise studies were more common (87.1%) than chronic exercise studies (12.9%). Randomized crossover designs predominated (71.0%). Participant populations varied and included 46.2% non-diabetic individuals (7.5% athletes), 36.6% individuals with type 1 diabetes mellitus, and 17.2% individuals with type 2. The upper arm was the most common sensor placement site (41.9%), although nearly one-third of studies did not report placement details. Devices were primarily from Abbott (40.9%), Medtronic (36.6%), and Dexcom (26.9%). Sample sizes were typically small, with 40.9% of studies including 10–14 participants. Reporting practices frequently deviated from the International Consensus Statement on CGM Metrics for Clinical Trials. Many studies used modified or non-standard metrics, whereas “mean sensor glucose” was reported in compliance with consensus recommendations in 58.1% of studies. Regarding data completeness, “data gaps” was the most frequently reported consensus-compliant metric (43.0%). In validation studies, accuracy metrics predominated, with “absolute relative difference” representing the most common outcome (87.5%). Overall, substantial heterogeneity limits comparability across studies, highlighting the need for standardized CGM reporting.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070273

Authors: José Luis Quintero-Illera Fabio Nevado Garrosa Raúl Zarzuela-Martin Roberto López-Del Campo Víctor Cuadrado-Peñafiel

The aims of the present study were to (a) analyze the relationship between acceleration capacity at low and high initial running speeds and the player’s ability to cover high-intensity running distances and perform high-intensity accelerations during competition and (b) examine whether these differences also occur across playing positions in professional soccer players. A total of 222 professional male soccer players from LALIGA participated in the study during the 2021–2022 and 2022–2023 seasons. Players were classified in six positions: central defender (CD), full back (FB), central midfielder (CM), offensive midfielder (OM), winger (W) and forward (F). K-means clustering was applied to classify players based on the maximal theoretical acceleration (A0Int) capacity and the maximal theoretical initial running speed (S0Int). Mixed models were used to examine the accelerations performed above 75% of the acceleration–speed profile (Mean75AS0) according to IntS; distance covered at high speeds (21–24 km·h−1, >24 km·h−1, >28 km·h−1); and maximum speed across playing positions, cluster groups and contextual variables. C1 (high A0Int and S0Int) showed a significantly greater distance covered during high-intensity running and accelerations than C2 (low A0Int and S0Int) across all IntS thresholds. C3 (high A0Int and low S0Int) achieved higher accelerations at a low IntS. In conclusion, offensive positions displayed greater distance covered during high-intensity running and acceleration across all IntS categories, while CD produced lower values. In conclusion, this study highlights how the accelerations quantified in relation to the IntS vary according to the relationship between A0Int and S0Int during competition and the positional role of the player.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070272

Authors: José Raimundo Fernandes Michele Andrade de Brito Keveenrick Ferreira Costa Felipe Inostroza Rios Ignacio Roa-Gamboa Naiara Ribeiro Almeida Einstein Francisco de Camargos Alfonso López Díaz de Durana Bianca Miarka Otávio de Toledo Nóbrega Ciro José Brito

This systematic review investigated the direct association between biomarkers and cognitive performance in adult athletes exposed to repetitive head impacts. Searches in the APA PsycNet, PubMed, Google Scholar, CAPES, and BVSalud databases (11 April 2026) evaluated adult athletes (≥18 years) who used standardized neuropsychological tests and analyzed the association between biomarkers and cognition. Two reviewers performed selection, data extraction, and risk-of-bias assessment. Certainty of evidence was assessed using an adapted GRADE framework. A total of 10,480 records were identified. After removal of 697 duplicate records, they underwent screening and eligibility assessment, resulting in the inclusion of 10 studies. They showed low risk of bias, but sample imprecision reduced the certainty of evidence in 50% of cases. The cognitive domains assessed were memory, attention, processing speed, reaction time, and executive functions. Axonal biomarkers (70% of studies), inflammatory (40%), and synaptic biomarkers (10%). Eighty percent of the studies found a relationship between biological alterations and cognition. The most promising biomarkers associated with cognitive deficits are NfL and GFAP, but due to high methodological heterogeneity, imprecision of estimates (GRADE), and biases, the conclusions are provisional. Caution is recommended in clinical application until prospective studies with larger samples and active control groups confirm the findings.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070271

Authors: Artur Barsumyan Anton Saukkonen Christian Soost Jan Adriaan Graw Rene Burchard

Introduction: Day-to-day fluctuations in heart rate variability (HRV) are widely used to infer autonomic recovery in endurance athletes. However, the extent to which HRV can be forecast one day ahead from readily available external and internal training-load metrics remains unclear. In this study, we evaluated whether machine learning models can predict next-day HRV in competitive cyclists using the two load descriptors most commonly collected in practice: external load quantified as total mechanical work in kilojoules (kJ) and internal load quantified as session rating of perceived exertion (RPE). Methods: Seven male competitive endurance cyclists were monitored daily for sixteen weeks, yielding 590 athlete-days of longitudinal data (seven independent time series). Two machine learning approaches—support vector regression (SVR) and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost)—were compared with a conventional autoregressive model with exogenous inputs (ARX) as a traditional time-series benchmark. Each model was trained individually per athlete under two predictor scenarios (using past HRV-only or past HRV plus kJ and RPE) and across multiple lag orders (1, 4, 7, 10 and 14 days), with forecasting accuracy expressed as root mean squared error (RMSE). Results: Across all athletes, adding kJ and RPE to the past HRV produced only modest reductions in RMSE relative to HRV-only models. XGBoost achieved the lowest one-step-ahead RMSE at short lag, while all models converged at longer lag orders. Predictive accuracy differed markedly between athletes, reflecting the well-known individual nature of autonomic responses. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the two routinely collected load descriptors examined here—total work (kJ) and RPE—add limited information beyond recent HRV history for forecasting next-day HRV, and that broader contextual variables are likely required to meaningfully improve athlete monitoring.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070270

Authors: Filipe Rodrigues Vasco Bastos Diogo Santos Teixeira Diogo Monteiro

While functional mobility is known to deteriorate with age, the specific mechanisms driving this decline, along with potential differences between men and women, are not fully established. Therefore, the present study applied a moderated mediation framework to investigate whether lower limb strength and body mass index (BMI) mediate the relationship between aging and functional mobility, and to explore if sex acts as a moderator in these relationships. A cross-sectional design was used to evaluate 408 independent older adults (mean age: 71.9 ± 3.9 years; 273 females and 135 males). Assessments included the Timed Up and Go (TUG) for functional mobility, the 30 s Chair Stand for leg strength, alongside BMI calculations. Direct and indirect pathways were subsequently evaluated using a moderated mediation analysis. Lower limb strength and BMI significantly predicted functional mobility in both sexes (p < 0.05), with no significant moderation in the indirect pathways. Regarding conditional effects, advancing age predicted poorer functional mobility in females (p = 0.008) but not in males (p = 0.141), independent of the mediators. Strength and BMI appear to be correlates of functional mobility. However, since the age-by-sex interaction term was not statistically significant, the potential sex-specific direct effect of age must be interpreted with caution. While these findings hint at possible subtle differences in aging trajectories, future research is needed to confirm whether interventions for older women require addressing factors beyond strength and body composition.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070269

Authors: Tyler Moore Kirsty Brock Jac Palmer Ryan Baker Naser Taleshi Genevieve Williams

Current pitchside concussion assessments are limited by low sensitivity, reliance on player self-report, and the need for on-site healthcare professionals. Impairments in cognitive function and motor control are a key predictor of concussive injury. The Circle Sequencing Task (CST) is a newly developed concussion assessment tool to assess both cognitive function and motor control in one test. Here, we seek to assess the CST’s ability to differentiate between healthy and recently concussed individuals relative to existing cognitive tests. Concussed (n = 13; mean age 26 ± 7 yrs) and healthy (n = 13; mean age 28 ± 9 yrs) participants completed the CST, the Trail Making Test, a Go/No-Go task, the Digit Span Test and a simple reaction time task online via a link. Concussed individuals showed significant deficits in inhibitory control (p = 0.01) and memory (p = 0.04) components of the CST compared to healthy controls, with these components showing a larger effect size (d = 1.05 and d = 0.78, respectively) than metrics derived from the existing cognitive tests of Go/No-Go (d = 0.37) and the Digit Span Test (d = 0.52). The findings provide preliminary evidence that CST-derived inhibitory control and memory metrics may differ between recently concussed individuals and healthy controls and warrant further validation in larger clinically controlled studies.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070268

Authors: Alan de Jesús Gómez-Rosales Xóchitl Angélica Ortiz-Jiménez Javier Sanchez-Lopez

Football performance depends on multiple interacting factors, including physical, technical, tactical, and psychological components. Among the psychological factors associated with optimal performance are athletes’ emotional states, their regulation, and executive functions. Although executive functions and emotional states have been widely studied in sport settings, research examining the relationship between these variables in athletes is limited, particularly in female football players. The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between emotional states, emotional regulation, and performance on cognitive tasks in female players from the Mexican football league. Twenty-eight players participated in two individual assessment sessions in which anxiety and depression levels, emotional regulation, and executive functions—planning, inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility—were evaluated using psychological and neuropsychological tests. Results indicated a positive correlation between decision-making and emotional attention (rho = 0.36; p < 0.05), as well as between depression levels and onset latency in a working memory task (rho = 0.38; p < 0.04). Finally, a negative correlation was identified between the percentage of risk cards and the TMMS attention score (rho = −0.47; p < 0.01). These findings suggest associations between emotional processes and cognitive functioning in professional female football players and warrant further investigation in sport-performance settings.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070267

Authors: Kevin A. Rodríguez-Fernández Marina Trejo-Trejo H. Antonio Pineda-Espejel Isaac A. Chávez-Guevara Arnulfo Ramos-Jiménez

Background: Vertical jump performance is a key determinant of volleyball success. Prior evaluations of complex training in youth have relied largely on frequentist statistics, which can be difficult to interpret in the small cohorts typical of youth sport. Objective: Apply Bayesian inference to evaluate vertical jump kinematics across short- and long-stretch-shortening-cycle modalities following a 9-week complex training program in adolescent female volleyball athletes. Methods: Eight athletes completed a periodized training protocol. Jump kinematics were assessed using a high-frequency force platform, and whole-body composition was assessed using bioelectrical impedance analysis. Data were analyzed using Bayesian inference. Results: Bayesian analysis indicated consistent improvements across jump modalities, with Block Volleyball Jump, Countermovement Jump, and Spike Jump heights increasing by 14.4%, 14.4%, and 13.9% (BF10 = 29.7, 27.2, and 126.9, respectively), with peak power increasing in parallel for all three jumps (BF10 = 22.8, 23.1, and 37.6). Whole-body Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA) detected no meaningful change in body mass (BF10 = 0.34) or in muscle mass percentage (BF10 = 1.56) over the intervention period. Conclusions: Complex training was associated with increases in jump height across modalities representing different points on the stretch-shortening-cycle continuum. Bayesian inference provided a complementary probabilistic basis for evaluating training-related change in a small cohort. No accompanying change in whole-body composition was detected by BIA; because muscle architecture was not assessed and the design was single-arm without a control group, the mechanism underlying the jump-height changes cannot be determined.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070266

Authors: Mikaeli Carmichael Alexandra Roberts Kate Perry Anthea Clarke

This study aims to determine the effect of an education intervention on female athletes’ menstrual health knowledge, communication, and perceived importance of menstrual cycle tracking, and whether factors such as age, education level, or hormonal contraceptive use influence these outcomes. Three athlete cohorts engaged in two workshops and received targeted handouts. Participants (n = 51) completed surveys before, after, and 3 months following the intervention, which included a menstrual health knowledge assessment and a series of ratings to ascertain perceived knowledge; likelihood that they would discuss menstrual health with teammates, coaches, medical staff, and performance staff; and perceived importance of menstrual cycle tracking. Bayesian generalised linear mixed models and Bayesian linear mixed models were used to understand the effect of time and interactions between time and age, educational level, or hormonal contraceptive use. Actual and perceived knowledge and likelihood to communicate with teammates and performance staff appeared to be higher post-intervention and were retained for at least three months. The importance of menstrual cycle tracking increased from post-intervention to follow-up, while no change in communication with coaches or medical staff was observed. There appeared to be some effect of age, education level, and hormonal contraceptive use on knowledge and communication with medical staff. A menstrual health education intervention could be a practical and effective strategy to promote menstrual health literacy and communication in sport settings.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070263

Authors: Alejandro Soler-López Elena López-Martínez Rubén Toledo-Pozuelo Carlos D. Gómez-Carmona

Growing use of inertial measurement units (IMUs) in velocity-based training has outpaced the evidence supporting their accuracy, making device-specific validation an essential aspect before adoption in research or practice. This study evaluated the concurrent validity of the GPath 6-axis inertial sensor against the Chronojump linear position transducer (LPT) for mean propulsive velocity (MPV) measurement during the bench press exercise. Twelve physically active males performed repetitions at 20%, 40%, 60%, and 80% of one-repetition maximum (1RM) across two separate testing sessions. Concurrent validity was evaluated using Pearson’s correlation, concordance correlation coefficient (CCC), Bland–Altman analysis, typical error, and coefficient of variation (CV). The GPath systematically overestimated MPV relative to the LPT at all loading conditions (p < 0.001), with bias decreasing from 0.253 m/s (20% 1RM) to 0.091 m/s (80% 1RM). CV remained low and consistent across conditions (5.12–5.98%). CCC was trivial > 1 m/s (20–40% 1RM: 0.079–0.056; combined: 0.331) and moderate < 1 m/s (60–80% 1RM: 0.430–0.433; combined: 0.833), with an overall CCC of 0.877. Between-session reproducibility of agreement was high (Session 1: CCC = 0.878; Session 2: CCC = 0.877), with between-session bias differences not exceeding 0.026 m/s. Despite its systematic overestimation, the GPath showed a reproducible bias structure between sessions, which may indicate utility for longitudinal within-athlete monitoring of relative MPV changes. Although, it cannot be recommended for absolute velocity measurement or 1RM estimation without prior correction.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070265

Authors: Riley Brassington Jocelyn Mara Nick Ball Gordon Waddington Julie Cooke

Female rugby league performance is influenced by multiple interacting sensory and physiological systems; however, the extent to which these factors vary across playing levels and positional groups remains unclear. This study explored differences in visual, vestibular, somatosensory, and autonomic performance according to playing level and position in female rugby league athletes. Elite and sub-elite athletes completed lower-limb proprioception testing using the Active Movement Extent Discrimination Assessment protocol alongside visual-vestibular and autonomic assessments obtained via a virtual reality eye-tracking system. Bayesian hierarchical models examined the effects of playing level, positional group (adjustables, backs, forwards), and their interaction. Few consistent differences were observed between elite and sub-elite athletes across the measures assessed. Posterior estimates suggest selected level-by-position effects for ankle proprioceptive acuity (PD = 0.94), vestibulo-oculomotor time on target (PD = 0.95), and autonomic dilation velocity (PD = 0.98); however, these findings were not consistent across positional groups or outcome measures, and within-group variability was evident. Overall, sensory and autonomic performance did not consistently differentiate elite and sub-elite athletes, suggesting limited utility as cross-sectional markers of playing level but potential value as longitudinal monitoring tools alongside workload, recovery, and performance data.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070264

Authors: Nebojša Čokorilo Nikola Manolopoulos Tamara Matijević Ranko Rajović

The aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the validity and accuracy of wearable technologies used for monitoring physiological metrics in team-sport athletes. A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed and Scopus databases, with additional studies identified through supplementary searching. Studies published between 2015 and 2025 were included if they assessed wearable devices in team-sport populations and compared their measurements with gold-standard methods. A total of eleven studies met the inclusion criteria. The findings indicate that heart rate monitoring demonstrates consistently high validity across different wearable devices, particularly in controlled laboratory conditions. In contrast, energy expenditure estimation shows substantial variability and systematic underestimation, especially during high-intensity and intermittent activities typical of team sports. VO2max estimation presents mixed validity depending on device type and testing protocol, while respiratory frequency measurement demonstrates high agreement with gold-standard methods when assessed using specialized devices. Overall, wearable technologies provide valuable insights into athlete monitoring; however, their accuracy varies considerably depending on the physiological parameter and testing environment. These findings highlight the need for improved validation protocols and caution in the application of wearable-derived data in high-performance team-sport settings.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070262

Authors: Klara Findrik Petar Šušnjara Danijela Kuna

High-intensity 5 km running offers an ideal framework to analyze the organism’s multidimensional responses. Since previous research primarily analyzed isolated aspects of fatigue, this study aimed to examine the integrated acute neuromuscular, metabolic, and perceptual responses to a 5 km run. Twenty-one recreational male runners participated. Pre- and post-race assessments included body composition, blood lactate, m. rectus femoris ultrasound thickness, quadriceps maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), heart rate, perceived exertion (Borg CR10), and 5 km finish time. Statistical analysis was performed in the Jamovi software, utilizing descriptive statistics, the Shapiro–Wilk test of normality, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test with effect size calculation, and Spearman’s correlation coefficient, at a significance level of p < 0.05. Post-race measurements revealed a significant decrease in quadriceps MVIC (pre: 305 ± 99 N vs. post: 259 ± 88 N; p = 0.002) and an increase in blood lactate (pre: 0.8 ± 0.4 vs. post: 6.9 ± 1.4 mmol/L; p < 0.001), alongside high average heart rates (165 ± 16 bpm). However, ultrasound-assessed muscle architecture remained unchanged. The 5 km run induced pronounced neuromuscular and metabolic fatigue. Unchanged muscle architecture suggests that acute strength decline is primarily mediated by metabolic and neural mechanisms, rather than immediate structural–morphological factors. These findings highlight the value of an integrated assessment approach for understanding acute fatigue responses following high-intensity 5 km running and may contribute to more precise training-load prescription and recovery monitoring in recreational runners.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070261

Authors: Andreas Stafylidis Walter Staiano Athanasios Mandroukas Yiannis Michailidis Mert Isbilir Lazaros Vardakis Andreas Fousekis Konstantinos Chatzinikolaou Lluis Raimon Salazar Bonet Ana Ferri-Caruana Nikolaos Tsigilis Marco Romagnoli Thomas I. Metaxas

This study examined acute pre- to post-match changes in perceived mental fatigue, subjective workload, and psychomotor performance in professional male soccer players, and whether cognitive changes were associated with GPS-derived external-load metrics, match outcome, and playing position. The dataset comprised 101 player–match measurements from 40 elite players, with paired pre–post psychomotor assessments yielding n = 202 total measurements. Pre–post comparisons were analysed using repeated-measures ANOVA, supplemented by linear mixed-effects models with a random intercept for player. Soccer matches produced large increases in perceived exertion, mental fatigue, mental demand, physical demand, and effort (all p < 0.001), and significant deteriorations in reaction time, accuracy, processing speed, and response variability (all p ≤ 0.005), confirmed in the mixed-effects analyses (all p ≤ 0.014). In the initial player–match-level analyses, high-intensity accelerations (>3 m·s−2) were weakly associated with greater Δreaction-time slowing (r = 0.203), increased response variability (r = 0.276), and reduced Rate Correct Score (r = −0.242), while high metabolic load distance was weakly associated with post-match perceived mental fatigue but not with psychomotor-performance changes. One-way ANOVAs indicated greater post-match psychomotor decrements following losses than draws. Once within-player dependence was modelled, the effects of match outcome, playing position, and most external-load metrics were attenuated, except for a residual match-outcome effect on accuracy and a high-intensity deceleration effect on accuracy. These findings indicate that competitive soccer match play is followed by acute psychomotor-performance decrements and increased perceived mental fatigue, whereas the contributions of mechanical load, match outcome, and playing position appear modest and partly reflect stable between-player differences.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070260

Authors: Hamad Alkaabi Everett Lohman Mansoor Alameri Noha Daher Aleksandar Čvorović Hatem Jaber

This study examined the effects of functional training on musculoskeletal (MSK) injuries, days lost from training, and attrition rate among police recruits in Abu Dhabi. A total of 441 Abu Dhabi Police recruits were randomly allocated into experimental (n = 220) and control (n = 221) groups. The experimental group underwent six weeks of preconditioning functional training, while the control group followed the standard Abu Dhabi Police recruitment procedure. Subsequently, both groups entered 16 weeks of basic military training (BMT). The outcome measures (injury rate, days lost from training, and attrition rate) were collected at the end of BMT. The proportion of injuries reported by the experimental group was significantly lower than that reported by the control group (15.3% versus 52.3%, respectively [χ2 = 66.8, p < 0.001]). There were significant differences in the median (minimum, maximum) number of injuries and number of days lost to training between the experimental and control groups [1 (1, 5) versus 2 (1, 9), p = 0.002 (r = 0.30); and 2.5 (1, 26) versus 5.0 (1, 37), p < 0.001 (r = 0.34), respectively]. The number of dropouts due to MSK injuries during BMT was 1 in the experimental group and 5 in the control group (p = 0.06). Tactical athletes who did not undergo preconditioning training demonstrated a greater risk of non-contact lower-limb injury than those who received structured conditioning training. Therefore, preconditioning training might be a beneficial tool to minimize injuries among tactical athlete trainees. Trial Registration: ISRCTN registry (ISRCTN41786994), retrospectively registered on 13 April 2026.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070259

Authors: Roxana Mihaela Munteanu Andrei Marian Feier Bogdan Voicu Diana Șandru Arpad Solyom Tudor Sorin Pop

Background: Recreational mini-football is associated with a high incidence of lower-limb injuries, largely driven by neuromuscular deficits and insufficient exposure to structured preventive training. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a hybrid injury-prevention program combining the FIFA 11+ protocol with customized neuromuscular interventions on functional performance and injury-related risk factors. Methods: Forty male recreational mini-football players were included in a retrospective analysis of data collected during the routine implementation of a 12-week hybrid preventive training program. Participants were allocated to an intervention group (n = 20) or control group (n = 20) according to routine training practices rather than randomization. The intervention was performed twice weekly. Outcome measures included lower-limb strength (Kineo system), dynamic balance (Y-Balance Test), functional hop performance (Single Hop and Side Hop tests), and agility/change-of-direction ability (Illinois and 505 tests). Results: The intervention group demonstrated significantly greater improvements in lower-limb peak force across all muscle groups (all adjusted p < 0.001), as well as in single-leg hop, side hop, and agility/change-of-direction performance (all adjusted p < 0.001) compared to controls. No significant changes were observed in dynamic balance outcomes. Conclusions: A hybrid neuromuscular training program combining FIFA 11+ with customized exercises was associated with improvements in lower-limb strength, hop performance, and agility/change-of-direction ability in recreational mini-football players. These findings suggest that integrating customized exercises into standardized training programs may enhance functional performance and positively influence modifiable factors associated with injury risk.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070258

Authors: Tomas Ulloa-Guerrero Juan S. Ruiz Renato Rodríguez Rafael Tadeo-Herazo Sergio Lopez-Betancourt Hermin Palacio-Bedoya Samuel Gaviria-Alzate Andrés Rojas-Jaramillo

Background: In youth football, sprint performance depends on the capacity to produce and orient force horizontally during acceleration. Resisted sprinting may preferentially target the force end of the sprint force–velocity profile, whereas free sprinting may favour velocity-oriented adaptations. Purpose: To compare the effects of resisted versus non-resisted sprint training on sprint performance and sprint force–velocity variables in youth footballers, while monitoring countermovement jump (CMJ) as a secondary outcome. Methods: This parallel-group randomised controlled trial included 44 players from two age categories (U14, n = 21; Youth, n = 23). Within each category, players were randomly allocated to resisted sprint training (RST; U14 n = 11, Youth n = 12) or non-resisted sprint training (NRST; U14 n = 10, Youth n = 11). Both groups completed two supervised sessions per week for six weeks. Outcomes were CMJ and sprint-derived variables including maximal theoretical horizontal force (F0), maximal theoretical velocity (V0), maximal power (Pmax), measured maximal sprint velocity (Vmax), peak ratio of horizontal force (RFpeak), decrease in RF with increasing velocity (DRF), and force–velocity slope (FV). Results: CMJ remained essentially unchanged in both age categories. Sprint performance improved over time, with the pattern of adaptation generally favouring RST for force-oriented sprint mechanical variables (F0, Pmax and RFpeak), whereas improvements in Vmax were observed in both groups. In the Youth category, the FV slope differed between groups post-test (p = 0.002). Overall, resisted sprint training tended to produce larger improvements in acceleration-oriented mechanical qualities, while non-resisted sprint training was associated with more velocity-oriented adaptations. Conclusions: Low-volume resisted sprint training using a sled load of ~20% body mass was associated with more favourable adaptations in force-oriented sprint mechanical variables, whereas non-resisted sprint training tended to favour velocity-oriented characteristics. CMJ performance remained unchanged in both groups. These findings should be interpreted cautiously given the small age-stratified subgroup sizes and the single-club nature of the study. Trial registration: This study was retrospectively registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT07418892).

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14070257

Authors: Christina Sefotha Simoné Ferreira Lynn Smith

Fluctuations in ovarian hormones across the menstrual cycle (MC) have been suggested to influence neuromuscular performance in female athletes. However, phase-specific variations in lower-limb muscle strength remain underexplored, particularly within the soccer population. This study investigated phase-related differences in lower-limb muscle strength across MC phases in female soccer players. A repeated-measures design was employed involving 50 competitive female soccer players. Bilateral lower-limb muscle strength was assessed using a handheld dynamometer (VALD DynaMo Plus) during the three MC phases: menstruation, late follicular, and luteal phase. Estimated menstrual cycle phases were identified using calendar-estimated tracking or an MC monitoring application (FitrWoman). Phase-related differences were analysed using repeated-measures analysis of variance with Bonferroni-adjusted post hoc comparisons, and effect sizes were reported as partial eta squared (ηp2). Significant differences in lower-limb muscle strength were observed across estimated MC phases (p < 0.05, ηp2 = 0.12–0.31). Both the non-dominant and dominant limbs demonstrated higher strength values during the late follicular phase, with hip abductors emerging as the strongest muscle group bilaterally (≈149 ± 37 kg). Most muscle groups exhibited lower strength values during the menstruation phase. Lower-limb muscle strength appears to vary across calendar-estimated MC phases in female soccer players, with higher strength values observed during the late follicular phase and lower values during menstruation. These findings should be interpreted with caution due to the method of phase identification but may have implications for the scheduling of strength assessments and training load management in female athletes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060256

Authors: Solène Chaléat David Baud Helton De Sa Souza Imogen O’Brien Rebecca Glover George Morris Kelly Kaulback Volker Scheer

Data on menstrual health, energy availability, and injury risk in women undertaking extreme ultra-endurance expeditions remain limited. We conducted a prospective cohort study of the first all-female UK military team competing in a 3000-mile transatlantic rowing race, aiming to characterize menstrual function, low energy availability (LEA) risk, eating disorder (ED) risk, and injury profiles. Four female British Army personnel completed the 46-day race. Menstrual symptoms, injuries, and illnesses were recorded daily, while reproductive, inflammatory, biochemical, and hematological markers were assessed before and after the race. LEA and ED risk were evaluated using the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire and Brief Eating Disorder in Athletes Questionnaire, respectively. Analyses were primarily descriptive. Three athletes experienced amenorrhea during the expedition, including one with previously regular cycles. The fourth reported intermittent abnormal bleeding associated with injury and illness and screened positive for LEA risk before and after the race. Another athlete screened positive for ED risk at both time points. Most biomarkers remained stable post-race, whereas reproductive hormones showed consistent reductions in follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone in all four participants, alongside increased oestradiol. These findings, based on a sample of four athletes, suggest that menstrual function may be sensitive to sustained physiological stress in extreme ultra-endurance settings, and support prospective monitoring in female ultra-endurance, military, and expeditionary populations.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060255

Authors: Amr Chaabeni Wissem Dhahbi Ahlem Aissa Medina Srem-Sai John Elvis Hagan Amine Kalai Vlad Adrian Geantă Sana Salah Bassem Charfeddine Karim Chamari Anis Jellad

This bibliometric study examines the intellectual structure, evolution, and collaboration patterns of phytotherapy research within sports science to identify key themes and research gaps. Publications indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection from 1991 to 2024 were analyzed using a search strategy combining phytotherapy and sports medicine terms, yielding 3404 records, of which 368 met the inclusion criteria after systematic screening. Performance analysis assessed publication trends, citation impact, and author productivity, while science mapping techniques—including keyword co-occurrence, bibliographic coupling, and co-authorship network analysis—were conducted using Bibliometrix and VOSviewer. Thematic positioning was evaluated through Callon’s centrality-density framework. Results indicate steady growth in the field, with a CAGR of 11.83% and peak output in 2021, involving 2103 authors across 199 sources. International collaboration reached 22.55%, led by the United States, United Kingdom, and China. Dominant research themes include exercise, inflammation, oxidative stress, and phytochemicals such as curcumin and resveratrol. Thematic mapping highlights exercise performance and supplementation as central topics. Overall, the field demonstrates significant expansion, though increased international collaboration and clinical translation are needed.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060254

Authors: Nika Nikousokhan Tayyar Sara Naim Antonella Strangio Daniele Murgia Luca Nanni Daniele Saverino

Objectives: This study investigated the interplay between pre- and post-match physiological responses and subsequent emotional changes in male water polo players competing in the Italian Serie C league (third national level, sub-elite), focusing on differences between official championship (competitive) and non-competitive (training) settings. Methods: Sixteen male Italian Serie C water polo players participated. Salivary biomarkers (cortisol, immunoglobulin A (IgA), and uric acid) were measured, alongside psychological assessments of cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence. Measurements were taken before and after both training and competition matches. Results: A significant anticipatory rise in salivary cortisol was observed before competition matches compared to training, highlighting the psychological stress associated with competitive events. Post-match, cortisol levels remained elevated to a greater extent after competition. Salivary IgA levels decreased significantly following both training and competition, with a more pronounced reduction after official matches, and exhibited a negative correlation with cortisol. Salivary uric acid, a marker of oxidative stress, increased post-exercise and was significantly higher after competition. Players reported higher somatic and cognitive anxiety and lower self-confidence before competition compared to training, and pre-competition cortisol levels were positively correlated with both anxiety measures and negatively correlated with self-confidence. Conclusions: These findings highlight the distinct physiological and psychological responses elicited by competitive versus non-competitive settings in water polo, emphasizing the importance of considering the emotional context when monitoring athletes’ stress and recovery. The social meaning of competitive contexts may be embodied, impacting stress and immune responses.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060253

Authors: Rita Géczi Gergely Géczi László Tóth

The aim of this study was to examine the relative contribution of physical performance, executive functions, and competitive anxiety to competitive success in junior tennis players. A total of 39 national-level junior athletes (20 males, 19 females) participated in the study. Physical performance was assessed using a standardized test battery including a 20 m sprint, standing long jump, agility test, and shuttle run. Executive functions were measured using the Adult Executive Functioning Inventory (ADEXI), while competitive anxiety was assessed with the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2). Competitive success was operationalized using ranking points. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted using log-transformed ranking points as the dependent variable. Age and sex explained 71.3% of the variance in LogRanking (R2 = 0.713, p < 0.001). The addition of physical performance variables provided a modest, non-significant increase in explained variance (ΔR2 = 0.068, p = 0.064). Executive functions (ΔR2 = 0.006, p = 0.645) and competitive anxiety (ΔR2 = 0.008, p = 0.801) did not provide additional explanatory power. In the final model, age and standing long jump were significant predictors of LogRanking. These findings suggest that ranking-based competitive success in junior tennis is strongly influenced by age-related and competition-exposure factors. Physical performance showed a limited additional contribution, while executive functions and competitive anxiety did not explain further variance in this sample.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060252

Authors: Juan Carlos Muñoz-Carrillo Silvia Pérez-Piñero Francisco Javier López-Román Antonio J. Luque-Rubia Vicente Ávila-Gandía

Background: Research on the acute effects of β-alanine supplementation has primarily focused on performance outcomes, with limited attention to the underlying physiological mechanisms. This study aimed to investigate the acute effects of two β-alanine doses on performance, mechanical output, and acid–base balance during a 10 min cycling time trial (10’-TT), and to explore the relationship between buffering-related variables and performance. Methods: Eighty-five recreational cyclists performed a 10’-TT under indoor conditions before (control) and following the acute ingestion of β-alanine (moderate-dose β-alanine 10 g—BAM; high-dose β-alanine 20 g—BAH) or placebo (PLA), with each condition tested on separate days. Data were analyzed using two-way repeated-measures ANOVA and correlation analyses. Results: No significant differences were observed in performance variables (distance, speed, cadence, or heart rate; p ≥ 0.751). However, total external mechanical work (kJ) was significantly reduced following acute supplementation (p = 0.028). Notably, the BAM condition reduced the mechanical cost of exercise without impairing performance, and this effect was moderately associated with changes in bicarbonate levels. Conclusions: Acute β-alanine supplementation did not improve performance outcomes but may alter buffering-related physiological responses associated with reduced mechanical work during high-intensity cycling exercise. These findings highlight the relevance of buffering-related mechanisms, particularly bicarbonate dynamics, in modulating the mechanical cost (work performed relative to performance achieved) of high-intensity exercise.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060251

Authors: Francesca Di Rocco Cristian Romagnoli Simone Ciaccioni Sabrina Demarie Mojca Doupona Laura Capranica Elvira Padua Flavia Guidotti

The present integrative umbrella review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the evidence and practices related to mental health and career transitions in elite sport toward the implementation of service provision through digital interventions. Following PRIO guidelines, an extensive search across five databases (2015–2025) identified 52 eligible manuscripts (e.g., conceptual, review, and position studies). Data extraction focused on mental health, dual-career pathways, career transition challenges and needs, and identity-related issues among high-performance athletes. The findings revealed a strong consensus that athlete well-being is shaped by the dynamic interaction of mental health symptoms, sport-specific stressors, identity processes, and structural conditions across the athletic lifespan. Mental health vulnerabilities (e.g., anxiety, depression, disordered eating, and distress) were consistently reported, particularly during injury, deselection, and retirement. Dual-career engagement, diversified identities, and proactive career planning emerged as key protective factors, while stigma, limited literacy, and uneven access to psychological services remained persistent barriers. Five main thematic areas (Matrix 1) operationalized in ten higher-order intervention domains (e.g., Matrix 2, screening, monitoring, literacy, and others) and 14 potential online implementation strategies (Matrix 3) were identified. However, the evidence highlights fragmented implementation and a lack of scalable, cross-national tools to support athletes during and beyond their competitive careers. Therefore, a harmonized, evidence-based, multidimensional framework for the development and implementation of digital support resources has been proposed. This integrative review underscores the need for integrated, culturally sensitive, and digitally enabled support systems to promote sustainable transitions and long-term athlete well-being.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060250

Authors: Frane Žuvela Goran Kuvačić Paula Matijašević Josip Maleš Hrvoje Ajman

Background: Warm-up strategy is a key determinant of sprint performance, yet how different protocols influence performance across repeated sprint trials remains unclear, particularly regarding sex-specific responses. This study compared the acute effects of three warm-up protocols on repeated sprint performance in male and female athletes. Methods: Thirty-four male and 23 female athletes completed three warm-up protocols on separate occasions: a general long warm-up (GLW; 20 min), a long specific warm-up (LSW; 20 min), and a short specific warm-up (SSW; 10 min). After each protocol, participants performed three maximal 60 m sprints (T1, T2, T3), with split times recorded at 10 and 40 m. Sprint times were analysed using a three-way mixed-design ANOVA, with protocol and trial as within-subject factors and sex as the between-subject factor. Results: A significant protocol × sex interaction was observed at 40 m (F = 4.32, p = 0.016, ηp2 = 0.07) and 60 m (F = 4.08, p = 0.020, ηp2 = 0.07), but not at 10 m. Follow-up analyses showed no significant protocol differences in males. In females, LSW and SSW allowed faster sprint times than GLW at both 40 m and 60 m, while LSW and SSW did not differ from each other. The protocol × trial and protocol × trial × sex interactions were not significant. Conclusions: In this sample of student athletes, sprint-specific warm-ups allowed faster sprint performance than the general warm-up in females over 40 and 60 m, whereas no protocol differences were observed in males. These findings suggest that sex-specific responses to warm-up may be distance-dependent and should be interpreted in light of the heterogeneous sample and lack of menstrual-cycle control.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060249

Authors: Andrea Perazzetti Federico Carrozza Francesca Martusciello Milivoj Dopsaj Daniele Ruffelli Antonio Tessitore

The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of different small-sided game (SSG) formats on internal load, perceived enjoyment, and technical-tactical performance in elite youth water polo players. Twenty male athletes (U16, n = 10; U18, n = 10) performed in three 4 vs. 4 SSG formats with different time of ball possessions and size of field areas. Technical-tactical variables were assessed using the Team Sport Assessment Procedure (TSAP), while internal load and enjoyment were measured through session-RPE (s-RPE) and a 7-point enjoyment Likert scale (ENJ). Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models and Spearman correlations. SSG format significantly influenced internal load, with higher RPE values (F = 6.878; p = 0.004) and s-RPE (F = 6.27; p = 0.006) observed in larger formats of the SSG. Technical-tactical indices were also affected, with significant differences found for volume of play (VP) (F = 17.041; p < 0.001) and performance score (PS) (F = 18.574; p < 0.001), showing higher values in the smallest format (SSG1). Enjoyment differed between categories (F = 13.136; p = 0.003), with higher scores in U16 players. No significant correlations were found between final RPE and TSAP indices (p > 0.05). These findings suggest that SSGs are effective tools for simultaneously developing physical and technical-tactical skills. Coaches should manipulate task constraints to balance training intensity and skill development, while also enhancing player motivation and engagement.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060248

Authors: Keagan Hillemacher Charlie Beaconsfield Samuel Fitzgerald Brooke Mahoney Stephanie Gaskell Rhiannon M. J. Snipe Ricardo J. S. Costa

Prolonged endurance exercise performed in hot ambient conditions is associated with an increased prevalence of performance-limiting gastrointestinal perturbations. This study aimed to examine the associations between biomarkers of exercise-induced gastrointestinal syndrome (EIGS) and exercise-associated gastrointestinal symptoms (Ex-GIS) under exertional heat stress (EHS). Fifty-six non-heat acclimated endurance-trained individuals completed 2 h of steady state running at 60% maximal oxygen uptake (V.O2max) with an ambient temperature of 35.1 °C and relative humidity 29.4%. Venous blood samples were collected immediately pre- and post-exercise to quantify plasma concentrations of gastrointestinal epithelial injury and systemic inflammatory biomarkers, whilst gastrointestinal symptoms were recorded at regular intervals throughout the exercise protocol. Spearman’s rank correlation identified moderately significant relationships between interleukin-6 (IL-6) with defecation-bloody stools; interleukin-10 (IL-10) with upper abdominal pain; and IL-10, IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra), and systemic inflammatory response (SIR) profile with flatulence. Simple linear regression demonstrated that IL-6 explained a small but significant proportion of the variance defecation-bloody stool (adjusted R2 = 0.094, p = 0.024); whilst variance in flatulence was independently explained by IL-10 (adjusted R2 = 0.138, p = 0.025), IL-1ra (adjusted R2 = 0.122, p = 0.033), and SIR-Profile (adjusted R2 = 0.112, p = 0.040). These findings suggest that Ex-GIS development is multifactorial in aetiology and pathophysiology, and that symptom reporting alone likely underestimates perturbations to the gastrointestinal tract during EHS.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060247

Authors: David Rodríguez-Rosell Henrique Pereira Neiva Daniel Almeida Marinho Juan Manuel Yáñez-García Andrés Rojas-Jaramillo Juan José González-Badillo Mário Cardoso Marques

Resistance training (RT) is commonly used to enhance neuromuscular performance and sprint swimming outcomes. However, the optimal relative load for elite junior swimmers remains unclear. In particular, little is known about whether very low relative loads can elicit meaningful adaptations while minimizing neuromuscular fatigue in athletes exposed to high concurrent training demands. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the effects of two land-based RT programs differing only in relative load intensity (40–50% vs. 55–65% 1RM), performed with maximal intended concentric velocity, on strength, jumping ability, and 50 m freestyle swimming performance in elite junior swimmers. Eighteen elite junior swimmers (15.6 ± 0.9 years) from a national high-performance program were randomly assigned to a low-load (40–50% 1RM; n = 9) or moderate-load (55–65% 1RM; n = 9) group. Both groups completed an 8-week RT program (2 sessions·week−1) with identical exercise selection, volume, execution velocity, and in-water training load. Neuromuscular performance (countermovement jump, squat, bench press, and pull-up strength) and swimming performance (50 m freestyle from the starting block and in-water start) were assessed pre- and post-intervention. Both RT protocols improved squat and bench press strength and 50 m freestyle performance, whereas significant improvements in countermovement jump, pull-up strength, and maximal pull-up repetitions were observed only in the low-load group. Significant group × time interactions were found for countermovement jump, maximal number of pull-up repetitions, and 50 m freestyle performance from the starting block, indicating more favorable changes over time in the low-load group. In conclusion, both low- and moderate-load high-velocity RT improved neuromuscular and 50 m freestyle performance outcomes in elite junior swimmers. However, the low-load RT (40–50% 1RM) appeared to provide additional benefits in specific outcomes (i.e., jumping, pull-ups, and 50 m performance from the starting block). These findings suggest that relatively low loads may be a practical alternative to moderate-load RT in high-volume swimming training environments.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060246

Authors: Foteini Dantsi Antigoni Kypraiou Nikolaos Kouvelas Vasiliki Manou Dimitrios C. Milosis Dimitrios Loupos Anatoli Petridou

Most detraining research in swimming has focused on competitive athletes, whereas less is known about recreational university swimmers, a population commonly exposed to temporary interruptions in structured training. This study examined the effects of 4 weeks of naturally occurring detraining on anthropometric, body composition, biochemical, kinematic, and performance variables in recreational university swimmers. Sixteen young swimmers were assessed before and after detraining, following at least one year of participation in a structured university swimming training program. Anthropometric, body composition, biochemical, kinematic, and performance variables were assessed before and after the detraining period. After detraining, waist and hip circumferences, fat mass, and total cholesterol increased. In contrast, fasting glucose, triglycerides, post-exercise lactate, 50 m performance, and kinematic variables showed no statistically significant changes. These findings suggest that, in recreational university swimmers, anthropometric, body composition, and metabolic variables may be more sensitive to short-term detraining than sprint performance-related outcomes. However, the absence of statistically significant performance changes should be interpreted with caution.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060245

Authors: Catalina Muñoz-Strale Josivaldo De Souza-Lima Rodrigo Yáñez-Sepúlveda Javiera Alarcon-Aguilar Maribel Parra-Saldias Daniel Duclos-Bastias Andrés Godoy-Cumillaf Eugenio Merellano-Navarro José Bruneau-Chávez Claudio Farias-Valenzuela Frano Giakoni-Ramírez

Population aging increases the need to preserve functional independence in older adults. This cross-sectional study examined the associations between physical activity (PA), percentage muscle mass (%Muscle), and functional outcomes in 129 community-dwelling older adults (mean age 72.05 ± 8.46 years). PA was assessed with the IPAQ (MET-min/week), body composition via bioelectrical impedance, and outcomes included the Timed Up and Go test (TUG), handgrip strength, calcaneal bone status (QUS-derived T-score), and SF-36 Physical Component Summary (PCS). Total PA showed a small positive association with handgrip strength (r = 0.19, p = 0.031). Bootstrapped mediation analyses (5000 resamples), adjusted for age and BMI, revealed no statistically significant indirect effects through %Muscle (all 95% CIs included zero). Exploratory simulations based on observed associations suggested modest changes in handgrip strength with hypothetical increases in PA (+0.25 kg at +20% METs; +0.62 kg at +50% METs), while changes in other outcomes were minimal. These findings indicate that, in this relatively well-functioning sample, total PA volume has limited explanatory value for variability in functional and musculoskeletal outcomes. Muscle mass did not statistically account for the PA–function relationship. Given the cross-sectional design, causal inferences cannot be drawn. These findings suggest that targeted exercise programs emphasizing muscle strength and neuromuscular function may be more effective than increases in overall physical activity volume for preserving functional capacity in older adults.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060244

Authors: Behnam Boobani Juris Grants Hubert Makaruk Dariusz Gierczuk Tomasz Sacewicz Marcin Starzak Žermēna Vazne Tatjana Glaskova-Kuzmina Artur Litwiniuk

Background: Mixed martial arts (MMA) involve repeated high-intensity, explosive actions that cause substantial fatigue, underscoring the importance of effective recovery strategies. Purpose: This pilot study investigated short-term performance responses to different post-exercise recovery interventions in Polish MMA athletes. Methods: Sixteen athletes (14 males and 2 females) were randomly assigned to cryosauna (CRYO), cold-water immersion (CWI), foam rolling (FR), or passive recovery (CON), with 4 participants per group. The intervention lasted two weeks, with the assigned recovery intervention applied after each training session. Performance was evaluated before and after the intervention using the countermovement jump (CMJ), isokinetic knee peak torque (flexion and extension), and reactive stress tolerance of the determination test (DT). Data were analyzed using mixed-design ANOVA. Results: CMJ performance improved over time across groups. FR significantly increased knee extension (from 228.67 ± 26.49 N.m to 250.50 ± 22.41 N.m), whereas DT scores significantly increased in the CRYO group (from 247.50 ± 12.50 AU to 291.50 ± 15.61 AU) and significantly decreased in the CON group (from 290.25 ± 24.45 AU to 255.50 ± 24.18 AU). Significant Time × Group interactions were observed for DT (p < 0.001) and knee extension torque (p = 0.008). Conclusions: FR appeared beneficial for knee extension performance, whereas CRYO was associated with improved DT performance. Findings are exploratory and need confirmation in larger, controlled studies.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060243

Authors: Paula A. Rodríguez-Molina Rafael Barrera Laura S. Gonzalez Juan G. Ortiz Eduardo Tuta-Quintero

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury is one of the most common injuries among athletes and demonstrates significant sex-based differences in incidence, with a higher documented risk in females. Various anatomical, biomechanical, neuromuscular, and hormonal factors have been proposed to explain this disparity; however, the available evidence remains inconclusive due to methodological heterogeneity across studies, variability in outcome measures, and inconsistencies in the assessment of hormonal and biomechanical variables. Objective: To map and synthesize the scientific evidence regarding risk factors associated with ACL injury during sports activity, incorporating a sex-specific analytical perspective. Methods: A scoping review was conducted following the methodological framework proposed by Arksey and O’Malley, the Joanna Briggs Institute guidelines, and the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR). A systematic search was performed in PubMed and Scopus through September 2025. Observational and experimental studies assessing ACL injury risk factors and analyzing sex-based differences were included. Findings were synthesized using a descriptive and narrative approach. Results: Nineteen studies were included. Biomechanical and neuromuscular factors were the most frequently investigated domains among the included studies (68.4%), followed by hormonal (42%) and anatomical factors (36.8%). These percentages reflect the distribution of research focus across the literature rather than the relative strength or importance of each risk factor. In females, injury risk was primarily associated with high-risk biomechanical patterns, cyclical hormonal variations, and specific anatomical characteristics. In males, risk factors were mainly related to muscular weakness, joint laxity, and structural ligament characteristics. Conclusions: ACL injury risk in athletes appears to be influenced by multiple interacting intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The available evidence suggests that sex-related differences may exist in the contribution of biomechanical, anatomical, hormonal, and neuromuscular factors; however, these relationships are multifactorial and should be interpreted cautiously given the heterogeneity of the included studies.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060242

Authors: Sabrina Vollrath Anne-Sophie Koller Norman Bitterlich Ana Buadze Alexandra S. Kohl Schwartz Petra Stute Anthony C. Hackney Nathalie Werth

Aim: Increasing female participation in elite sports has highlighted the need to better understand how intensive training affects reproductive health and sexual function. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to assess the prevalence of libido loss and sexual dysfunction in female climbers and to explore potential associations with low energy availability within the “relative energy deficiency in sports” framework. Methods: This is a cross-sectional multinational cohort study of female climbers as well as non-athletic controls from Switzerland, Germany, Austria, and Italy, to investigate female sexual function in athletes compared to a non-athletic control group from the general population through specific questionnaires, e.g., eating disorder screening (EDE-QS), sexual function (FSFI-d), low energy availability (LEAF-Q), and estrogen deficiency symptoms (MRS-II). A nonparametric procedure was used to check whether distribution differences between the groups were detectable. Where distributional differences were statistically detectable, selected parameters were considered as covariates in an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). This has been carried out with the following covariates: LEAF- Q, MRS-II-score, age, BMI, and subjective satisfaction. Only participants without the signs of an eating disorder (normal EDE-QS scores) were included in this study. Results: A total of 173 women were included (elite: n = 31, amateur: n = 55, controls: n = 87). No significant differences in overall sexual function (FSFI-d total score) (p = 0.518) and libido (p = 0.610) were observed between groups in unadjusted analyses. However, after adjustment for relevant covariates, including MRS-II score and subjective sexual satisfaction, elite climbers demonstrated significantly lower FSFI-d scores compared to controls (p = 0.018). Notably, elite climbers reported higher subjective sexual satisfaction than controls (p = 0.002). Conclusions: While overall sexual function did not differ in unadjusted analyses, adjusted comparisons suggest that elite climbers may experience subtle differences in sexual function.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060241

Authors: Zsuzsanna Kneffel Tímea Kováts Anna Áder Bence Kopper

Background: Research on the influence of the menstrual cycle on female athletic performance remains limited. This study investigated menstrual cycle characteristics, menstrual disorders, and phase-specific variations in perceived performance among female volleyball players. Methods: Eighty-four recreational and competitive athletes (M = 25.62 ± 6.43 years) completed a comprehensive survey between March and April 2025, including a modified Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (MEDI-Q) assessing physical and psychological well-being, perceived sport performance, training quality, and motivation across the menstrual, follicular, and luteal phases. Results: Perceived sport performance differed significantly across phases, with the highest scores in the follicular phase (M = 1.70 ± 1.51), followed by the luteal (M = 0.88 ± 1.13) and menstrual (M = 0.64 ± 1.00) phases (p < 0.001). Perceived performance impairments were greatest during menstruation and lowest in the follicular phase. Motivation exhibited a similar trend, peaking in the follicular (M = 1.74 ± 1.55) and declining during menstruation. Menstrual disorders were reported by 75% of participants, and 59.5% experienced dysmenorrhea. Knowledge scores (M = 11.13/18) indicated a moderate understanding of menstrual physiology. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate significant menstrual phase-related variations in subjective performance and motivation, emphasizing the importance of menstrual cycle awareness, athlete education, and individualized, phase-based training strategies to optimize performance and support female athlete welfare.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060240

Authors: Sports Editorial Office Sports Editorial Office

With this notice, the Sports Editorial Office and Editorial Board wish to alert readers to concerns related to this article [...]

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060239

Authors: Camille Jacques Ilaria Floris

The understanding of oxidative stress is being refined leading to the use of the terms “oxidative distress” and “eustress”. This reflects the dual role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in both pathology and physiology, emphasizing the complexity of the mechanisms influencing the redox status. This review discusses how these redox mechanisms interact with key signaling pathways, specifically the mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator (PGC-1α), which are crucial for mitochondrial health and muscle recovery. During exercise, the contraction of skeletal muscles increases ROS production which, through redox signaling, triggers mitochondrial biogenesis, enhances the antioxidant defenses and stimulates glucose metabolism, contributing to cardiovascular function and health. There is a large consensus about the importance of physical exercise in maintaining the redox homeostasis. However, the redox status could be disturbed after an intense and/or long physical effort, and signs such as markers of oxidative distress were identified. In that context, antioxidant strategies are warranted to prevent oxidative damage and help recovery. Given the many factors influencing the redox status of the body, including the training status, the duration and type of exercises and effort, diet, lifestyle, genetic polymorphisms, and circulating cytokines, a personalized approach is necessary. Targeted therapeutic interventions become important for preventing oxidative damage and helping recovery. In this review, we discuss the potential benefits of micro-immunotherapy (MI), as a multi-target approach utilizing signaling molecules, including cytokines at low doses (LD, typically 3–5 centesimal Hahnemannian CH dilutions) and ultra-low doses (ULD, from 6 CH upwards). We focused specifically on the investigational MI medicine 2LMIREG, and propose its application in preventing oxidative distress and restoring redox balance. Additionally, this review explores how the redox status interplays with the immune system, presenting preclinical data on 2LMIREG as a proof-of-concept for a tailored immunoregulatory strategy to enhance both immune and oxidative adaptations.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060238

Authors: Javier Gaviria Chavarro Óscar Hernán Jiménez Trujillo Miguel Ángel Gómez García Rosa Nury Zambrano Bermeo Catalina Jiménez Cerquera

Fencing is an intermittent combat sport in which performance depends on the interaction of neuromuscular qualities, aerobic support, and weapon-specific demands. However, evidence on sex-based differences in the physical capacity profiles of regional fencers remains limited. This study compared the physical capacity profiles of 27 fencers from the Liga Vallecaucana de Esgrima (13 women and 14 men; 14–31 years) in an observational, cross-sectional, comparative study. Field-based assessments included push-ups, sit-ups, squats, jump squats, pull-ups, terminal speed attained in the 20-m shuttle run test, and estimated VO2max. The analysis adopted an exploratory, estimation-oriented approach based on mean differences, 95% confidence intervals, Hedges’ g, supplementary significance testing, false discovery rate adjustment, and a directed acyclic graph to clarify causal assumptions. The most robust sex-based difference was observed in pull-up performance, with men outperforming women by 5.43 repetitions (95% CI: 3.51 to 7.45; g = 1.88), and this was the only comparison retained after FDR correction. No conclusive sex-based differences were found for push-ups, sit-ups, squats, jump squats, terminal shuttle-run speed, or estimated VO2max. Mean estimated VO2max for the overall sample was 43.48 ± 9.12 mL·kg−1·min−1. These findings suggest that upper-limb pulling strength may be the main distinguishing physical quality in this cohort, although its implications for individualized conditioning remain to be established. Nevertheless, the results should be interpreted as observational associations rather than causal effects because of the cross-sectional design, the small sample, the field-based measurements, the imbalance in weapon distribution, and the lack of standardized measures of training exposure.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060237

Authors: Francesco Pacenza Gary Brickley Umberto Crainich Francesco Bettariga Anthony Turner Luca Maestroni

Different forms of aerobic exercise lead to Exercise-Induced Hypoalgesia (EIH). The aim of this study was to investigate the acute effect of a single session of Sprint Interval Training (SIT) on EIH. A total of 44 recreationally active young adults participated in a single SIT session on a cycle ergometer, consisting of a 2 min warm-up, 3 × 20 s “all-out” cycling bouts interspersed with 2 min of active recovery, and a 3 min cool-down. Pain Pressure Threshold (PPT) measurements were taken on the quadriceps (working muscle) and thenar eminence (resting muscle) before and after the session. Additionally, average power generated during the sprints and the Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) at the end of the session were recorded. Percentage changes from baseline to post-session were calculated for each participant and averaged. Paired-samples t-tests assessed pre–post differences in both local and distal PPT, with Cohen’s d effect sizes (ES) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) determining the magnitude of differences. Pearson correlation examined the relationship between average power, RPE, and changes in local and distal PPT. All results were statistically significant (p < 0.001). A single SIT session induced a large hypoalgesic response at both the local site (d = 1.79; 95% CI 1.31–2.27) and the distal site (d = 1.16; 95% CI 0.77–1.54). No significant correlations were found between average power, RPE, and local and distal PPT changes. In this exploratory single-arm study, PPT increased significantly at both local and distal sites following a single 10 min SIT session, consistent with an acute EIH response; however, in the absence of a control condition, these findings should be interpreted with caution.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060236

Authors: Nina Mendez-Dominguez Damaris Estrella-Castillo Edgar Villarreal-Jimenez Russell Arcila-Novelo

Background: Menstrual-cycle-associated symptoms and menstrual health conditions are common among female athletes and may influence recovery, perceived readiness, training availability, and athletic performance. However, evidence regarding interventions aimed at managing these symptoms and their functional implications in athletes remains limited and heterogeneous. Objective: The objective of this study is to synthesize the available evidence on pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions related to menstrual health and menstrual-cycle-associated symptoms in female athletes and to evaluate their impact on performance, recovery, functional capacity, and symptom burden. Materials and Methods: A systematic review with narrative synthesis was conducted following PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Studies evaluating interventions associated with menstrual health or menstrual-cycle-related symptoms in female athletes were included when they reported outcomes related to athletic performance, recovery, functional capacity, or symptom burden. Results: Five studies published between 2023 and 2025 were included. The interventions evaluated included hormonally related strategies involving oral contraceptive timing, recovery interventions such as cryotherapy, mindfulness-based yoga, nutritional supplementation, and pharmacological pain-modulation approaches. However, findings regarding objective athletic performance outcomes were inconsistent, and the included studies showed substantial methodological heterogeneity. Conclusions: The available evidence suggests that certain interventions related to menstrual health may contribute to improvements in symptom burden, perceived recovery, or selected functional outcomes in female athletes. Nevertheless, the current evidence base remains limited, heterogeneous, and insufficient to support strong performance-related recommendations. Further high-quality studies specifically designed in female athlete populations are needed to inform evidence-based sports medicine practice.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060235

Authors: Sofia Ryman Augustsson Linnéa Kristedal Asp Pauline Schmidt

While much of the current research on early specialization focuses on physical outcomes, training models, and policy implications, little is known about how athletes themselves make sense of their developmental experiences. This study aims to examine how ice hockey players perceive and experience early specialization within competitive youth sport contexts, with the goal of generating a nuanced, inductively grounded understanding of athlete development from the athlete perspective. A qualitative study design was used where eight current and former ice hockey players with experience of early specialization participated. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews and analyzed using qualitative conventional content analysis. Three overarching themes emerged, highlighting experiences of loneliness, pressure, and elevated expectations within elite sport environments, alongside the vital importance of support networks and team community: ‘Thrown into adulthood with premature expectations’, ‘Balancing Support and Pressure in Athlete Development’, and ‘The Struggle Between Dream and Reality’. Players described feeling pressured, isolated, and prematurely professionalized, often at the expense of personal development. The findings highlight the psychological and structural challenges of early specialization in elite ice hockey. While support systems played a crucial role, they also contributed to performance anxiety and external expectations. These insights underscore the need for youth sport systems that prioritize long-term athlete well-being over short-term success.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060234

Authors: Stelios Hadjisavvas Irene-Chrysovalanto Themistocleous Elena Papamichael Michalis A. Efstathiou Christina Michailidou Manos Stefanakis

Background: Preseason screening is widely used in handball to identify athletes at increased risk of injury, yet the prognostic value of different screening approaches remains unclear. The aim of this study was to systematically review the evidence on preseason screening tests and physical assessments in relation to subsequent injury outcomes in handball players. Methods: A systematic review was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines. PubMed, MEDLINE, CINAHL, and Scopus were searched on 14 March 2026. The first 100 results from Google Scholar were also screened, and backward citation searching was performed. Eligible studies included handball players and examined preseason or baseline screening, functional, musculoskeletal, or physical performance assessments in relation to prospectively recorded injury outcomes. Two independent reviewers performed study selection, data extraction, and risk-of-bias assessment using the QUIPS tool. Due to substantial heterogeneity in screening tools, injury outcomes, and follow-up procedures, meta-analysis was not performed. Results: Eight studies were included. Most were prospective cohorts involving adolescent, youth elite, or elite adult handball players. Shoulder-specific screening variables, particularly external rotation strength, strength imbalances, total rotational motion, and selected rotational adaptations, showed more consistent associations with subsequent shoulder-related outcomes. In contrast, broader movement-screening tools, including the Functional Movement Screen, the 9+ screening battery, and the upper quarter Y-Balance Test, generally showed limited associations with overall injury outcomes. Conclusions: Shoulder-specific preseason assessments may be more closely associated with subsequent shoulder-related outcomes than broader movement-screening tools, although the available evidence remains limited, heterogeneous, and derived exclusively from observational studies.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060231

Authors: Andreea Simina Dumitrescu Alexandru Alexandru Sorin-Ovidiu Brîndescu

Background: Optimizing physical performance in youth football requires a comprehensive understanding of the interplay among behavioural factors, structural body composition, and functional cardiorespiratory capacity. While sports nutrition knowledge is hypothesized to influence athletic development, its concurrent relationships with regional body compartments and objective cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) metrics remain poorly characterized in adolescent athletes. Methods: A cross-sectional study approach analysed body composition via bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), maximal cardiorespiratory testing, and sports nutrition knowledge evaluation using the Nutrition for Sport Knowledge Questionnaire (NSKQ). Structural associations and functional predictive capacities were analysed. Results: The cohort demonstrated an average VO2max of 51.18 ± 16.67 mL/kg/min and a mean total nutrition knowledge score of 43.56 ± 18.06 out of 81 (53.8%). Total and domain-specific nutrition knowledge scores were not associated with body mass index (BMI), fat-free mass (FFM), or fat-free mass percentage (FFM%). Higher nutrition knowledge scores were independently associated with superior VO2max and anaerobic threshold (AT) metrics. Exploratory geographic analyses revealed that rural-residing participants possessed significantly higher cardiorespiratory performance values and greater baseline nutrition knowledge profiles than their urban peers. Conclusions: In adolescent male football players, sports nutrition knowledge was not associated with static body composition measures but showed exploratory positive associations with selected cardiorespiratory fitness markers. These findings should be interpreted as cross-sectional and hypothesis-generating, as some potential confounding mediators were not assessed. These findings suggest that higher sports nutrition literacy may serve as a starting point for performance-supportive behaviours and metabolic conditioning, to some degree, warranting future interventional studies.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060233

Authors: Vanessa Rocco Stefano Amatori Roberto Bensi Elvira Padua Bruno Ruscello Sergiu Vlad Lazau Piero Tamagnini Maria Chiara Ricciotti Stélia Xavier Marco Bruno Luigi Rocchi Davide Sisti Fabrizio Perroni

Soccer performance is characterized by high motor and cognitive complexity, resulting from the interaction between, among others, physical and technical components. However, evidence regarding the relationships among physical performance, motor coordination and soccer-specific technical remains limited. Therefore, this cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the associations among these domains in youth soccer players. Forty-nine male U15 participants (age: 14.3 ± 0.5 years) underwent anthropometric assessments, physical fitness testing (10 m, 30 m sprint, CMJ, YYIRT1), a general motor coordination test (Harre Circuit Test), and soccer-specific technical evaluation (F-MARC test battery). Associations among variables were assessed using Spearman correlations and exploratory principal component analysis (PCA) based on a Spearman correlation matrix with oblimin rotation. Significant associations emerged between general motor coordination, physical performance variables, and several soccer-specific technical skills. The PCA identified three partially overlapping components, cumulatively explaining about 70% of the variance, highlighting the multidimensional and interconnected nature of soccer-related performance capacities. General motor coordination demonstrated relevant loadings in both coordinative/technical and physical-performance-oriented domains. These findings suggest that youth soccer performance should not be interpreted through isolated physical or technical characteristics, but rather as the result of interactions among coordinative, neuromuscular, and technical factors. Consequently, multidimensional and individualized training approaches integrating physical, coordinative, and technical stimuli may represent relevant strategies for youth soccer development.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060232

Authors: Jose Jairo Narrea Vargas Antonio Castillo-Paredes Alexander Javier Iman Torres Michelle Lozada-Urbano Delsi M. Huaita Acha Felipe Montalva-Valenzuela Gustavo Humeres Diego A. Bonilla

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is an efficient exercise strategy capable of eliciting acute cardiovascular and metabolic responses. Blood flow restriction (BFR) and normobaric hypoxia (NH) have been proposed as exposures to intensify physiological stress during exercise; however, comparative evidence between both strategies remains limited. The aim of this study was to compare acute physiological responses in HIIT protocols performed under BFR and NH in apparently healthy young men. Eight volunteers completed two HIIT sessions in this fixed-order within-subject repeated-measures study: one with BFR and one with NH (simulated altitude: 3536 m above sea level; FiO2 ≈ 13.5%). Blood glucose, peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2), heart rate, and blood pressure were repeatedly measured during the exercise protocol. After Bayesian analysis, no evidence of differences in glycemic response was observed, while heart rate and diastolic blood pressure responses appeared broadly comparable between conditions. However, SpO2 was consistently lower during NH, whereas systolic blood pressure values were higher under BFR. Although both BFR and NH induced acute physiological responses characteristic of HIIT, distinct physiological profiles were observed. NH was associated with greater systemic hypoxemic stress, whereas BFR showed higher systolic pressor responses.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060230

Authors: Dimitrios Balampanos Dimitrios Pantazis Christos Kokkotis Alexandra Avloniti Theodoros Stampoulis Panagiotis Aggelakis Efstratios Nedeltsos Georgios Kaltsos Maria Protopapa Nikolaos-Orestis Retzepis Panagiotis Foteinakis Nikolaos Zaras Maria Michalopoulou Athanasios Chatzinikolaou

Background/Objectives: Insufficient physical activity remains a major public health concern among adult women, highlighting the need to identify structured activity contexts that can contribute meaningfully to recommended weekly physical activity levels. Official masters basketball may represent one such context; however, the amount of physical activity accumulated during female masters basketball match play remains insufficiently quantified. This study quantified the physical activity profile of official tournament match play among female masters basketball athletes and described the associated external physical demands. Methods: This observational study included 52 female master basketball athletes aged 37–63 years who competed in a three-day national masters tournament. Match demands were monitored using tri-axial microsensors. Physical activity was classified from processed raw tri-axial acceleration data into intensity zones, and differences in time spent across zones were examined using one-way repeated-measures ANOVA. External load during active play was quantified using total distance, distance across speed zones, accumulated acceleration load (AAL), mechanical load (ML), jump load (JL), and Physio Load. Results: Significant differences were observed across physical-activity intensity zones, with more time accumulated in light physical activity (LPA) and vigorous physical activity (VPA) than in moderate physical activity (MPA), whereas MPA accounted for the least time overall [F (1.98, 101.16) = 47.57, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.48]. Descriptively, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) amounted to 42.78 min, calculated as the sum of MPA (9.41 ± 3.82 min) and VPA (33.37 ± 14.49 min). During active play, athletes covered 59.19 ± 17.26 m·min−1, with most distance accumulated in the low- and medium-speed zones and limited very-high-speed running; AAL, ML, and JL averaged 8.32 ± 2.31 AU·min−1, 22.35 ± 5.53 AU·min−1, and 31.26 ± 28.35 J·min−1, respectively. Conclusions: Official female masters basketball appears to provide a meaningful intermittent physical-activity stimulus within a single monitored match exposure and may contribute substantially to weekly aerobic physical-activity accumulation in adult women.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060229

Authors: Andrea Petróczi Dominic Sagoe Anna Kiss Sándor Soós Razieh Chegeni Annalena Veltmaat Maarten Cruyff Peter van der Heijden Olivier de Hon

Interpreting doping prevalence estimates generated through indirect estimation models (IEMs) remains challenging for sport policy and governance due to the wide variation in reported rates and methodological complexity. In this study, we combined a critical appraisal of the methodological and epistemic developments of IEM applications to doping prevalence with a bibliometric analysis of publication trends, citation patterns, and collaboration networks, using a convergent parallel mixed-methods design. Across 52 records published between 2002 and 2026, this study maps the scientific landscape of IEM-based doping prevalence research. Findings show that IEM-based prevalence research is methodologically sophisticated yet institutionally dispersed and largely Eurocentric, reflecting a field still consolidating its standards and disciplinary identity. Over time, the focus has shifted from reporting prevalence rates to methodological critique and re-analysis of existing datasets. Reported prevalence estimates, ranging from 0 to 57.1%, are highly sensitive to modelling assumptions about athlete behaviour in complex survey environments. While this trend strengthens rigour, it also complicates evidence synthesis for policy actors and risks undermining trust in IEM-based estimates if poorly communicated. Anti-doping organisations and researchers should treat IEM-derived prevalence as bounded indicators rather than definitive rates and integrate prevalence evidence with contextual data for transparent policy and public communication.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060228

Authors: João Rocha João Serrano Almudena Martinez-Sanchez Amália Campos-Redondo Sergio José Ibáñez

Body composition and anthropometric characteristics are considered relevant factors in youth basketball performance, yet evidence in early adolescence remains limited. This study aimed to analyze the influence of these characteristics on competitive performance in U14 male basketball players from Portuguese regional selection teams. Ninety-six athletes were assessed during a national youth tournament using a cross-sectional, descriptive, and correlational design. Body composition variables (weight, height, BMI, muscle mass, fat mass, fat-free mass, bone mass, and total body water) were measured using a Tanita MC-780MA bioelectrical impedance analyzer. Competitive performance was evaluated through the Performance Index Rating (PIR), normalized per minute of play. Spearman’s correlations showed moderate positive associations between PIR and height (ρ = 0.296), muscle mass (ρ = 0.280), fat-free mass (ρ = 0.280), bone mass (ρ = 0.274), and total body water (ρ = 0.262). Although multivariable regression analyses did not identify significant individual predictors due to severe multicollinearity, principal component analysis revealed an “overall body size” factor, mainly reflecting lean and bone mass, that significantly predicted PIR (β = 0.046, p < 0.001). Physically more developed players tended to demonstrate higher competitive effectiveness. Monitoring body composition may support youth development programs when combined with functional and technical assessments to inform individualized training and talent identification strategies.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060227

Authors: Alberto Roso-Moliner Rafael Albalad-Aiguabella Demetrio Lozano Borja Sancho-Monllor Oscar Villanueva-Guerrero José Luis Arjol-Serrano

Adolescent footballers exhibit smaller change of direction (COD) deficits than adults, suggesting distinct biomechanical profiles; however, the role of physical performance variables in COD, considering maturation and injury-related factors, remains poorly understood. This study aimed to examine the relationships between sprint, jump, and COD performance, maturation status, and injury-related variables in young male footballers. Fifty-six national-level players (age: 16.67 ± 0.86 years) performed unilateral vertical and horizontal jump tests, 20 m linear sprint tests, and 180° COD assessments. Maturation status was estimated using peak height velocity (PHV), and injury incidence and severity were recorded over one competitive season. Associations were observed between PHV and sprint performance during the initial acceleration phase (0–10 m; p < 0.01). Unilateral jump measures were associated with sprint and COD performance, whereas inter-limb asymmetries showed limited associations with performance outcomes. Horizontal jump performance was also associated with the percentage-based COD deficit (%CODD). With respect to injury-related variables, injury incidence was associated with countermovement jump (CMJ) measures, with greater CMJ asymmetry being associated with higher injury incidence, while both unilateral CMJ variables were retained in the regression model. Overall, these findings suggest that biological maturation and unilateral neuromuscular performance may be relevant factors associated with youth football performance, whereas inter-limb asymmetry appears to play a more limited role; CMJ-related measures may warrant further consideration in relation to injury incidence in adolescent footballers.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060226

Authors: Qidong Zhao Chunlei Li

The bowling performance of cricket fast bowlers is highly dependent on lower limb power and stiffness. French Contrast Training (FCT) and Velocity-Based Training (VBT) are effective ways to improve rate of force development and peak power. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of VBT-optimized FCT on the lower limb explosive power and bowling performance of cricket fast bowlers. Twenty adult male medium-fast bowlers volunteered for this study and were evenly divided into an experimental group (EG) and a control group (CG). The EG underwent an 8-week VBT-based FCT program, while the CG completed 8 weeks of traditional resistance training combined with traditional plyometric training. Before and after the intervention, subjects were tested on their Bulgarian split squat load–velocity profile, general lower limb power (countermovement jump height, squat jump height, Eccentric Utilization Ratio, and Reactive Strength Index), and bowling performance metrics (front foot contact time, peak force, impulse, front knee angle at ball release, and ball release speed). The results demonstrated that the EG showing significant advantage over the CG on movement velocity during the Bulgarian split squat at loads 20% 1RM, 40% 1RM, and 60% 1RM (p = 0.008, 0.011, 0.008, ηp2 = 0.337, 0.313, 0.324). General lower limb power in the EG also improved significantly, with CMJ height, EUR, and RSI showing significant inter-group superiority compared to the CG (p < 0.001, = 0.019, 0.004, ηp2 = 0.659, 0.281, 0.399). Regarding bowling performance, the EG demonstrated highly significant advantages in front foot contact impulse, front knee angle at ball release, and ball release speed (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.572, 0.590, 0.704). In conclusion, the 8-week VBT-FCT program is more effective than the traditional resistance and plyometric training program of the same duration in enhancing lower limb power and bowling performance for medium-fast cricket bowlers.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060224

Authors: Olivia C. Coope Tilly J. Spurr Alex L. Levington Tom Davies Beth Lloyd Enrique Jordán Blanca Roman-Viñas

Soccer support staff operate under demanding schedules and high-performance environments while guiding players’ movement, sleep, and nutrition; however, their own lifestyle behaviours remain under-researched. This exploratory study assessed adherence to the Canadian 24-Hour Movement (24HM) guidelines and its association with diet quality (DQ) in professional and semi-professional soccer support staff. Methods: A cross-sectional survey collected data from 236 staff in the United Kingdom and Spain. Movement behaviours were measured using the Whole Day Matters Toolkit and DQ using the validated Mini-EAT questionnaire. A graded 24HM score (0–8) summed binary adherence across four general (MVPA, LPA, sedentary time, sleep) and four secondary (muscle-strengthening, sedentary interruptions, screen time, sleep–wake time) behaviours. Associations with DQ were estimated using adjusted multiple linear regression. Results: Only 7.6% of participants met all eight guidelines. Each one-point increase in the graded score was associated with 0.89-point higher DQ (95% CI 0.29–1.49, p = 0.004), with stronger associations observed for secondary behaviours (β = 1.27, p = 0.006) than for general behaviours (β = 0.38, p = 0.50). Conclusions: A graded 24HM scoring approach showed a graded association with DQ in soccer staff, with secondary movement behaviours showing a stronger association. All findings should be interpreted as exploratory and hypothesis-generating. ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT06771752.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060225

Authors: Fábio Flôres Priscila Cardozo Denise Soares Ricardo Drews

Aim: To examine the effects of attentional focus on adolescents’ response time performance and investigate whether sports participation moderates this effect. Methods: Fifty-eight adolescents (16.46 years) were randomly assigned to one of three groups: external focus of attention (EF), internal focus of attention (IF), or control. Participants performed a response-time task using a visual stimulus. A 3 × 2 factorial ANOVA was conducted, with attentional focus group (external, internal, control) and sports participation (yes, no) as between-subjects factors. Results: A significant main effect of attentional focus was found, with the EF group outperforming the IF and control groups. Sports participation alone was not a significant factor, and the interaction between attentional focus and sports participation was not statistically significant. However, exploratory analyses suggested a possible tendency for adolescents engaged in sports practice to respond more favorably to an EF strategy, though these findings should be interpreted with caution. No significant differences were observed among non-sports participants. Conclusion: These findings reinforce the benefits of an external attentional focus for adolescent response-time performance. Although exploratory, the results suggest that adolescents engaged in sports practice may respond more favorably to EF, highlighting the potential relevance of reconsidering commonly used IF instructions in youth sports and educational contexts.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060223

Authors: Matteo Pincella Fabrizio Spataro Anjumol Cancian Alberto Cecchinato Emanuela Longa Federica Sprenger Giuseppe Annunziata Giuseppe Cerullo Francesco Campa

Body composition is a key factor in volleyball performance, but research on female athletes has largely focused on only a few general traits. This study compared elite and sub-elite female volleyball players using a multilevel body composition framework to compare structural and potentially modifiable characteristics across competitive levels. Forty female volleyball players were assessed and classified as elite (n = 15) or sub-elite (n = 25). Body composition was assessed using anthropometry and ultrasound. Elite players were taller (183.1 ± 8.2 vs. 170.7 ± 8.8 cm), heavier (76.0 ± 8.5 vs. 65.8 ± 9.1 kg), and displayed distinct body proportions compared with sub-elite players. The elite group also showed higher skeletal muscle index (SMI: 8.1 ± 0.7 vs. 7.3 ± 0.7 kg·m−2) and lower fat mass percentage (22.3 ± 2.2 vs. 25.3 ± 4.4%). However, differences in adiposity were attenuated when normalized for stature using fat mass index (FMI: 5.1 ± 0.8 vs. 5.8 ± 1.5 kg·m−2). Ultrasound-derived data indicated greater regional muscularity in elite players, whereas no differences were observed in the sum of adipose tissue layers, consistent with anthropometric skinfolds. The muscle-to-bone ratio did not differ between groups, suggesting proportional development of muscle and bone mass. Elite female volleyball players were characterized by greater structural dimensions and muscularity, whereas FMI appeared more informative than FM% for assessing adiposity.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060222

Authors: Akorede A. Teriba Radomir R. Mitic Kathryn M. Ellingson Amber M. Peterson Aaron M. Cooper Andrew C. Lenway Cassidy M. Brown Henry Rott Jimmy J. Morin

Athletes face a variety of pressures related to their sport participation, and these demands can contribute to persistent mental health challenges. The aim of this study was to examine the role of grit, growth mindset, emotion regulation, self-compassion, and psychological well-being in collegiate athletes’ sport satisfaction. Participants (N = 263) were recruited through CloudResearch and outreach emails to athletic programs. The sample included individuals from 43 U.S. states and represented rural, suburban, and urban communities. Among the 30 sports represented, basketball, football, and soccer had the highest participation. Results indicated significant differences in sport satisfaction (p = 0.007, η2 = 0.04) and growth mindset (p = 0.017, η2 = 0.03) across communities of upbringing, as well as differences in sport satisfaction across years in college (p = 0.008, η2 = 0.06). Scholarship status was associated with significant differences in sport satisfaction (p < 0.001, d = 0.85) and expressive suppression (p = 0.019, d = 0.31). Cognitive reappraisal (r = 0.427) demonstrated the strongest association with psychological well-being, whereas growth mindset (r = 0.501) showed the strongest association with sport satisfaction. Additionally, a significant interaction effect emerged between growth mindset and psychological well-being (p = 0.033, ΔR2 = 0.01) in predicting sport satisfaction. These findings highlight the importance of supporting student-athletes in effectively regulating their emotions and maintaining a belief in their capacity for growth, as both factors appear critical for promoting psychological well-being and enhancing satisfaction with the athletic experience.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060221

Authors: Tobias Alt Kenneth P. Clark Jesper Augustsson Jurdan Mendiguchia

Background: Sprinting places exceptionally large mechanical demands on the knee flexors, particularly during the late swing phase when the hamstrings are actively lengthened under load. Therefore, coaches and practitioners try to increase the hamstrings’ capacity to absorb energy by various resistance training exercises with high (supramaximal) eccentric intensity. However, it is unclear whether the load parameters are equivalent to maximum sprints. Consequently, the aim of this short study was to compare peak knee power values derived from aggregated previously published datasets of maximum sprints and strenuous hamstring exercises, rather than from a single directly controlled experimental comparison. Methods: Previously published inverse dynamic analyses of sprints, explosive Razor Curls, decelerated Nordic Hamstring Exercise and eccentric isokinetic hamstring tests were aggregated and compared. Results: The combined data showed that both absolute and relative peak knee power were 8 to 14 times higher during sprinting at 10 m/s—primarily due to 6- to 14-fold higher knee extension angular velocities. Conclusions: Peak knee power during maximum sprints was not replicated by the analyzed hamstring exercise conditions, even if they were very explosive and strenuous.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060220

Authors: Jordi Sanchez-Grau Roger Font Víctor Toro-Román Gerard Carmona Adrián García-Fresneda

Purpose: Field-based tests are widely used to assess propulsion and sprint performance in wheelchair athletes; however, their ability to discriminate between functional performance profiles associated with different impairment characteristics remains insufficiently explored. This study evaluated the discriminative capacity of propulsion, sprint, and manoeuvrability tests in elite wheelchair court athletes. Methods: Nineteen male elite athletes (ten wheelchair basketball, nine wheelchair rugby) performed the initial maximum push-rim propulsion (IMPRP), a 12 m linear sprint (3, 5, and 12 m splits), and a wheelchair manoeuvrability test (3L3R). Test reliability was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). Results: Test reliability was high across all assessments (ICC ≥ 0.82). The higher functional performance profile group demonstrated substantially greater IMPRP mechanical outputs, including mean velocity (ES = 2.69), maximum velocity (ES = 3.29), mean power (ES = 1.75), and maximum power (ES = 2.09) (all p < 0.001). Sprint performance also showed large between-group differences at 5 m (ES = 1.53) and 12 m (ES = 1.68) (p < 0.001), whereas manoeuvrability differences were moderate (ES = 0.62; p = 0.043). Conclusions: IMPRP and short-distance sprint tests appeared sensitive to differences between ecologically distinct wheelchair court sport athletes characterised by different real-world functional performance profiles. These field-based assessments may be useful for performance monitoring and may complement ecologically distinct athlete groups in wheelchair court sports.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060219

Authors: Despoina Ourda Lida Skoufa Andreas Loukovitis Haralambos Tsorbatzoudis Vassilis Barkoukis

Doping research has predominantly focused on proximal cognitive predictors of athletes’ intentions to use prohibited substances, often conceptualizing doping as a final behavioral outcome. Drawing on Self-Determination Theory and Goal Systems Theory, the present study examined the relationships between doping intentions, perceived means of performance enhancement, and internal and external life aspirations among competitive athletes. A total of 204 athletes (Mage = 22.99 years) completed measures assessing doping intentions, perceived effectiveness of different performance enhancement means, and aspiration components. The results indicated that stronger doping intentions were negatively associated with internal aspiration components and positively associated with external aspiration components. Doping intentions were also positively related to perceived effectiveness of nutritional supplements, doping, and combined enhancement practices, while being negatively associated with reliance on training and nutrition alone. Several indirect effects were observed, demonstrating that perceived performance enhancement partially mediated the relationships between doping intentions and aspiration components. These findings suggest that performance enhancement behaviors are cognitively embedded within athletes’ motivational goal systems and play an active role in shaping aspiration-related evaluations. Overall, this study advances doping research by conceptualizing doping behavior as part of a broader, goal-directed, motivational structure rather than an isolated outcome.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060218

Authors: Milosz Mielniczek Roland van den Tillaar

Objective: The objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of various warm-up strategies on volleyball-specific physical performance. Background: Warm-ups in volleyball aim to enhance performance and reduce injury risk, but no standardized approach exists and evidence on effectiveness is inconsistent. Methods: A systematic search of PubMed and Google Scholar was conducted through 12 November 2025. Two reviewers independently screened records and assessed risk of bias. A systematic search identified 108 records; 13 met inclusion criteria. Eligible studies examined the effects of different warm-up methods on volleyball-related physical performance. Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias 2 (RoB 2) tool and visualized with the robvis package. Warm-up protocols were categorized into dynamic and static stretching, resisted warm-ups, foam rolling and vibration techniques, whole-body vibration, Raise Activate Mobilize Potentiate (RAMP), joint distraction methods, and volleyball-specific routines. Results: Dynamic, resisted, high-intensity, volleyball-specific, and whole-body vibration warm-ups showed the most consistent improvements in jump performance, agility, and reaction time. Static stretching provided minimal benefits, with occasional gains in agility or flexibility. Foam rolling and vibration foam rolling were largely ineffective, except for one study showing improved reactive strength. The results varied due to differences in athlete level, protocol duration/intensity, sample size, and measurement methods. Conclusion: Warm-ups appear to meaningfully influence volleyball performance. Dynamic, resisted, and sport-specific routines appear to be the most effective. More research is needed to define optimal, standardized protocols.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060217

Authors: Ying-Fang Liu Huan-Chieh Chen Tso-Yen Mao

Background: This study examines the hierarchical determinants of change-of-direction (COD) ability in adolescent athletes to assess whether sprint performance functions as a potential intermediate variable of the relationship between explosive power and COD performance. Methods: The study recruited 86 high school athlete participants. Explosive power was assessed using the countermovement jump (CMJ) and squat jump (SJ). Sprint performance was evaluated using 10 m and 20 m sprint tests. COD performance was assessed using the 505 pre-planned COD test. Body composition was also recorded. Results: Correlation analyses indicates that 20 m sprint time was positively associated with COD performance (r = 0.67–0.82), whereas CMJ performance was significantly and negatively associated with COD performance (r = −0.65 to −0.68). Multiple regression analysis explained 63.6% of the variance in COD performance; sprint performance emerged as the strongest predictor. Indirect effect analysis showed that the effect of explosive power on COD performance is consistent with an indirect pathway by sprint performance. Structural equation modeling supported a hierarchical model: Explosive power was associated with sprint performance, which in turn was associated with COD ability. Conclusions: The findings suggest that improvements in COD performance among adolescent athletes may depend on enhancing explosive power while optimizing acceleration and speed-transfer capacity. These findings provide practical implications for athlete selection and training program design in youth sports.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060216

Authors: Marcelo Victor Menezes Santana Felipe J. Aidar Renato Méndez-DelCanto Marcio Getirana-Mota Alfonso López Díaz de Durana Rapahel Fabricio de Souza Ciro José Brito Teresa Figueiredo Luis Leitão

Background: Combat sports performance is highly determined by psychological factors, and differences in pre-competitive anxiety and mood states can exist between medalist and non-medalists athletes; Methods: The present study aims to assess pre-competitive anxiety and mood state differences between medalist and non-medalists Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) athletes graded as white-belts. The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory–2 (CSAI-2) and the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) questionnaires were applied to 26 BJJ white-belt athletes before a fight in a national-level competition.; Results: Medalists presented less cognitive anxiety (22.36 ± 3.82 vs. 25.21 ± 3.17; p < 0.05) and higher mental confusion (9.86 ± 3.01 vs. 7.43 ± 3.01; p < 0.05) than non-medalist athletes. No significant differences were found in any other variable; Conclusions: The relationship between pre-competitive anxiety and sport performance is clear; however, higher mental confusion in medalists is a confounding result. More research is needed on this topic to elucidate the psychological phenomena of higher mental confusion in less-experienced athletes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14060215

Authors: Liliana C. Baptista Aristides M. Machado-Rodrigues Marco Antônio Rabelo Da Silva Elias De França Raul A. Martins

Statins’ effects on cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and their interaction with exercise training remain unclear in older adults with dyslipidemia. This cohort study enrolled nine hundred and eighty-one older adults with dyslipidemia who underwent one of three interventions: (i) multicomponent exercise training (MEX; n = 298; 74% females), (ii) daily statin monotherapy (ST; n = 178; 65% females), or (iii) combined treatment with statins and multicomponent exercise training (STMEX; n = 505; 79% females). CRF, functional status, and lipid profile were assessed at baseline and after 24 months. After follow-up, statin therapy reduced CRF by 4% in women (p < 0.001), but not in men. The statin groups also showed reduced upper- and lower-limb strength in both sexes. Exercise alone significantly improved CRF (women: 27% vs. men: 21%, p < 0.001) and functional status, regardless of sex. The combined treatment significantly increased women’s CRF, whereas men showed an attenuated CRF benefit (women: 27% vs. men: 1%, p < 0.001). Our findings suggest sex-specific patterns in the effects of statin therapy on CRF in older adults with dyslipidemia. Statin therapy was associated with lower CRF over time in women, but not in men, whereas multicomponent exercise training may reverse these effects.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050214

Authors: Igor E. Anpilogov Nicolas H. Kruchynsky Eugene B. Postnikov

Tracking biomechanical changes associated with different training modalities remains a methodological challenge in applied sports science. This pilot longitudinal study examined stroke technique stability in seven junior rowers (aged 16.6 ± 0.5 years) across three measurement sessions (March, April, June), separated by two training mesocycles emphasising strength training and intensive rowing, respectively. Upper body angular velocity was recorded using a smartphone-based MEMS sensor fixed to the upper back during incremental ergometer exercise. Overall stroke duration and its standard deviation remained stable throughout the study period, whereas the durations of the two stroke phases corresponding to forward (drive) and backward (recovery) body motion changed systematically across mesocycles. Phase-specific changes were statistically significant in 10 of 12 paired comparisons (rank-sum test) and 7 of 12 within-subject comparisons (Wilcoxon signed-rank test) for phase durations, and in 9 and 5 of 12 comparisons for their standard deviations, respectively. These findings suggest that the internal structure of the rowing stroke is sensitive to training load specificity, even when overall stroke timing remains unchanged, and that smartphone-based angular velocity analysis provides a feasible tool for individualized biomechanical monitoring in young athletes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050213

Authors: Gabriel de Souza Zanini David Michel de Oliveira Pedro Luiz Santorsula de Paula Oliveira Eduarda Corteze Santos Renata da Silva Alves Bolzam Víctor Hernández-Beltrán José M. Gamonales Mário Cunha Espada Danilo Alexandre Massini Dalton Muller Pessôa Filho

Scientific production on CrossFit® has expanded alongside the growing popularity of the modality; however, multi-database scientometric analysis describing its structure, research trends, and knowledge gaps remains limited. Objective: This study conducted a scientometric analysis to identify patterns within the literature and to provide directions for future research. Methods: Searches were performed in the databases Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus, including all publications available up to December 2024. The search identified 3927 records. After removing duplicates and excluding reviews, meta-analyses, and studies outside the scope, 526 original articles were included in the analysis. Scientometric analyses were conducted using Bibliometrix (version 4.3.2) implemented in R (version 4.4.2), with additional support from Microsoft Excel and VOSviewer (v1.6.20). Results: The results indicate a marked growth in publication output, with an average annual increase of approximately 37.5%, reflecting the increasing academic interest in the modality. The United States and Brazil emerged as leading contributors, supported by strong research infrastructure and expanding scientific communities. The thematic structure of the field is predominantly centered on physiological responses, performance outcomes, and injury-related topics, while psychosocial, behavioral, and population-specific dimensions remain comparatively underexplored. Despite the observed expansion, the findings suggest that quantitative growth has outpaced methodological diversification and longitudinal development within the field. In addition, a limited integration between scientific findings and applied training contexts was identified, highlighting a gap between research production and real-world practice. Conclusion: Overall, CrossFit® research appears to be expanding toward a more diversified and structured scientific field; however, advancing the field will require greater methodological rigor, increased focus on longitudinal and integrative approaches, and stronger translation of scientific evidence into applied settings.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050212

Authors: Yuxuan Zhang Yajun Qiu

Obesity is a significant risk factor for metabolic diseases and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Exercise exerts beneficial effects partly through myokines secreted by skeletal muscle. This narrative review summarizes current evidence on exercise-induced myokines in obesity. We searched PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar up to Jan 2026 using keywords “myokines”, “obesity”, “resistance training”, “aerobic exercise”, and “HIIT”. We focused on six myokines (IL-6, irisin, FGF21, myostatin, apelin, and Metrnl) that are consistently linked to metabolic and cardiovascular health. Key findings are as follows: resistance training effectively increases irisin and decreases myostatin, promoting muscle mass and fat browning; high-intensity interval training (HIIT) induces rapid IL-6 peaks and elevates Metrnl, enhancing anti-inflammatory responses and cardiac function; aerobic exercise improves FGF21 sensitivity and supports long-term metabolic homeostasis. For clinicians and exercise practitioners, a preliminary exercise framework can be suggested based on available human evidence. In obese patients, ≥3 sessions per week of resistance training (60–80% of one-repetition maximum, 8–12 repetitions, 3–4 sets) may be considered to optimize irisin/myostatin balance, combined with ≥150 min per week of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (50–70% of maximum heart rate) or 75 min per week of HIIT (85–95% of peak heart rate, 4 × 4 min intervals) to improve FGF21 sensitivity and Metrnl levels. These suggestions should be interpreted as hypothesis-generating rather than definitive clinical guidance, given the heterogeneity of included studies and the absence of quantitative synthesis. Nevertheless, they offer a molecular basis for hypothesis-driven precision exercise prescription that requires validation in future prospective studies and randomized controlled trials.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050211

Authors: Dominic Richmond Caroline White Thomas Gomulko

The association between return-to-sport test batteries (RTS-TBs) and clinical outcomes remains unclear. Previous systematic reviews of RTS-TBs have reported low pass rates; however, these reviews have been limited by substantial heterogeneity. This systematic review aimed to quantify RTS-TB pass rates and examine their association with timing (post-op). Five electronic databases (AMED, CINAHL, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, PubMed) were searched on 22 December 2024. Observational studies reporting RTS-TB outcomes as a single pass or fail were included. A random-effects proportion meta-analysis was used to estimate the pooled prevalence of pass rates. A meta-regression was performed to assess the association between test timing and pass rate. Twelve studies (n = 1977) met the eligibility criteria, but five were excluded from the meta-analysis and meta-regression due to overlapping cohorts. From the remaining eight studies (n = 1449), the pooled prevalence of pass rates was 33% overall (95% CI 19 to 47%), 26% (95% CI 18 to 33%) for non-professional athletes, and 73% (95% CI 66 to 80%) for professional athletes, although only a single study focused on professional athletes. No association was observed between the post-operative timing of the test and passing RTS-TB (p = 0.73). The observed RTS-TB pass rates are low, and this may be influenced by the extreme heterogeneity. Although no association was observed between the RTS-TB timing and pass rates, this finding alone cannot confirm causality.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050210

Authors: Diego Hernán Villarejo-García Carlos Navarro-Martínez José Pino-Ortega

Elite women’s rugby has often been analysed using the male performance model as a reference, despite evidence that women’s rugby presents distinct game demands and potentially different risk profiles. This study aimed to compare the frequency of key contact-related events between elite men’s and women’s rugby. An observational, retrospective, comparative cohort study was conducted using official performance data from 135 international matches from the men’s and women’s Six Nations Championships. Variables were grouped into three categories: Open-Play, Static Phases, and Discipline. Independent samples t-tests, Mann–Whitney U tests, and Linear Discriminant Analysis were used to identify sex-based differences. The results showed that men presented a higher frequency of rucks lasting more than 6 s (p < 0.001), whereas no significant differences were found in total tackles (p = 0.378) or total rucks (p = 0.634). In Static Phases, women’s teams recorded significantly more scrums (p < 0.001). In Discipline, women conceded fewer free kicks (p = 0.003) but received more red cards (p = 0.020). In conclusion, elite women’s rugby shares some open-play characteristics with the men’s game but differs in scrum frequency and disciplinary profile, supporting the existence of a distinct contact and risk exposure profile that should be considered when designing training and prevention strategies.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050209

Authors: Nejmeddine Ouerghi Wissal Abassi Nidhal Jebabli Mohamed Bessem Hammami Anissa Bouassida Katja Weiss Thomas Rosemann Moncef Feki Beat Knechtle

The study investigated the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on cardiorespiratory fitness, hormonal, and psychological markers in adolescents. Twenty-eight healthy male adolescents were randomized to a HIIT group or a non-training control group. HIIT comprises three sessions per week for 10 weeks, alternating 30 s runs at high-intensity and low-intensity. VO2max was estimated using the incremental running test. Plasma testosterone and cortisol were assessed by ELISA methods. Depression, anxiety, and stress scores were determined using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21. Data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA with repeated measures. Significant “group × time” interactions were detected for VO2max, testosterone, cortisol, testosterone-to-cortisol ratio, and stress score, but not for anxiety and depression scores. HIIT resulted in increased VO2max (p < 0.001, d = 1.04), testosterone (p = 0.005, d = 0.52), and testosterone-to-cortisol ratio (p = 0.008, d = 1.05), and decreased cortisol (p = 0.036, d = 1.09) and stress score (p = 0.020, d = 0.98). Ten-week HIIT resulted in an improvement in physical fitness, steroid hormonal balance, and self-reported stress symptoms, but no changes in depressive and anxiety symptoms in comparison to the control group. The findings should be interpreted with caution due to limitations, including the small sample size and the lack of assessment of sex-related differences. Further research is required to elucidate the topic.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050208

Authors: Khalid Yaseen Mohannad Felemban Layan Barassin Elan Alnakeeb Anfal Astek Ziyad Neamatallah Mazen Homoud Khalid Alsayed Mishari Rowished Mazen Almutairi Ayah Ismail

Background: Padel is a rapidly growing sport, yet limited evidence is available regarding movement quality and injury history among competitive players. The Functional Movement Screen (FMS) may help describe movement patterns associated with previous injury, although its predictive value remains uncertain. This study examined the association between FMS total and component scores and self-reported injury history among competitive male padel players. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 17 competitive male padel players, with 9 injured and 8 uninjured based on self-reported musculoskeletal injury history within the preceding 12 months. Movement quality was assessed using the seven-item FMS. Spearman’s rank correlation was used to examine the association between FMS total score and injury history, while Mann–Whitney U tests were used to compare FMS total and component scores between groups. The seven component-level comparisons were considered exploratory. Bonferroni correction was applied by using an adjusted significance threshold of α = 0.05/7 = 0.007; therefore, unadjusted p-values were interpreted against this corrected threshold. Results: Lower FMS total scores were associated with previous injury history (ρ = −0.703, 95% CI: −0.89 to −0.38, p = 0.002). Previously injured players demonstrated lower FMS total scores than uninjured players (p = 0.005). Among individual components, the In-Line Lunge showed a significant between-group difference after Bonferroni correction (p = 0.004), suggesting lower performance in a task requiring lower-limb stability, mobility, and trunk control. Conclusions: In this small exploratory cross-sectional study, lower FMS scores were associated with self-reported previous injury among competitive male padel players. These findings should be interpreted cautiously, as the study design does not allow causal or predictive conclusions. Larger prospective studies are needed to clarify whether FMS scores have practical value in monitoring movement quality in padel athletes.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050207

Authors: Artur Avelino Birk Preissler Filipe Manuel Clemente Marcela Zimmermann Casal Rui Miguel Silva Ana Filipa Silva João Vitor Silveira Pedro Schons

Combat-sport performance depends on the interaction between technical skills and physical capacities, yet direct comparisons between grappling disciplines remain limited. The aim of this study was to compare the anthropometric profile and physical performance of elite judo and jiu-jitsu athletes. This cross-sectional study included 25 elite male athletes (judo—n = 12; jiu-jitsu—n = 13) assessed during a preparatory training phase. Anthropometric measures included age, training experience, height, and body mass, while physical performance was evaluated using dominant and non-dominant handgrip strength, squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), medicine ball throw with and without countermovement, and dynamic and isometric judogi-grip pull-up tests. Between-group comparisons were performed using independent sample tests, with effect sizes (ES) calculated. Judo athletes had greater training experience (13.25 ± 2.73 vs. 7.85 ± 4.36 years; p = 0.001; ES = 1.472) and higher SJ performance (38.71 ± 6.69 vs. 33.82 ± 4.74 cm; p = 0.045; ES = 0.850) compared to jiu-jitsu athletes. No significant between-group differences were observed for the remaining variables (p > 0.05). These findings indicate that no statistically significant differences were detected in most anthropometric and physical performance variables between elite judo and jiu-jitsu athletes, and the initially higher squat jump performance observed in judo athletes was no longer statistically significant after adjustment for training experience.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050206

Authors: Artur Avelino Birk Preissler Filipe Manuel Clemente Ewerton Luiz Bourscheid da Rocha Rui Miguel Silva Ana Filipa Silva Jocelito Bijoldo Martins Pedro Schons

Monitoring performance in football often combines physical testing and GPS-derived external-load measures, although their relationships remain unclear. This study examined the relationships between physical-test outcomes and GPS-derived external-load variables during the pre-season in professional female football players and whether these measures appear to capture distinct dimensions of performance. This observational study monitored 24 outfield players from a Brazilian Women’s First Division team during a 6-week pre-season. Players performed the countermovement jump, 10 m and 30 m sprints, change-of-direction test, and 30–15 intermittent fitness test while external load was recorded across field sessions. Associations were examined using Pearson’s or Spearman’s correlations, and principal component analysis (PCA) was applied. Significant correlations were more frequent within than between domains. Total distance correlated with accelerations (ρ = 0.740, p < 0.001), decelerations (ρ = 0.684, p < 0.001), Z3 distance (ρ = 0.595, p = 0.003), and Z4 distance (ρ = 0.584, p = 0.003), while sprint count correlated with sprint distance (r = 0.950, p < 0.001). Estimated VO2max correlated positively with CMJ (r = 0.533, p = 0.007) and negatively with 10 m (r = −0.445, p = 0.029) and 30 m sprint times (r = −0.476, p = 0.019). PCA identified two components explaining 61.4% of the total variance: external load (40.6%) and physical performance (20.8%). These findings indicate that both approaches capture distinct and complementary aspects of performance.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050205

Authors: Luiz Paulo Milares Ricardo Luís Fernandes Guerra

Crossfit® is a high-intensity interval training modality that combines weightlifting, aerobic exercises, and gymnastics. Although it has gained widespread popularity, it also presents a considerable injury rate without clarity on the extent to which experience categories exhibit distinct temporal patterns. This study identifies the most common injuries and their progression across CrossFit® categories over 12 months. We defined injury as any Crossfit-related event requiring healthcare consultation and interrupting an athlete’s activity. An observational, longitudinal study was conducted with 102 participants categorized into three groups (n = 34): beginner, scale, and rx. An adapted injury index questionnaire was applied, and descriptive statistics were performed. Results showed that the most frequent injuries affected the shoulder and knee, with variations across the different athlete categories. Beginners exhibited the highest injury rates: knee (56%) and shoulder (35%). The scale group presented a greater concentration of shoulder injuries, whereas rx demonstrated the lowest injury incidence overall. Over the 12-month follow-up, 135 injuries were reported at baseline, decreasing to 116 at six months and 101 at the final evaluation. Dropout rates were 35% among beginners, 12% in the scale group, and 0% in the rx group. Crossfit-related injuries primarily affect the shoulders and knees, with a higher incidence in beginners. Future studies should investigate movement technique, strength, mobility, and limb dominance considering the overhead demands and the associated injury risk, in addition studies should examine training programming too

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050204

Authors: Citlali Campos-Hernández Tatiana Romero-García Héctor Frayde-Gómez Cristhian Emmanuel López-Campos María Jossé Navarro-Ibarra Juan Carlos Borbón-Román Juan Pablo Machado-Parra Victor Enrique Porras-Alvarado Mario Israel Oregel-Cortez

Combined functional training (FT), high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and aquatic exercise may improve health-related fitness in aging populations; however, the influence of baseline adiposity on training responses remains unclear. This study evaluated the effects of a 12-week multicomponent training program on aerobic capacity, body composition, metabolic health, and physical performance in middle-aged and older women and explored whether baseline body fat percentage modulated these responses. Thirty-four women (50–72 years) were assigned to a control group (Ctrl, n = 10) or an exercise group, stratified into normal fat (NF%, n = 10) and high fat (HF%, n = 14). The intervention included three weekly 60 min sessions consisting of HIIT, FT, and aquatic-based interval and resistance exercises, while controls maintained their habitual lifestyle without structured exercise. Significant improvements were observed in VO2max, skeletal muscle mass, fasting insulin, triglycerides, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and functional performance. Baseline adiposity influenced metabolic adaptations, with greater improvements in the HF% group. These findings suggest that multicomponent training may improve cardiometabolic health and physical performance; however, the results should be interpreted cautiously due to the quasi-experimental design and small sample size.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050203

Authors: Andrea Pagliaro Alessia Boatta Anna Alioto Roberta Cottone Domenico Nuzzo Pasquale Picone Cristina Cortis Andrea Fusco Magdalena Dzitkowska-Zabielska Giuseppe Messina Patrizia Proia

Overhead sports place high demands on the shoulder complex, making warm-up specificity relevant for acute readiness. This randomized controlled pilot trial compared the immediate effects of a shoulder-specific warm-up with a habitual routine in 24 youth competitive overhead athletes (14–20 years), allocated to an experimental group (EG = 12) and a habitual warm-up group (SWG = 12). The warm-up protocol was administered bilaterally to both shoulders, whereas outcome measurements were collected unilaterally, with each shoulder tested separately. Assessments were performed before and immediately after the warm-up protocol. Outcome measures included shoulder flexion range of motion (ROM), handgrip strength, Closed Kinetic Chain Upper Extremity Stability (CKCUES) performance, and post-warm-up Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE; Borg CR-10). A significant group-by-time interaction was found for right shoulder flexion ROM (p = 0.003, η2p = 0.346), with a significant increase in the EG from baseline to post-test (p = 0.008). No significant effects were observed for left shoulder flexion ROM, handgrip strength, or CKCUES performance. Post-warm-up RPE was statistically significant in the EG compared to the SWG (p = 0.041). These preliminary findings may suggest the potential practical value of more targeted warm-up strategies in overhead sports, while larger longitudinal studies are needed to confirm their broader functional relevance.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050202

Authors: Marco Beato Paolo Troiani Chiara Zinco Dario Pompa Maurizio Bertollo Cristian Savoia

This study aimed to evaluate the within-system agreement and interchangeability of real-time and post-processed external load metrics in elite football. Data were collected from 50 official Serie A matches using Dynamix (K-Sport World S.R.L., Pesaro, Italy), the platform for acquiring and standardizing tracking inputs. SmartLive, a real-time monitoring module embedded within Dynamix, was compared with post-processed data from the league-approved optical tracking provider (Hawk-Eye Innovations Limited, Basingstoke, UK) in Serie A. The external load metrics analyzed included total distance covered; distances at speeds exceeding 15, 20, and 25 km·h−1; distances within the 15–20 km·h−1 and 20–25 km·h−1 ranges; distance covered during accelerations > 2 m·s−2 and decelerations < −2 m·s−2; and peak speed. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) demonstrated excellent agreement across all metrics, with values ranging from 0.929 to 0.999. Bland–Altman analysis revealed small mean differences between systems, indicating strong agreement. Overall, the findings confirm that both real-time and post-processed data are in close agreement across a wide range of performance metrics. Minor discrepancies were observed in intermediate speed zones and acceleration/deceleration events. This study provides the first validation of SmartLive’s within-system agreement with post-processed data, supporting its use alongside post-processed data in elite football environments.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050201

Authors: Mima Stanković Ilma Čaprić Emir Biševac Raid Mekić Aldina Ajdinović Zerina Salihagić Goran Jelaska Luka Pezelj Igor Jelaska

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) and small-sided games (SSG) are popular conditioning tactics in team sports, but their relative efficiency among female basketball players is uncertain. The aim of this study was to examine and compare the effects of a six-week HIIT and SSG intervention on the physical performance of elite female basketball players. Forty-four participants (20.98 ± 4.58 years) were randomly assigned to one of three groups: HIIT (n = 14), SSG (n = 14), or control (n = 16). Pre- and post-intervention evaluations assessed sprint performance (0–10, 0–20, 0–30 m), agility (Pro-agility, Zig-zag, 9-6-3-6-9 tests), vertical jump height (CMJ, CMJA, SJ), repeated sprint ability (RSA), and aerobic capacity (VO2max, VIFT, MAS). HIIT and SSG significantly improved all performance measures compared to the control group (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.365–0.809); however, there were no significant differences between the two experimental groups. HIIT had a slightly greater effect on linear sprinting, but SSG was more effective for agility and aerobic performance. Body composition remained unchanged. These data suggest that HIIT and SSG are both effective training methods for improving speed, agility, explosive power, RSA, and aerobic capacity in female basketball players. Incorporating both strategies into an organized training program can improve sport-specific performance and overall conditioning.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050200

Authors: Daniel Alexander Bizjak Lucas John Moritz Munk Marie Reiter Nea Lüders Johannes Kirsten Alexander-Stephan Henze Sebastian Viktor Waldemar Schulz

Endurance training camps are well established in elite sports, but one-week camps for recreational endurance athletes have recently gained popularity despite limited scientific evidence. This study investigated the effects of a one-week endurance training camp on body composition, endurance performance, and markers of metabolic stress and mitochondrial adaptation in recreational athletes. Female and male endurance athletes (≥18 years) participated in a professionally guided one-week endurance training camp. Assessments included body composition, running diagnostics, sleep-quality/recovery-stress questionnaires, nutrition/energy balance diaries, blood profiling, and mitochondrial biogenesis markers. Measurements were conducted before (pre), during (camp), and after the camp (post). A total of 35 participants (18 male/17 female) were included. Body mass and body fat decreased from pre- to post-camp. Lactate concentrations at threshold levels changed, while velocities at fixed lactate concentrations and maximal oxygen uptake did not significantly improve. Post-camp, lactate dehydrogenase, klotho, and vitamin D increased, whereas interferon-γ, kynurenine, cortisol, creatinine, and ferritin decreased. Plasma mitochondrial and nuclear DNA abundance, as well as PGC1-α expression, increased, while vascular endothelial growth factor decreased. A one-week endurance training camp in a holiday-like setting induces measurable physiological, metabolic, and mitochondrial adaptations in recreational athletes and is associated with reduced systemic and psychological stress. However, the concurrent increase in muscle- and cell-stress markers indicates a substantial physiological load.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050199

Authors: Pedro E. Alcaraz Anthony J. Blazevich Tomás T. Freitas Elena Marín-Cascales Truls Raastad

On behalf of the Strength and Conditioning Society (SCS), we are pleased to present the abstracts submitted for the SCS 8th Annual Meeting. The event was held at the Norwegian School of Sport Sciences in Oslo, Norway, on 8–10 October 2025, and comprised several invited sessions held by international and national speakers on a variety of topics related to biochemistry and exercise physiology, strength and conditioning practices and their application to health, injury prevention, and sports performance. These included strength training in high-performance sports, sport science and training–competition load management in elite environments, biochemistry and exercise physiology and prescription, nutrition and biomechanics, among others. The conference also included practical workshops held by renowned academics and practitioners on eccentric training, change of direction ability, and strength and power training in professional team sports, combat sports, and ergospirometry and exercise prescription in specific populations. Finally, the event disseminated up-to-date strength and conditioning research by providing practitioners and researchers with the opportunity to present their most recent findings. All abstracts presented at the SCS 8th Annual Meeting can be found in this Conference Report.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050198

Authors: Rosalyn Cooke Lee Herrington James Martin Alison Rushton Nicola Heneghan Andy Soundy

Pre-elite female field hockey players have a high incidence of lower extremity injury, highlighting the need for practical and reliable screening approaches. A dual assessment combining Functional Performance Tests (FPTs) with movement quality scoring (QASLS) may provide a more comprehensive evaluation; however, its reliability in this population is unclear. Fifteen pre-elite female field hockey players (16.7 ± 0.7 years) completed an FPT battery (anterior reach (AR), single leg drop vertical jump–land (DVJL), single hop for distance (SHFD), side hop (SH)) on two occasions, 28 days apart. Movement quality was assessed by three raters using QASLS. Reliability was evaluated using ICC with 95% confidence intervals (CI), alongside standard error of measurement (SEM), smallest detectable difference (SDD), and percentage exact agreement (PEA). Test–retest reliability varied across tasks (ICC2,1 0.33–0.90), with wide confidence intervals indicating uncertainty in several estimates. AR demonstrated the most consistent reliability, supporting its use for monitoring over time. In contrast, the DVJL and SH showed the greatest variability, likely reflecting higher task complexity, while the SHFD required relatively large performance changes to exceed measurement error. Intra-rater reliability for QASLS was consistent across the FPT battery (ICC2,k 0.79–0.90), whereas inter-rater reliability was more variable (0.38–0.82), indicating rater-dependent differences. PEA demonstrated generally high agreement (60–100%), although lower agreement was observed for pelvic alignment components. These findings support the use of a dual assessment approach as a practicable profiling approach in pre-elite female field hockey, enabling practitioners to identify movement deficits not captured by performance metrics alone. However, variability in complex tasks and between raters highlights the need to consider measurement error and implement standardised rater training when profiling or monitoring performance.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050197

Authors: Afroditi Lola Eleni Bassa Georgia Stavropoulou George Giatsis Konstantinos Chatzinikolaou

Perceptual–cognitive abilities are essential components of performance in volleyball, where players must quickly interpret visual information and respond effectively to rapidly changing game situations. The present study aimed to examine perceptual–cognitive abilities and reaction performance in competitive female volleyball players and to explore how these abilities may contribute to athlete development and training design. Thirty-nine young female volleyball athletes participated in the study and underwent an evaluation of perceptual–cognitive abilities considered critical for volleyball performance. These abilities were assessed through specially designed computer-based tasks delivered via dedicated experimental software, enabling the measurement of reaction time and response accuracy during perceptual–motor processing. Group comparisons did not reveal significant differences between playing positions or competitive levels in the measured perceptual–cognitive abilities. Multivariate and clustering analyses suggested the presence of potential performance patterns characterized by different combinations of reaction speed, response accuracy, and perceptual–cognitive processing. However, these patterns should be interpreted with caution, as the clustering solution showed limited separation (silhouette score = 0.02), indicating an exploratory and non-definitive structure. Overall, the findings highlight the multidimensional nature of perceptual–cognitive performance in volleyball and suggest that athletes may rely on different perceptual–motor strategies when responding to game-related stimuli. From an applied perspective, integrating perceptual–cognitive challenges into training environments may support athlete development and improve decision-making efficiency in dynamic game situations.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050196

Authors: Souhail Bchini Ismail Dergaa Wissem Dhahbi Halil İbrahim Ceylan Valentina Stefanica Taoufik Selmi Dhouha Moussaoui Nadhir Hammami

Background: Childhood and adolescence represent critical developmental periods characterized by rapid somatic growth, endocrine changes, and the progressive attainment of biological maturity. These maturational processes substantially influence the development of physical fitness, yet are often overlooked when evaluating performance in youth populations. This structured narrative review aims to synthesize current knowledge regarding the relationships between somatic growth, biological maturity, and physical fitness in children and adolescents. Methods: A structured narrative review was conducted by systematically searching PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases for peer-reviewed articles published up to February 2026. Keywords included ‘biological maturation’, ‘physical fitness’, ‘youth’, ‘adolescence’, ‘peak height velocity’, and ‘bio-banding’. Studies were eligible if they examined relationships between biological maturity indicators and physical fitness outcomes in children and adolescents aged 8–19 years. No publication date restrictions were applied, although priority was given to articles from the past 15 years. Results: Evidence consistently indicates that biological maturity substantially influences muscular strength, power, and speed in males; findings among females and for cardiorespiratory fitness are more nuanced and context-dependent. Early-maturing boys typically exhibit superior strength and power performances, whereas findings among girls are more variable. Earlier maturation in girls is frequently associated with increased adiposity, which may attenuate performance in weight-bearing activities. When maturity status is ignored, physical fitness evaluations may misrepresent the capabilities of late-maturing youth and potentially discourage long-term participation in physical activity. Conclusions: Integrating biological maturity into youth fitness evaluation frameworks is essential for accurately interpreting performance data and for providing developmentally appropriate interventions. Three implementation strategies are recommended: (i) adoption of maturity offset or percentage of predicted adult stature as standard covariates; (ii) development of maturity-stratified normative standards; and (iii) implementation of bio-banding in youth sport development.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050195

Authors: Ed Daly John Mackersie Lisa Ryan

Tactical athletes, including military service members, are exposed to occupational demands that increase their risk of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), particularly through blast exposure, falls, collisions, and repeated sub-concussive events. Although clinical tools and progressive return-to-activity protocols support acute management, recovery may remain fragmented when physical, cognitive, psychological, and performance domains are not integrated. Military personnel require recovery models which extend beyond symptom resolution and return-to-duty clearance. Holistic performance programming offers a multidimensional framework which incorporates subject matter experts across strength and conditioning, rehabilitation, nutrition, behavioural health, cognitive performance, and human performance optimisation. This narrative review examines the role of holistic performance programming in optimising recovery from mTBI among tactical athletes, with emphasis on interdisciplinary care, structured assessment, recovery periodisation, monitoring technologies, and return-to-duty readiness. The role of embedded subject matter experts in identifying and monitoring mTBI; interdisciplinary care models which integrate clinical and performance expertise; structured recovery pathways from assessment to reintegration; and the importance of flexibility, communication, and service member engagement are examined. In addition, the review assesses the potential use of biomarkers, wearable technologies, and multi-domain assessment tools to guide individualised recovery. Holistic performance programming may bridge the gap between clinical recovery and operational readiness following mTBI. By integrating physical, cognitive, psychological, nutritional, and sleep-related strategies, this approach may reduce fragmented care and better address the complex nature of mTBI recovery. Interdisciplinary performance teams may improve early recognition, individualised rehabilitation, safer return-to-duty decisions, and long-term readiness. Future practice should prioritise standardised assessment, real-time monitoring, education, and stigma reduction.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050194

Authors: Manuel Pinto João Crisóstomo Christopher Kirk Javier Abián-Vicén Luís Monteiro

Punch impact power is crucial for boxing performance and varies with punch biomechanics. Straight punches rely primarily on linear force production, whereas Hook punches depend more on rotational and lateral force generation; however, the effectiveness of strength and conditioning (S&C) interventions remains insufficiently explored. This study investigated the effects of targeted S&C programs on Straight and Hook punch impact power in trained boxers compared with regular boxing training. Thirty-one boxers completed an eight-week intervention and were allocated to three groups: a Linear-Oriented Training Group (LOTG), a Rotational-Oriented Training Group (ROTG), or a Control Group (CG). Punch impact power (Jab, Cross, Lead Hook, and Rear Hook) was assessed using PowerKube at baseline and post-intervention. One-repetition maximum bench press (1 RM BP), countermovement jump (CMJ), and handgrip strength (HS) were also evaluated. Data were analyzed using mixed-design repeated-measures ANOVA and one-way ANOVA on post–pre change scores (Δ). A significant main effect of time was observed for all punch types (p < 0.001), with significant group × time interactions for the Cross, Lead Hook, and Rear Hook (p < 0.05). The ROTG showed the greatest improvements, particularly in Hook punches. Targeted S&C interventions, particularly rotational training, improved punching impact power and neuromuscular performance.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050193

Authors: Amir Romdhani Ahmed Ghorbel Ghada Regaieg Vlad Adrian Geantă Alexandra Reta Iacobini Alexandru Ioan Băltean Makram Zghibi Omar Trabelsi

This study examined whether pre-existing situational motivation correlates with the magnitude of performance improvement elicited by verbal encouragement (VE) in long jump. A total of 134 physically active sports science students (21.1 ± 1.4 years) performed a long jump task under two conditions: with and without peer VE. Situational motivation, differentiated into autonomous (Intrinsic Motivation [IM], Identified Regulation [IR]) and controlled (External Regulation [ER], Amotivation [AM]) forms, was assessed immediately prior to trials using the Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS). Performance improvement was calculated as the percentage change (Δ%) between conditions. Paired t-tests evaluated the overall effect of VE, while multiple linear regression analysis was used to assess the predictive relationship between situational motivation subscales and performance gains (Δ%), with sex included as a covariate. The results showed that VE significantly enhanced performance across both sexes (p < 0.001; d = 1.109–1.331). The regression models indicated that Δ% was positively predicted by autonomous forms of motivation (IM: R2 = 0.252; IR: R2 = 0.262) and negatively predicted by controlled forms (ER: R2 = 0.27; AM: R2 = 0.249). Sex was not a significant predictor in any model (p > 0.05), indicating that all observed relationships were consistent across both male and female participants. These findings indicate that the performance-enhancing effect of VE in long jump is associated with the initial motivational state of the practitioners, being greater in autonomously motivated individuals and attenuated in those with controlled motivation. Consequently, situational motivation should be assessed before implementing VE in long jump, as its effectiveness is limited in individuals with low autonomous drive and may require preliminary strategies to enhance task engagement.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050192

Authors: Viktorija Maconytė Loreta Stasiulė Arvydas Stasiulis

Background: Blood volume (BV), haemoglobin mass (Hb-mass) are key determinants of blood oxygen transport. The aim of this study was to assess BV and Hb-mass in elite junior rowers and evaluate their relationship with fat-free mass (FFM) and aerobic capacity. Methods: Twenty-five males (18.4 ± 2.4 y, 1.92 ± 0.5 m, 89.3 ± 4.7 kg) and fourteen females (17.0 ± 1.9 y, 1.77 ± 0.7 m, 74.2 ± 11.3 kg) participated. BV, plasma volume (PV), and Hb-mass were assessed via CO rebreathing. Pulmonary gas exchange was measured during a graded rowing test. Results: Males had higher absolute BV (7270 ± 717 vs. 5388 ± 471 mL) and Hb-mass (1083 ± 91 vs. 720 ± 49 g). After adjusting for FFM, most differences disappeared, except PV, which remained higher in females (57.2 ± 4.8 vs. 49.9 ± 6.5 mL·FFM·kg−1). V̇O2max was higher in males in absolute (6.28 ± 0.40 vs. 4.48 ± 0.29 L·min−1) and body-mass-relative terms (70.2 ± 5.6 vs. 61.3 ± 7.3 mL·kg−1·min−1), but not when expressed per FFM (79.4 ± 5.3 vs. 81.1 ± 7.3 mL·FFM·kg−1·min−1). BV, PV, and Hb-mass correlated positively with V̇O2max in both sexes, with stronger associations in females. Conclusions: Sex differences in blood parameters among junior rowers are largely explained by FFM, except for PV, which is relatively higher in females. Stronger associations between blood variables and aerobic capacity in females suggest greater reliance on central oxygen transport.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050191

Authors: Hiroto Takahashi Tatsuya Igawa Ryunosuke Urata Shomaru Ito Kosuke Suzuki Riyaka Ito Mika Toda Chiaki Matsumoto Masahiro Ishizaka

The Y Balance Test (YBT) is widely used to assess dynamic balance and lower-limb function in both clinical and sports settings. However, substantial variability exists in YBT measurement procedures across studies, which may complicate interpretation of the reliability and validity findings. This scoping review aimed to systematically map the reporting frequency and heterogeneity of participant characteristics and measurement procedures in studies evaluating the reliability and/or validity of the YBT. This scoping review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA extension for Scoping Reviews and the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology. MEDLINE, CENTRAL, CINAHL, and clinical trial registries were searched from inception to 20 September 2025. Observational studies assessing the reliability and/or validity of the YBT were also included. Data on participant attributes and key measurement procedures, including practice trials, rest periods, upper-limb restrictions, heel lift allowance, and other protocol components, were extracted. A total of 32 studies involving 1701 participants were analyzed. Considerable heterogeneity was observed in the reporting of YBT measurement procedures across studies, with differences according to study design and participant characteristics. While practice trials and error criteria were frequently described, other factors that may influence outcomes, including warm-up protocols, rest periods, heel lift allowance, and trial order, were less consistently reported. Such variability may limit the interpretability and comparability of YBT findings. Notable gaps were identified in both reliability and validity studies, as well as in studies involving injured or clinical populations. These findings highlight the need for greater transparency and consistency in YBT reporting. Clearer reporting standards may improve evidence synthesis and the application of YBT findings.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050190

Authors: Carlo della Valle Giulia Di Martino Alessio Melis Lorenzo Persichini Chiara De Santis Del Tavano Claudia Cerulli Giovanni Fiorilli Giuseppe Calcagno Enzo Iuliano Alessandra di Cagno

Background: Equine-assisted therapy (EAT) is a supportive intervention for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Aim: This pilot study evaluated the feasibility of a cognitive–motor EAT intervention to explore its preliminary effects on motor coordination in children with ASD. Methods: A single-group pre-test–post-test design was adopted. Twelve children (mean age: 10.08 ± 1.51 years; ASD level 1–2) participated in a 16-week EAT program. The intervention integrated EAT with cognitive dual-task activities targeting attention and perceptual processing. Motor performance was assessed before and after the intervention using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC-2). Results: The RM-ANOVA examined pre–post changes. A significant improvement in the MABC-2 Total Test Score was observed (p = 0.036; ηp2 = 0.34; 95% CI [0.541, 13.792]), indicating a trend of improvement of global motor coordination. No significant improvements were observed in Manual Dexterity, Aiming and Catching, and Balance subscale scores. Conclusions: A cognitively enriched EAT program promoted improvements in overall motor competence in ASD children, even without measurable changes in specific motor skills. The intervention was feasible and well-tolerated, with high adherence and no adverse events. These preliminary findings support the feasibility and potential value of integrating cognitive–motor demands into EAT and provide a rationale for larger randomized controlled studies.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050189

Authors: Rocco De Vitis Luca Lombardi Matteo Guzzini Arturo Militerno Giuseppe Taccardo Marco Passiatore

Background: Soccer kicking biomechanics has traditionally focused on lower limbs, overlooking whole-body integration. Three-dimensional motion analyses have demonstrated that upper limbs contribute substantially through tension arc formation, counterbalancing, and kinetic chain coordination. The hand–wrist complex may influence performance through proprioceptive pathways, yet this remains untested. Methods: Following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, we searched PubMed/MEDLINE, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus (inception—February 2026). Peer-reviewed studies examining kicking mechanics, kinetic chains, and joint proprioception were included. Two reviewers independently screened records and extracted data. Narrative synthesis was used to organize findings across four thematic categories: upper limb biomechanics, kinetic chain principles, wrist–hand stability, and proprioceptive enhancement. Results: From 3847 records, 51 studies (1988–2025) were included. Upper limbs are essential for kicking through tension arc formation, energy transfer, and balance maintenance. Kinetic chains operate bidirectionally; available evidence suggests that proximal segment deficits are associated with substantially increased compensatory demands at distal segments. External joint support has been shown to enhance proprioception and force perception. Conclusions: This scoping review identifies a theoretical rationale and a critical research gap: no direct empirical evidence exists that hand–wrist bandaging affects kicking performance. Evidence from adjacent domains (upper limb kicking biomechanics, kinetic chain theory and proprioceptive enhancement with external supports) provides indirect, translational support for the plausibility of a hypothesis that remains entirely untested. Future research should employ within-subject crossover designs in elite soccer players to determine whether this intervention produces any measurable effect. Practical recommendations to athletes or practitioners are premature and are not supported by the current evidence base.

Sports doi: 10.3390/sports14050187

Authors: Wiktor Kłobuchowski Maciej Skorulski Kajetan Ornowski Robert Roczniok Adam Maszczyk Bianca Callegari Givago Silva Souza Przemysław Pietraszewski Szymon Kuliś

Background: Targeted training interventions, including neuromuscular warm-up protocols, eccentric resistance training, and dynamic stretching exercises, with limited and heterogeneous evidence on recovery strategies, have shown potential benefits for muscle performance and reductions in injury risk. Objective: To synthesize and structure contemporary evidence on exercise-based interventions spanning the pre-activity warm-up through post-activity recovery, emphasizing performance outcomes, injury-related effects, reported dose–response patterns, and implementation characteristics. Methods: This systematic review with structured qualitative synthesis was based on a systematic database search and eligibility screening process (n = 40 studies). Studies evaluating exercise-based interventions targeting injury prevention and/or performance in athletes were included. Data extraction included study design, population characteristics, intervention components, outcomes, and risk-of-bias assessments, which were summarized using comparative tables and descriptive analyses. Due to heterogeneity, results were synthesized qualitatively without meta-analysis. Results: Neuromuscular warm-ups (e.g., FIFA 11+) were frequently linked to reduced reported lower-extremity injury risk, alongside improvements in sprint, jump, and balance performance. Eccentric hamstring training was linked in several studies to lower reported hamstring injury rates and increased eccentric strength and fascicle length, while dynamic warm-ups may acutely improve sprint and jump performance. Evidence regarding recovery modalities was heterogeneous, supporting a cautious and individualized emphasis on sleep, nutrition, and hydration. However, heterogeneity in study designs, outcome measures, and populations limits the comparability and generalizability of the findings. Conclusions: Exercise-based interventions, including neuromuscular warm-ups, eccentric strengthening, dynamic stretching, and progressive load and recovery strategies, may support performance enhancement and injury-risk reduction in youth and adult athletes when appropriately implemented, although interpretation is limited by study heterogeneity.