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A special issue of Agronomy (ISSN 2073-4395). This special issue belongs to the section "Innovative Cropping Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2025 | Viewed by 15422

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Dr. Shoutian Ma

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Institute of Farmland Irrigation of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Xinxiang 453003, China
Interests: water-saving irrigation; crops’ water physiology; high-efficiency water use for crops; soil’s physical and chemical characteristics; crop system
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Dear Colleagues,

The global population is projected to reach 9.1 billion by 2050, necessitating sustainable adaptations in agricultural production. This entails increasing the total production and improving resource use efficiency. Currently, irrigation accounts for approximately 70% of freshwater withdrawals worldwide. The scarcity of water resources remains the most constraining factor in arid and semi-arid regions. Furthermore, climate change exacerbates uncertainties surrounding water supplies and food production. As a result, we must confront the challenge of increasing agricultural output with a restricted amount of freshwater.

Therefore, the aim and scope of this Special Issue is to present recent advances in the development of the theory of, and technology and methods for efficient water use in agriculture. Potential submissions could be focused on the improvement of water productivity in any cropping system, from rainwater harvesting and water management in rainfed areas, to the optimization of deficit irrigation strategies on intensive cropping systems. We encourage the submission of innovative and original articles, as well as systematic reviews and short commentaries.

Dr. Shoutian Ma
Guest Editor

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Keywords

irrigation method
deficit irrigation
precision irrigation
evapotranspiration
yield gap
irrigation efficiency
water productivity
crop management

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

25 pages, 2364 KB

Open AccessArticle

Urea-N Activated Biochar Effectively Suppresses CO₂ and N₂O Emissions from Farmland Soil

by Xiao Wang, Yudong Zheng, Xuetong Liu, Dan Liu, Caiyun Cao, Kejiang Li, Ping Lu, Peiling Yang, Huiguang Wang, Chunlian Zheng and Hongkai Dang

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2655; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112655 - 19 Nov 2025

Viewed by 258

Abstract

The inconsistent efficacy of biochar in mitigating agricultural greenhouse gas emissions remains a major barrier to its widespread adoption and the realization of its environmental benefits. This study aimed to develop a stable and efficient mitigation strategy by optimizing biochar physicochemical properties through urea-N activation (corn stover: urea mass ratios of 5:1 and 15:1). Five treatments were established: CK (control), GC (fertilization), GB (fertilization + raw biochar), GAB5 (fertilization + low-N activated biochar), and GAB15 (fertilization + high-N activated biochar). Mechanisms were elucidated by monitoring soil profile (0–20 cm) gas concentrations and surface fluxes, combined with a comprehensive analysis of soil physicochemical properties, enzyme activities, and microbial biomass. Results demonstrated that activated biochar, particularly GAB15, significantly reduced cumulative CO₂ (9.4%, p < 0.05) and N₂O (45.2%, p < 0.05) emissions and their concentrations in the 0–10 cm layer. This superior efficacy was linked to profound improvements in key soil properties: GAB15 significantly enhanced soil cation exchange capacity (CEC, increased by 17.3%, p < 0.05), NH₄⁺-N content (increased by 88.2%, p < 0.05), Mean Weight Diameter (MWD, increased by 13.0%), the content of water-stable aggregates > 0.25 mm (R_>0.25mm, increased by 57.3%) (p < 0.05), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and the MBC (microbial biomass carbon)/MBN (soil microbial biomass nitrogen) ratio. Redundancy analysis (RDA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed core mechanisms: CO₂ mitigation primarily stemmed from the physical protection of organic carbon within macroaggregates and a negative priming effect induced by an elevated MBC/MBN ratio; N₂O mitigation was attributed to weakened nitrogen mineralization due to enhanced aggregate stability and reduced substrate (inorganic N) availability for nitrification/denitrification via strong adsorption at the biochar–soil interface. This study confirms that urea-activated biochar produced at a 15:1 corn stover-to-urea mass ratio (GAB15) effectively overcomes the inconsistent efficacy of conventional biochar by targeted physicochemical optimization, offering a promising and technically feasible approach for mitigating agricultural greenhouse gas emissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Management in Water-Limited Cropping Systems)

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22 pages, 2597 KB

Open AccessArticle

Interactive Effects of Mulching Width and Irrigation Management on Cotton Growth and Dynamic Changes in Soil Factors in Arid Regions

by Nanfang Li, Guang Yang, Yinping Song, Wenzhi Wang, Xianbo Zhang, Hao Liu and Huifeng Ning

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1964; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081964 - 14 Aug 2025

Viewed by 608

Abstract

Mulching and irrigation are key practices for improving cotton yield and soil conditions, especially in Xinjiang, China. This study investigated the combined effects of mulching width and irrigation depth on cotton growth and rhizosphere microorganisms. Two mulching widths—conventional (M1) and ultra-wide (M2)—and three irrigation depths, 0.8 ETc (W1), 1.0 ETc (W2), and 1.2 ETc (W3), were tested. The impacts on cotton growth, soil environment, and rhizosphere microbial communities were analyzed. Results showed that under the same irrigation depth, M2 significantly increased soil moisture and reduced salt accumulation. Soil temperature under M2 was higher than M1, with increases of 0.55 °C and 1.65 °C during the budding and flowering–boll stages. M2 also increased root length (3.52–10.72%) and root surface area (5.8–7.51%). The beneficial fungus Cladosporium was enriched, while the pathogen Fusarium was suppressed under M2. With the same mulching width, increasing irrigation improved soil moisture, reduced electrical conductivity, and decreased soil temperature. Root diameter and volume increased by 7.67–47% and 9.43–10.36%, respectively. Mulching width and irrigation depth significantly affected bacterial α-diversity. M2W3 showed the highest microbial richness and functional diversity. This study offers guidance for efficient cotton cultivation in southern Xinjiang. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Management in Water-Limited Cropping Systems)

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19 pages, 5500 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Microbial Mechanism of Bacillus subtilis in Improving Drought Tolerance and Cotton Yield in Arid Areas

by Peiqi Ren, Beibei Zhou, Yanpeng Bi, Xiaopeng Chen and Shaoxiong Yao

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1932; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081932 - 11 Aug 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2083

Abstract

Drought is a global issue that affects agricultural productivity and sustainable development. The application of Bacillus subtilis has significant potential in alleviating drought stress and increasing yield. However, it is not yet clear how Bacillus subtilis affects microbial populations, crop yield, and the biochemical characteristics of rhizosphere soil, as well as the interactions among these factors. In this study, cotton was used as the experimental crop, and different application rates of Bacillus subtilis (0 kg·ha⁻¹ and 45 kg·ha⁻¹ (B)) and drought stress levels (H represents conventional irrigation, 350 mm; L represents 80% of conventional irrigation, 280 mm) were set as three replicates per group. The changes in rhizosphere-soil-related variables, microbial community diversity, enzyme activity, and cotton yield were studied. Compared to the control, the available nitrogen content increased by 19.76–62.40%, and soil moisture increased by 2.48–7.72%. The activities of urease, sucrase, and alkaline phosphatase increased, malondialdehyde content decreased, the Soil Plant Analysis Development (SPAD) value increased, and cotton yield increased by 8.94–9.28%. According to the structural equation model, Bacillus subtilis can increase microbial community diversity and network complexity, improve soil nutrients and enzyme activity, and increase cotton yield. This study’s findings may offer a theoretical foundation for enhancing soil quality and raising agricultural yields in arid regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Management in Water-Limited Cropping Systems)

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22 pages, 2180 KB

Open AccessArticle

Regulated Deficit Irrigation Improves Yield Formation and Water and Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Winter Wheat at Different Soil Fertility Levels

by Xiaolei Wu, Zhongdong Huang, Chao Huang, Zhandong Liu, Junming Liu, Hui Cao and Yang Gao

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1874; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081874 - 1 Aug 2025

Viewed by 1519

Abstract

Water scarcity and spatial variability in soil fertility are key constraints to stable grain production in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain. However, the interaction mechanisms between regulated deficit irrigation and soil fertility influencing yield formation and water-nitrogen use efficiency in winter wheat remain unclear. In this study, a two-year field experiment (2022–2024) was conducted to investigate the effects of two irrigation regimes—regulated deficit irrigation during the heading to grain filling stage (D) and full irrigation (W)—under four soil fertility levels: F1 (N: P: K = 201.84: 97.65: 199.05 kg ha⁻¹), F2 (278.52: 135: 275.4 kg ha⁻¹), F3 (348.15: 168.75: 344.25 kg ha⁻¹), and CK (no fertilization). The results show that aboveground dry matter accumulation, total nitrogen content, pre-anthesis dry matter and nitrogen translocation, and post-anthesis accumulation significantly increased with fertility level (p < 0.05). Regulated deficit irrigation promoted the contribution of post-anthesis dry matter to grain yield under the CK and F1 treatments, but suppressed it under the F2 and F3 treatments. However, it consistently enhanced the contribution of post-anthesis nitrogen to grain yield (p < 0.05) across all fertility levels. Higher fertility levels prolonged the grain filling duration by 18.04% but reduced the mean grain filling rate by 15.05%, whereas regulated deficit irrigation shortened the grain filling duration by 3.28% and increased the mean grain filling rate by 12.83% (p < 0.05). Grain yield significantly increased with improved fertility level (p < 0.05), reaching a maximum of 9361.98 kg·ha⁻¹ under the F3 treatment. Regulated deficit irrigation increased yield under the CK and F1 treatments but reduced it under the F2 and F3 treatments. Additionally, water use efficiency exhibited a parabolic response to fertility level and was significantly enhanced by regulated deficit irrigation. Nitrogen partial factor productivity (NPFP) declined with increasing fertility level (p < 0.05); Regulated deficit irrigation improved NPFP under the F1 treatment but reduced it under the F2 and F3 treatments. The highest NPFP (41.63 kg·kg⁻¹) was achieved under the DF1 treatment, which was 54.81% higher than that under the F3 treatment. TOPSIS analysis showed that regulated deficit irrigation combined with the F1 fertility level provided the optimal balance among yield, WUE, and NPFP. Therefore, implementing regulated deficit irrigation during the heading–grain filling stage under moderate fertility (F1) is recommended as the most effective strategy for achieving high yield and efficient resource utilization in winter wheat production in this region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Management in Water-Limited Cropping Systems)

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24 pages, 3629 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Current Status of Irrigated Agriculture in Cape Verde and Its Link to Water Scarcity

by Erik Sequeira, Pedro Leão de Sousa, Augusto Manuel Correia and João Rolim

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1625; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071625 - 3 Jul 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2102

Abstract

In arid regions with low precipitation, like most of the Cape Verde islands, irrigation is essential for maintaining agricultural production and food security. However, due to significant investment needs, it is critical to improve irrigation efficiency and reduce water losses. The aim of this study is to evaluate irrigated agriculture in Cape Verde and its relationship with water scarcity through the calculation of key indicators and the analysis of statistical and remote sensing data. Crop production data were collected from the Ministry of Agriculture and Environment, and climatic data from the National Institute of Meteorology and Geophysics of Cape Verde (INMG) and FAO’s WaPOR platform. The aridity index was calculated using the UNEP method based on data from INMG. The island of Sal showed the lowest aridity index value (0.07), while Cachaço (São Nicolau island) had the highest (0.41). Sugarcane is currently the dominant irrigated crop, covering over 3000 hectares, about 62% of irrigated land, despite its high water demands. The expansion of sugarcane threatens long-term water sustainability and food production. Promoting crops with higher water productivity and technical training are key actions to ensure the sustainability of irrigated agriculture in Cape Verde. Findings point to the urgent need to improve irrigation infrastructure, maintenance, and system design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Management in Water-Limited Cropping Systems)

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18 pages, 2947 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Comprehensive Effects of Biodegradable Mulch Films on the Soil Hydrothermal Flux, Root Architecture, and Yield of Drip-Irrigated Rice

by Zhiwen Song, Guodong Wang, Quanyou Hao, Xin Zhu, Qingyun Tang, Lei Zhao, Qifeng Wu and Yuxiang Li

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1292; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061292 - 25 May 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1897

Abstract

Biodegradable mulch films not only provide similar field benefits to conventional mulch films but also degrade naturally, rendering them an effective alternative to traditional polyethylene mulch films for mitigating “white pollution”. However, recent studies have focused on the material selection and soil ecological impacts of biodegradable mulch films, while their effects on soil water temperature regulation and root architecture in drip-irrigated rice cultivation remain unclear. To address this research gap, in this study, various treatments including no mulch (NM), conventional plastic mulch (PM), and four types of biodegradable mulch films (BM-W₁, BM-B₁, BM-B₂, and BM-B₃) were established, and their effects on the soil hydrothermal flux, root architecture, biomass accumulation, and resource use efficiency of drip-irrigated rice were analyzed at different growth stages. The results indicated the following: (1) Compared with the NM treatment, film mulching increased the soil hydrothermal fluxes and water retention capacity, thereby promoting root growth and biomass accumulation, ultimately increasing the effective panicle number and grain yield. (2) Among the biodegradable film treatments, BM-B₃ (with a degradation period of 105 days) maintained relatively higher soil temperature for a longer duration, which increased surface root distribution in the mid-to-late growth stages, further improving fine root growth and biomass accumulation, consequently enhancing both yield and water use efficiency. In contrast, BM-B₁ and BM-B₂ exhibited excessively rapid degradation rates, leading to significant fluctuations in soil moisture and temperature, thereby negatively affecting water supply and nutrient uptake and ultimately restricting root growth and development. (3) The entropy weight (EW) technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) model results revealed that although the PM treatment was more advantageous in terms of soil temperature, root dry weight, and soil moisture content, BM-B₃ provided a slightly higher yield than the PM treatment did and offered the advantage of biodegradability, making it a preferred alternative to conventional mulch film. In summary, this study revealed the mechanism by which biodegradable mulch films enhanced biomass accumulation and yield formation in drip-irrigated rice production by optimizing soil hydrothermal dynamics and root architecture, thereby exploring their potential as replacements for conventional mulch films. These findings provide a theoretical basis for the efficient and sustainable production of drip-irrigated rice in arid regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Management in Water-Limited Cropping Systems)

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18 pages, 3330 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physiological Effects and Economic Impact of Plant Growth Regulator Applications on Soybean

by Brenna Cannon, Hannah Shear, Colton Johnson, Josie Rice and Josh Lofton

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 965; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040965 - 16 Apr 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2242

Abstract

Soybean production in the southern Great Plains (SGP) faces challenges due to yield-limiting factors, including high temperatures and inconsistent precipitation. These conditions can lead to excess vegetative growth, similar to what occurs in crops like cotton. Management strategies utilizing plant growth regulators (PGRs) have been applied to control this excessive growth, yet there is limited information on methods to mitigate vegetative growth in soybeans through modifications to the apical meristem. Field trials conducted in 2022 and 2023 investigated the effects of altering the apical growth using Ascend SL, Compact, Cobra, Cygin Pro, and physical removal, with treatments applied at the V4 and R2 growth stages. This study highlights the significance of customized application strategies to enhance profitability under diverse environmental conditions. Ascend and Cygin Pro demonstrate improving yield stability under adverse climatic conditions. Both applications of Compact produced relatively stable yields across site years, while Cobra and physical removal methods necessitate careful consideration of timing to minimize yield losses. Further research is essential to optimize these management strategies for soybean production in the SGP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Management in Water-Limited Cropping Systems)

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18 pages, 3967 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Sustainability of Wheat–Maize System with a Long-Term Fertilization Experiment

by Yun Shao, Jiahui An, Xueping Wang, Shouchen Ma, Ye Meng, Yang Gao and Shoutian Ma

Agronomy 2025, 15(1), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15010210 - 16 Jan 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1331

Abstract

In light of the issue concerning excessive fertilization that prevails in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, through conducting a 13-year long-term positioning experiment, the sustainability of a wheat and maize double-cropping soil system under different fertilization strategies is evaluated using the triangular area method. The objective is to establish a theoretical basis for the development and implementation of appropriate fertilization practices in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain. In the protracted long-term experiment, chemical fertilizer (F) was taken as the control (CK) and three distinct treatments combining organic and inorganic fertilizers were used: chemical fertilizer with straw mulching (FS), chemical fertilizer with cow dung (FM), and chemical fertilizer with cow dung and straw mulching (FMS). Between 2018 and 2019, a non-fertilization treatment was concurrently incorporated in parallel on the foundation of each existing fertilization treatment. The results indicated that following prolonged fertilization, the soil nutrient content, enzyme activity, and crop yield of each organic fertilizer treatment were significantly greater than those of the chemical fertilizer treatment alone, resulting in a more stable yield. After two years of discontinuation of fertilizer cultivation, the soil fertility indexes of each treatment exhibited a notable decline. However, the rate of decrease in soil fertility indexes for the three organic fertilizer treatments was lower compared to that of the single application of chemical fertilizer treatment, suggesting that long-term allocation of organic + inorganic fertilizers contributes to better preservation of soil fertility. Through an assessment of the soil system’s sustainability under various treatments, it becomes evident that following a two-year cessation of fertilization, the sustainability indexes of the soils subjected to three long-term organic + inorganic fertilizer treatments (1.26, 1.29, and 1.27) exceeded that of the soil treated solely with chemical fertilizer (1.00). These findings provide further evidence supporting the notion that the combined application of organic and inorganic fertilizers can enhance the soil system’s capacity for sustainable production in wheat–maize farmland within the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Management in Water-Limited Cropping Systems)

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15 pages, 2030 KB

Open AccessArticle

Foliar Application of Selenium Enhances Drought Tolerance in Tomatoes by Modulating the Antioxidative System and Restoring Photosynthesis

by Yuan Zhong, Haixue Cui, Huanhuan Li, Xiaoman Qiang, Qisheng Han and Hao Liu

Agronomy 2024, 14(6), 1184; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14061184 - 31 May 2024

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2081

Abstract

Drought stress can impact the physiological and biochemical properties of crops. However, selenium (Se) can effectively alleviate the abiotic stress experienced by plants. This study aims to investigate how applying selenium to tomato leaves affects their antioxidant system and photosynthetic traits when subjected to drought conditions. The experiment used four different foliar selenium concentrations and three different irrigation levels. The investigation scrutinized the effects of foliar spraying employing different selenium concentrations on the antioxidant system, osmotic adjustment substances, photosynthetic performance, and growth indices of tomatoes under drought stress. The findings indicated that drought stress led to cellular oxidative damage, significantly elevating peroxide, MDA, proline, and soluble sugar content (p < 0.001). Under severe drought stress, malondialdehyde (MDA) and proline levels increased by 21.2% and 110.0% respectively, compared to well-watered conditions. Concurrently, the net photosynthetic rate exhibited a reduction of 26.0% and dry matter accumulation decreased by 35.5%. However, after spraying with a low concentration of selenium, selenium reduced oxidative damage and malondialdehyde content by reducing the content of peroxide in leaves, restoring photosynthesis, and promoting the normal growth of tomato. Compared to the control group, spraying with 2.5 mg·L⁻¹ selenium resulted in a 21.5% reduction in MDA content, a 111.8% increase in net photosynthetic rate, and a 29.0% increase in dry matter accumulation. When subjected to drought stress conditions, foliar spraying of low concentrations of selenium (2.5 mg·L⁻¹) can effectively reduce oxidative damage caused by drought stress and alleviate growth constraints in tomatoes. In addition, treatments with high selenium concentrations exhibited specific toxic effects. These findings offer valuable insights into the mechanisms governing selenium-induced drought tolerance in tomatoes, thus advancing our comprehension of standard tomato production practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Management in Water-Limited Cropping Systems)

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