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Polymers
Volume 17
Issue 13
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Polymers, Volume 17, Issue 13 (July-1 2025) – 171 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Combining conventional and non-conventional flocculants could represent an alternative method for minimizing adverse effects on the environment and human health. In this work, we present an approach involving the use of a chitosan–PAC mixture as a flocculant system for river water. The mixture of both flocculants enabled us to overcome the drawbacks of using chitosan and PAC alone. As key benefits, the flocculant mixture required a lower dosage, produced larger and more compact flocs, and enabled more efficient removal of polystyrene microplastics. Furthermore, the flocculant mixture significantly reduced the concentration of copper ions, tetracycline, and bacteria. Fractal dimension and lacunarity analyses enabled us to study floc structures. View this paper
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15 pages, 2170 KiB  
Article
Life Cycle Assessment of Flax Fiber Technical Embroidery-Reinforced Composite
by Andrzej Marcinkowski, Agata Poniecka and Marcin Barburski
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1888; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131888 - 7 Jul 2025
Viewed by 289
Abstract
The aim of this study is to compare the environmental impact of composites reinforced with flax fiber technical embroidery and traditional woven fabric in order to provide conclusions supporting composite manufacturer management in making technology selection decisions. The research objectives are to identify [...] Read more.
The aim of this study is to compare the environmental impact of composites reinforced with flax fiber technical embroidery and traditional woven fabric in order to provide conclusions supporting composite manufacturer management in making technology selection decisions. The research objectives are to identify the key stages in the life cycle of composites, from raw material acquisition to end-of-life; determine the environmental impact of each stage, with a particular focus on processes with the largest contribution to overall result; compare the environmental impact of embroidery-reinforced composites with traditional woven fabric-reinforced composites; propose strategies to minimize the negative environmental impact of composites, including modifying the component set and optimizing the production process. The method involves experimental research including the production of technical embroidery-based composites with varying stitch lengths and woven fabric-reinforced composites. The tensile strength of the composites was evaluated. Subsequently, life cycle assessment was conducted for each material according to the relevant ISO standards. The results presented in this paper provide a comprehensive assessment of the environmental performance of technical embroidery-reinforced composites and identify directions for future research in this field. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmentally Friendly Textiles, Fibers and Their Composites)
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47 pages, 13613 KiB  
Article
Colorless Polyimides with Low Linear Coefficients of Thermal Expansion and Their Controlled Soft Adhesion/Easy Removability on Glass Substrates: Role of Modified One-Pot Polymerization Method
by Masatoshi Hasegawa, Takehiro Shinoda, Kanata Nakadai, Junichi Ishii, Tetsuo Okuyama, Kaya Tokuda, Hiroyuki Wakui, Naoki Watanabe and Kota Kitamura
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1887; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131887 - 7 Jul 2025
Viewed by 283
Abstract
This study presents colorless polyimides (PIs) suitable for use as plastic substrates in flexible displays, designed to be compatible with controlled soft adhesion and easy delamination (temporary adhesion) processes. For this purpose, we focused on a PI system derived from norbornane-2-spiro-α-cyclopentanone-α′-spiro-2″-norbornane-5,5″,6,6″-tetracarboxylic dianhydride (CpODA) [...] Read more.
This study presents colorless polyimides (PIs) suitable for use as plastic substrates in flexible displays, designed to be compatible with controlled soft adhesion and easy delamination (temporary adhesion) processes. For this purpose, we focused on a PI system derived from norbornane-2-spiro-α-cyclopentanone-α′-spiro-2″-norbornane-5,5″,6,6″-tetracarboxylic dianhydride (CpODA) and 2,2′-bis(trifluoromethyl)benzidine (TFMB). This system was selected with the aim of exhibiting excellent optical transparency and low linear coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) properties. However, fabricating this PI film via the conventional two-step process was challenging because of crack formation. In contrast, modified one-pot polymerization at 200 °C using a combined catalyst resulted in a homogeneous solution of PI with an exceptionally high molecular weight, yielding a flexible cast film. The solubility of PI plays a crucial role in its success. This study delves into the mechanism behind the significant catalytic effect on enhancing molecular weight. The CpODA/TFMB PI cast film simultaneously achieved very high optical transparency, an extremely high glass transition temperature (Tg = 411 °C), a significantly low linear coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE = 16.7 ppm/K), and sufficient film toughness, despite the trade-off between low CTE and high film toughness. The CpODA/TFMB system was modified by copolymerization with minor contents of another cycloaliphatic tetracarboxylic dianhydride, 5,5′-(1,4-phenylene)-exo-bis(hexahydro-4,7-methanoisobenzofuran-cis-exo-1,3-dione) (BzDAxx). This approach was effective in improving the film toughness without sacrificing the low CTE and other target properties. The peel strengths (σpeel) of laminates comprising surface-modified glass substrates and various colorless PI films were measured to evaluate the compatibility with the temporary adhesion process. Most colorless PI films studied were found to be incompatible. Additionally, no correlation between σpeel and PI structure was observed, making it challenging to identify the structural factors influencing σpeel control. Surprisingly, a strong correlation was observed between σpeel and CTE of the PI films, suggesting that the observed solid–solid lamination is closely linked to the unexpectedly high surface mobility of the PI films. The laminate using CpODA(90);BzDAxx(10)/TFMB copolymer exhibited suitable adhesion strength for the temporary adhesion process, while meeting other target properties. The modified one-pot polymerization method significantly contributed to the development of colorless PIs suitable for plastic substrates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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36 pages, 2504 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Durability of CFRP Strips Used in Infrastructure Rehabilitation
by Karunya Kanagavel and Vistasp M. Karbhari
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1886; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131886 - 7 Jul 2025
Viewed by 286
Abstract
Prefabricated unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite strips are extensively used as a means of infrastructure rehabilitation through adhesive bonding to the external surface of structural concrete elements. Most data to date are from laboratory tests ranging from a few months to [...] Read more.
Prefabricated unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite strips are extensively used as a means of infrastructure rehabilitation through adhesive bonding to the external surface of structural concrete elements. Most data to date are from laboratory tests ranging from a few months to 1–2 years providing an insufficient dataset for prediction of long-term durability. This investigation focuses on the assessment of the response of three different prefabricated CFRP systems exposed to water, seawater, and alkaline solutions for 5 years of immersion in deionized water conducted at three temperatures of 23, 37.8 and 60 °C, all well below the glass transition temperature levels. Overall response is characterized through tensile and short beam shear (SBS) testing at periodic intervals. It is noted that while the three systems are similar, with the dominant mechanisms of deterioration being related to matrix plasticization followed by fiber–matrix debonding with levels of matrix and interface deterioration being accelerated at elevated temperatures, their baseline characteristics and distributions are different emphasizing the need for greater standardization. While tensile modulus does not degrade appreciably over the 5-year period of exposure with final levels of deterioration being between 7.3 and 11.9%, both tensile strength and SBS strength degrade substantially with increasing levels based on temperature and time of immersion. Levels of tensile strength retention can be as low as 61.8–66.6% when immersed in deionized water at 60 °C, those for SBS strength can be 38.4–48.7% at the same immersion condition for the three FRP systems. Differences due to solution type are wider in the short-term and start approaching asymptotic levels within FRP systems at longer periods of exposure. The very high levels of deterioration in SBS strength indicate the breakdown of the materials at the fiber–matrix bond and interfacial levels. It is shown that the level of deterioration exceeds that presumed through design thresholds set by specific codes/standards and that new safety factors are warranted in addition to expanding the set of characteristics studied to include SBS or similar interface-level tests. Alkali solutions are also shown to have the highest deteriorative effects with deionized water having the least. Simple equations are developed to enable extrapolation of test data to predict long term durability and to develop design thresholds based on expectations of service life with an environmental factor of between 0.56 and 0.69 for a 50-year expected service life. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
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13 pages, 1288 KiB  
Article
A Novel Synthesis of Highly Efficient Antimicrobial Quaternary Ammonium Pyridine Resin and Its Application in Drinking Water Treatment
by Huaicheng Zhang, Haolin Liu, Wei Wang, Fengxia Dong, Yanting Zuo, Shouqiang Huang, Daqian Zhang, Ji Wu, Shi Cheng and Aimin Li
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1885; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131885 - 7 Jul 2025
Viewed by 250
Abstract
Multifunctional water-treatment materials urgently need to be developed to avoid normal organic matter, inorganic anions, resistant bacteria, and hazardous disinfection by-products in conventional drinking water treatment strategies. While quaternary ammonium pyridine resins (QAPRs) possess porous adsorption structures and incorporate antibacterial groups, enabling simultaneous [...] Read more.
Multifunctional water-treatment materials urgently need to be developed to avoid normal organic matter, inorganic anions, resistant bacteria, and hazardous disinfection by-products in conventional drinking water treatment strategies. While quaternary ammonium pyridine resins (QAPRs) possess porous adsorption structures and incorporate antibacterial groups, enabling simultaneous water disinfection and purification, their limited bactericidal efficacy hinders broader utilization. Therefore, a deeper understanding of the structure-dependent antimicrobial mechanism in QAPRs is crucial for improving their antibacterial performance. Hexyl (C6) was proved to be the optimal antibacterial alkyl in the QAPRs. A new antibacterial quaternary ammonium pyridine resin Py-61 was prepared by more surficial bactericidal N+ groups and higher efficient antibacterial hexyl, performing with the excellent antibacterial efficiency of 99.995%, far higher than the traditional resin Py-6C (89.53%). The antibacterial resin Py-61 completed the disinfection of sand-filtered water independently to produce safe drinking water, removing the viable bacteria from 3600 to 17 CFU/mL, which meets the drinking water standard of China in GB5749-2022 (<100 CFU/mL). Meanwhile, the contaminants in sand-filtered water were obviously removed by the resin Py-61, including anions and dissolved organic matter (DOM). The resin Py-61 can be regenerated by 15% NaCl solution, and keeps the reused antibacterial efficiency of >99.97%. As an integrated disinfection–purification solution, the novel antibacterial resin presents a promising alternative for enhancing safety in drinking water treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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22 pages, 2464 KiB  
Article
Development and Characterization of LL37 Antimicrobial-Peptide-Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles: An Antimicrobial Sustained Release System
by Fazilet Canatan Ergün, Meltem Demirel Kars and Gökhan Kars
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1884; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131884 - 7 Jul 2025
Viewed by 310
Abstract
CSNPs synthesized via the ionic gelation method have emerged as a promising nanoplatform in diverse fields such as pharmaceuticals, nanotechnology, and polymer science due to their biocompatibility, ease of fabrication, and tunable properties. This study focuses on the development and characterization of LL37-loaded [...] Read more.
CSNPs synthesized via the ionic gelation method have emerged as a promising nanoplatform in diverse fields such as pharmaceuticals, nanotechnology, and polymer science due to their biocompatibility, ease of fabrication, and tunable properties. This study focuses on the development and characterization of LL37-loaded CSNPs, designed to enhance antibacterial efficacy while maintaining biocompatibility. This study pioneers a systematic loading optimization approach by evaluating the encapsulation efficiency (%EE) of antimicrobial peptide LL37 across multiple concentrations (7.5, 15, and 30 µg/mL), thereby identifying the formulation that maximizes peptide incorporation while preserving controlled release characteristics. The multi-concentration analysis establishes a new methodological benchmark for peptide delivery system development. To achieve this, CSNPs were optimized for size and stability by adjusting parameters such as the chitosan concentration, pH, and stabilizer. LL37, a potent antimicrobial peptide, was successfully encapsulated into CSNPs at concentrations of 7.5, 15, and 30 µg/mL, yielding formulations with favorable physicochemical properties. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) and Zeta sizer analyses revealed that blank CSNPs exhibited an average particle size of 180.40 ± 2.16 nm, a zeta potential (ZP) of +40.57 ± 1.82 mV, and a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.289. In contrast, 15-LL37-CSNPs demonstrated an increased size of 210.9 ± 2.59 nm with an enhanced zeta potential of +51.21 ± 0.93 mV, indicating an improved stability and interaction potential. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) analyses exhibited the round shaped morphology of nanoparticles. The release profile of LL37 exhibited a concentration-dependent rate and showed the best fit with the first-order kinetic model. Cytocompatibility assessments using the XTT assay confirmed that both blank and LL37-loaded CSNPs did not exhibit cytotoxicity on keratinocyte cells across a range of concentrations (150 µg/mL to 0.29 µg/mL). Notably, LL37-loaded CSNPs demonstrated significant antibacterial activity against E. coli and S. aureus, with the 15-LL37-CSNP formulation exhibiting superior efficacy. Overall, these findings highlight the potential of LL37-CSNPs as a versatile antibacterial delivery system with applications in drug delivery, wound healing, and tissue engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biocompatible and Biodegradable Polymer Materials)
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23 pages, 9967 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Chemical Heterogeneity in Electrospun Fibers Through Hyperspectral Raman Imaging Using Open-Source Software
by Omar E. Uribe-Juárez, Luis A. Silva Valdéz, Flor Ivon Vivar Velázquez, Fidel Montoya-Molina, José A. Moreno-Razo, María G. Flores-Sánchez, Juan Morales-Corona and Roberto Olayo-González
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1883; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131883 - 6 Jul 2025
Viewed by 331
Abstract
Electrospinning is a versatile technique for producing porous nanofibers with a high specific surface area, making them ideal for several tissue engineering applications. Although Raman spectroscopy has been widely employed to characterize electrospun materials, but most studies report bulk-averaged properties without addressing the [...] Read more.
Electrospinning is a versatile technique for producing porous nanofibers with a high specific surface area, making them ideal for several tissue engineering applications. Although Raman spectroscopy has been widely employed to characterize electrospun materials, but most studies report bulk-averaged properties without addressing the spatial heterogeneity of their chemical composition. Raman imaging has emerged as a promising tool to overcome this limitation; however, challenges remain, including limited sensitivity for detecting minor components, reliance on distinctive high-intensity bands, and the frequent use of commercial software. In this study, we present a methodology based on Raman hyperspectral image processing using open-source software (Python), capable of identifying components present at concentrations as low as 2% and 5%, even in the absence of exclusive bands of high or medium intensity, respectively. The proposed approach integrates spectral segmentation, end member extraction via the N-FINDR algorithm, and analysis of average spectra to map and characterize the chemical heterogeneity within electrospun fibers. Finally, its performance is compared with the traditional approach based on band intensities, highlighting improvements in sensitivity and the detection of weak signals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Electrospun Polymer Nanofibers)
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15 pages, 1871 KiB  
Article
A Gelatin-Based Film with Acerola Pulp: Production, Characterization, and Application in the Stability of Meat Products
by Vitor Augusto dos Santos Garcia, Giovana de Menezes Rodrigues, Victória Munhoz Monteiro, Rosemary Aparecida de Carvalho, Camila da Silva, Cristiana Maria Pedroso Yoshida, Silvia Maria Martelli, José Ignacio Velasco and Farayde Matta Fakhouri
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1882; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131882 - 6 Jul 2025
Viewed by 317
Abstract
The objective of this work was to produce and characterize active gelatin–acerola packaging films based on gelatin incorporated with different concentrations of acerola pulp and applied to evaluate the stability of meat products in packaging. The active films were produced by casting using [...] Read more.
The objective of this work was to produce and characterize active gelatin–acerola packaging films based on gelatin incorporated with different concentrations of acerola pulp and applied to evaluate the stability of meat products in packaging. The active films were produced by casting using gelatin (5%), sorbitol (0,1%), and acerola pulp (60, 70, 80, and 90%). The characterization of the acerola pulp was carried out. Visual aspects, thickness, pH, water vapor permeability, and total phenolic compounds were characterized in the films. The commercial acerola pulp presented the characteristics within the identity and quality standards. A good film formation capacity was obtained in all formulations, presenting the color parameters tending to red coloration, characteristic of the acerola pulp. The total phenolic compounds content ranged from 2.88 ± 70.24 to 3.94 ± 96.05 mg GAE/100 g, with 90 g of acerola pulp per 100 g of filmogenic solution. This film formulation was selected to apply in a vacuum pack of beef and chicken samples, analyzing the weight loss, color parameters, pH, water holding capacity, shear strength after 9 days of refrigeration storage, and soil biodegradability. Additionally, beef and chicken (in nature) were stored under the same conditions without using the wrapping film. The beef and chicken samples showed greater water retention capacity and color maintenance over the storage period compared to the control (without film addition). This way, active gelatin–acerola films can be considered a sustainable packaging alternative to preserve meat products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Characterization and Applications of Natural Polymers, 2nd Edition)
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24 pages, 3541 KiB  
Review
Towards Intelligent Wound Care: Hydrogel-Based Wearable Monitoring and Therapeutic Platforms
by Yan Niu, Ziyao Zhao, Lihong Yang, Dan Lv, Rui Sun, Ting Zhang, Yuhan Li, Qianqian Bao, Mingqing Zhang, Lanzhong Wang, Wei Yan, Fei Han and Biwei Yan
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1881; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131881 - 6 Jul 2025
Viewed by 468
Abstract
Chronic wounds present clinical challenges due to persistent inflammation, infection, and dysregulated tissue repair, often exacerbated by the passive nature of conventional wound dressings. Recent advancements in hydrogel-based wearable technologies have transformed these biomaterials into multifunctional platforms capable of integrating real-time monitoring and [...] Read more.
Chronic wounds present clinical challenges due to persistent inflammation, infection, and dysregulated tissue repair, often exacerbated by the passive nature of conventional wound dressings. Recent advancements in hydrogel-based wearable technologies have transformed these biomaterials into multifunctional platforms capable of integrating real-time monitoring and targeted therapy, ushering in a new era of intelligent wound care. In this review, we show innovative diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, including wound-monitoring devices and multifunctional healing-promoted platforms, highlighting integrated closed-loop systems that dynamically adapt treatments to wound microenvironments, thus merging diagnostics and therapeutics. Challenges in fabrication engineering and clinical application are discussed, alongside emerging trends like AI-driven analytics and 3D-bioprinted technology. By bridging fragmented research, this work underscores the potential of hydrogels to enable intelligent wound management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Progress in the Polymer-Based Biomaterials)
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19 pages, 3482 KiB  
Article
Enhancing the Energy Absorption Performance of 3D-Printed CF/TPU Composite Materials by Introducing a “Rigid–Elastic” Structure Through Multi-Scale Synergies
by Xuanyu Zhou, He Ouyang, Yuan Zhang, Ziqiang Zhu, Zhen Wang, Zirui Cheng, Yubing Hu and Yanan Zhang
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1880; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131880 - 6 Jul 2025
Viewed by 359
Abstract
Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) combines elastomeric and thermoplastic properties but suffers from insufficient rigidity and strength for structural applications. Herein, we developed novel carbon fiber-reinforced TPU (CF/TPU) composites filaments and utilize melt extrusion for 3D printing to maintain elasticity, while achieving enhanced stiffness and [...] Read more.
Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) combines elastomeric and thermoplastic properties but suffers from insufficient rigidity and strength for structural applications. Herein, we developed novel carbon fiber-reinforced TPU (CF/TPU) composites filaments and utilize melt extrusion for 3D printing to maintain elasticity, while achieving enhanced stiffness and strength through multi scale-the control of fiber content and optimization of printing parameters, reaching a rigid–elastic balance. A systematic evaluation of CF content (0–25%) and printing parameters revealed optimal performance to be at 220–230 °C and 40 mm/s for ensuring proper flow to wet fibers without polymer degradation. Compared with TPU, 20% CF/TPU exhibited 63.65%, 105.51%, and 93.69% improvements in tensile, compressive, and impact strength, respectively, alongside 70.88% and 72.92% enhancements in compression and impact energy absorption. This work establishes a fundamental framework for developing rigid–elastic hybrid materials with tailored energy absorption capabilities through rational material design and optimized additive manufacturing processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Composites)
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20 pages, 3489 KiB  
Article
Exploring the Potential of Cellulose Nanocrystals Originated from Ramie (Boehmeria nivea L. Gaud) in Formation of Microspheres for Enhanced Solubility of Furosemide
by Anis Yohana Chaerunisaa, Yoga Windhu Wardhana, Mayang Kusuma Dewi, Margaretha Efa Putri and Fitriani Jati Rahmania
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1879; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131879 - 5 Jul 2025
Viewed by 239
Abstract
Cellulose nanocrystals possess unique properties such as high surface area and excellent biocompatibility. They can disrupt strong hydrogen bonds and other intermolecular forces that hinder the solubility of certain molecules thus enhancing the solubility of poorly soluble materials. The main challenge in formulating [...] Read more.
Cellulose nanocrystals possess unique properties such as high surface area and excellent biocompatibility. They can disrupt strong hydrogen bonds and other intermolecular forces that hinder the solubility of certain molecules thus enhancing the solubility of poorly soluble materials. The main challenge in formulating poorly soluble drugs lies in their limited therapeutic efficacy due to inadequate solubility and bioavailability. Therefore, an innovative approach such as using cellulose nanocrystals to enhance the solubility is highly needed. The aim of this research is to study the potential of ramie (Boehmeria nivea L. Gaud) as a source of cellulose nanocrystals in the development of microspheres for the solubility enhancement of poorly soluble drugs. Nanocrystalline cellulose was isolated from the ramie (Boehmeria nivea L. Gaud) by optimizing hydrolysis conditions with varying acid concentrations and reaction times. Characterizations were performed by measuring particle size, pH, and sulfate content, followed by morphological study by SEM, functional group analysis, and thermal analysis. The use of sulfuric acid in the hydrolysis process of flax cellulose at 45 °C, as the type of acid that gives the best results, at 50% acid concentration for 60 min produces cellulose nanocrystallines with a particle size of 120 nm, sulfate concentration density of 133.09 mmol/kg, crystallinity of 96.2%, and a yield of 63.24 ± 8.72%. Furosemide was used as the poorly soluble drug model and its solubility enhancement in the form of furosemide/RNCC microspheres was evaluated through saturated solubility testing and in vitro dissolution. This study demonstrated that RNCC could improve the solubility of furosemide, which contributes to developing sustainable drug formulations and eco-friendly delivery systems for poorly soluble drugs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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11 pages, 4789 KiB  
Article
Preliminary Study on the Development of a Biodegradable Functional Nasal Packing Material
by Dong Hoon Lee, EunA So, Faizan E Mustafa, Jae-ho Jeong and Bong-Kee Lee
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1878; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131878 - 5 Jul 2025
Viewed by 266
Abstract
Introduction: Functional endoscopic sinus surgery is commonly performed to treat paranasal sinus diseases, often necessitating nasal packing to control bleeding and aid healing. However, current materials can cause discomfort or lack adequate antibacterial properties. This study aimed to develop a biodegradable, biocompatible nasal [...] Read more.
Introduction: Functional endoscopic sinus surgery is commonly performed to treat paranasal sinus diseases, often necessitating nasal packing to control bleeding and aid healing. However, current materials can cause discomfort or lack adequate antibacterial properties. This study aimed to develop a biodegradable, biocompatible nasal packing material by combining polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and carbon dots (CDs), and to evaluate its antibacterial activity and tissue compatibility. Materials and Methods: Electrospun nanofiber membranes were fabricated using PVA and biomass-derived CDs. Antibacterial efficacy of nasal packing variants (PVA, PVA-chitosan [CS], PVA-CS-CDs-1 mL, and PVA-CS-CDs-2 mL) was assessed using the Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion method against Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., and Staphylococcus aureus. The in vivo biocompatibility was evaluated via histological analysis following implantation into the nasal cavity of mice. Results: All materials demonstrated antibacterial activity, with PVA-CS-CDs-2 mL showing the largest inhibition zones. Histological examination revealed minimal epithelial damage and no inflammation, with PVA-CS-CDs-2 mL yielding the most favorable tissue response. Conclusion: The PVA-CS-CDs composite demonstrates potential as a biocompatible, antibacterial nasal packing material. Further studies are warranted to validate its long-term clinical utility. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers)
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18 pages, 2880 KiB  
Article
Novel Magnetically Charged Grafts for Vascular Repair: Process Optimization, Mechanical Characterization and In Vitro Validation
by Iriczalli Cruz-Maya, Roberto De Santis, Luciano Lanotte and Vincenzo Guarino
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1877; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131877 - 5 Jul 2025
Viewed by 352
Abstract
In the last decade, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have attracted much attention for the implementation of non-invasive approaches suitable for the diagnosis and treatment of vascular diseases. In this work, the optimization of novel vascular grafts loaded with Nickel-based nanoparticles via electrospinning is proposed. [...] Read more.
In the last decade, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have attracted much attention for the implementation of non-invasive approaches suitable for the diagnosis and treatment of vascular diseases. In this work, the optimization of novel vascular grafts loaded with Nickel-based nanoparticles via electrospinning is proposed. Two different polycarbonate urethanes—i.e., Corethane A80 (COT) and Chronoflex AL80 (CHF)—were used to fabricate 3D electrospun nanocomposite grafts. SEM analysis showed a homogeneous distribution of fibers, with slight differences in terms of average diameters as a function of the polymer used—(1.14 ± 0.18) µm for COT, and (1.33 ± 0.23) µm for CHF—that tend to disappear in the presence of MNPs—(1.26 ± 0.19) µm and (1.26 ± 0.213) µm for COT/NPs and CHF/NPs, respectively. TGA analyses confirmed the higher ability of CHF to entrap MNPs in the fibers—18.25% with respect to 14.63% for COT—while DSC analyses suggested an effect of MNPs on short-range rearrangements of hard/soft micro-domains of CHF. Accordingly, mechanical tests confirmed a decay of mechanical strength in the presence of MNPs with some differences depending on the matrix—from (6.16 ± 0.33) MPa to (4.55 ± 0.2) MPa (COT), and from (3.67 ± 0.18) MPa to (2.97 ± 0.22) MPa (CNF). The in vitro response revealed that the presence of MNPs did not negatively affect cell viability after 7 days in in vitro culture, suggesting a promising use of these materials as smart vascular grafts able to support the actuation function of vessel wall muscles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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10 pages, 1819 KiB  
Article
Design and Synthesis of Fe3O4-Loaded Polymer Microspheres with Controlled Morphology: Section II Fabrication of Walnut-like Superparamagnetic Polymer Microspheres
by Florence Acha, Talya Scheff, Nathalia DiazArmas and Jinde Zhang
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1876; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131876 - 5 Jul 2025
Viewed by 270
Abstract
A simple and innovative synthesis strategy was established to produce polymer microspheres with a distinctive walnut-like morphology, incorporating Fe3O4 nanoparticles within their structure. This was achieved through γ-ray-initiated mini-emulsion polymerization. To ensure high encapsulation efficiency, the surface of the Fe [...] Read more.
A simple and innovative synthesis strategy was established to produce polymer microspheres with a distinctive walnut-like morphology, incorporating Fe3O4 nanoparticles within their structure. This was achieved through γ-ray-initiated mini-emulsion polymerization. To ensure high encapsulation efficiency, the surface of the Fe3O4 nanoparticles was chemically altered to shift their wettability from hydrophilic to hydrophobic, enabling uniform dispersion within the monomer phase before polymerization. The formation of the walnut-like architecture was found to be significantly influenced by both the polymerization dynamics and phase separation, as well as the shrinkage of the crosslinked polymer network formed between the monomer and the resulting polymer. Divinylbenzene (DVB) was chosen as the monomer due to its ability to generate a mechanically stable polymer framework. The γ-ray irradiation effectively initiated polymerization while preserving structural coherence. A detailed analysis using FTIR, SEM, and TEM confirmed the successful fabrication of the Fe3O4-loaded polymer microspheres with their characteristic textured surface. Moreover, magnetic characterization via vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM) indicated pronounced superparamagnetic behavior and strong magnetic responsiveness, highlighting the potential of these microspheres for advanced biomedical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Innovation of Polymer Science and Technology)
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22 pages, 4077 KiB  
Article
Strong Amphoteric Adsorption of Reactive Red-141 onto Modified Orange Peel Derivatives: Optimization, Characterization, and Mechanism
by Behlul Koc-Bilican, Ismail Bilican and Hakan Çelebi
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1875; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131875 - 4 Jul 2025
Viewed by 380
Abstract
This study investigates the adsorption performance of Reactive Red-141 (ReR-141) using three modified orange peel derivatives: raw orange peel (ROP), oil-free orange peel (NOOP), and cellulose extract (CE). The adsorbents were prepared through sequential treatments and characterized by scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray [...] Read more.
This study investigates the adsorption performance of Reactive Red-141 (ReR-141) using three modified orange peel derivatives: raw orange peel (ROP), oil-free orange peel (NOOP), and cellulose extract (CE). The adsorbents were prepared through sequential treatments and characterized by scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy to investigate their surface morphology and functional groups. Batch adsorption experiments were conducted under varying conditions of pH, temperature, time, and adsorbent amount. NOOP displayed the highest adsorption capacity (99.72% removal efficiency), followed by CE (86.99%) and ROP (77.55%), under optimal conditions. The adsorption kinetics followed a PSO model, while the equilibrium data were best described by Langmuir, indicating monolayer adsorption. Thermodynamic factors confirmed that the process was self-generated and primarily determined by physisorption. Desorption studies using 0.2 M NaOH demonstrated that NOOP retained 98.16% efficiency after three cycles, indicating its strong reusability. The adsorption mechanism is determined by different interactions, such as electrostatic forces, H-bonding, and π–π stacking. These findings suggest that orange peel derivatives, particularly NOOP, serve as optimal and environmentally sustainable adsorbents for the yield of ReR-141 from synthetic aqueous media. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers)
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18 pages, 7280 KiB  
Article
Bionic Bovine Achilles Tendon Collagen Composite Membrane Loaded with Anti-Inflammatory Kukoamine B Promotes Skin Wound Healing
by Ruting Luo, Yujie Mu, Le Zhao, Jinglin Hua, Lixin Cao, Danting Chen, Kun Li, Zhenkai Jin, Yanchuan Guo, Bing Zhang and Min Wang
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1874; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131874 - 4 Jul 2025
Viewed by 308
Abstract
Skin is the first line of defence between the human body and the outside world, and it is constantly exposed to external injuries and wounds for a variety of reasons. Collagen is a structural protein of the extracellular matrix and an important component [...] Read more.
Skin is the first line of defence between the human body and the outside world, and it is constantly exposed to external injuries and wounds for a variety of reasons. Collagen is a structural protein of the extracellular matrix and an important component of the dermis. As a wound dressing, collagen not only provides nutrients to wounds but also enhances the immune response in the pre-healing phase, making it an excellent biomaterial for healing. In this study, we used electrospinning and freeze-drying technology to prepare a Bovine Achilles Tendon Collagen (BATC) electrospun composite membrane and a BATC freeze-dried composite membrane using BATC as a substrate supplemented with 16.7% Polyethylene oxide (PEO) and 0.2% Kukoamine B (KuB). The physicochemical properties and biocompatibility of the BATC composite membrane were verified via scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and DSC analysis and by measuring the DPPH radical-scavenging capacity, water absorption, water retention, in vitro drug release, and extract cytotoxicity. The BATC composite membrane was found to have a significant effect on skin wound healing, especially in the middle stage of healing, in a mouse full-thickness skin injury model. The BATC/PEO/KuB electrospun composite membrane (EBPK) had the best capacity for promoting wound healing and can be used as a wound dressing for in-depth research and development, and KuB, a monomer component with a clear structure and mechanism of action, can be used as a candidate component of composite dressings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers)
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20 pages, 1787 KiB  
Review
Machine Learning in Predicting and Optimizing Polymer Printability for 3D Bioprinting
by Junjie Yu, Danyu Yao, Ling Wang and Mingen Xu
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1873; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131873 - 4 Jul 2025
Viewed by 283
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting has emerged as a highly promising technology within the realms of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. The assessment of printability is essential for ensuring the quality of bio-printed constructs and the functionality of the resultant tissues. Polymer materials, extensively utilized [...] Read more.
Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting has emerged as a highly promising technology within the realms of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. The assessment of printability is essential for ensuring the quality of bio-printed constructs and the functionality of the resultant tissues. Polymer materials, extensively utilized as bioink materials in extrusion-based bioprinting, have garnered significant attention from researchers due to the critical need for evaluating and optimizing their printability. Machine learning, a powerful data-driven technology, has attracted increasing attention in the evaluation and optimization of 3D bioprinting printability in recent years. This review provides an overview of the application of machine learning in the printability research of polymers for 3D bioprinting, encompassing the analysis of factors influencing printability (such as material and printing parameters), the development of predictive models, and the formulation of optimization strategies. Additionally, the review briefly explores the utilization of machine learning in predicting cell viability, evaluates the advanced nature and developmental potential of machine learning in 3D bioprinting, and examines the current challenges and future trends. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Artificial Intelligence in Polymer Science)
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24 pages, 6713 KiB  
Article
Modelling and Optimisation of FDM-Printed Short Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Nylon Using CCF and RSM
by Qibin Fang, Jing Yu and Bowen Shi
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1872; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131872 - 4 Jul 2025
Viewed by 311
Abstract
Nylon reinforced with short carbon fibres exhibits superior mechanical properties. Its use as a feedstock for fused deposition modelling (FDM) can extend its applications to consumer goods and industrial products. To investigate the flexural and impact properties of the FDM-printed short carbon fibre-reinforced [...] Read more.
Nylon reinforced with short carbon fibres exhibits superior mechanical properties. Its use as a feedstock for fused deposition modelling (FDM) can extend its applications to consumer goods and industrial products. To investigate the flexural and impact properties of the FDM-printed short carbon fibre-reinforced nylon, a central composite face-centred (CCF) design with four factors and three levels and the response surface method (RSM) were employed. The four primary process parameters are the extrusion and bed temperatures, printing speed, and layer thickness. The three investigated responses were the flexural strength, flexural modulus, and impact strength. Perturbation curves and contour plots were used to analyse the influences of the individual and two-way interactions of the response parameters, respectively. Second-order statistical models were constructed to predict and optimise the mechanical properties. The optimal comprehensive mechanical properties were determined using a desirability function combined with the entropy weighting method. The predicted results of best comprehensive mechanical properties are 169.881 MPa for the flexural strength, 9249.11 MPa for the flexural modulus, and 29.659 kJ∙m−2 for the impact strength, achieved under the parameter combination of extrusion temperature of 318 °C, bed temperature of 90 °C, printing speed of 30 mm∙s−1, and layer thickness of 0.1 mm. A small deviation between the predicted and experimental results indicated the high reliability of the proposed method. The optimal outcomes under the studied parameters showed higher robustness and integrity than previously reported results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Fibers)
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24 pages, 4729 KiB  
Article
Formulation and Stability of Quercetin-Loaded Pickering Emulsions Using Chitosan/Gum Arabic Nanoparticles for Topical Skincare Applications
by Mathukorn Sainakham, Paemika Arunlakvilart, Napatwan Samran, Pattavet Vivattanaseth and Weeraya Preedalikit
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1871; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131871 - 4 Jul 2025
Viewed by 355
Abstract
Natural polymer-based nanoparticles have emerged as promising stabilizers for Pickering emulsions, offering biocompatibility, environmental sustainability, and improved protection of active compounds. This study developed chitosan/gum arabic (CH/GA) nanoparticles as solid stabilizers for quercetin-loaded Pickering emulsions to enhance the stability and antioxidant bioactivity of [...] Read more.
Natural polymer-based nanoparticles have emerged as promising stabilizers for Pickering emulsions, offering biocompatibility, environmental sustainability, and improved protection of active compounds. This study developed chitosan/gum arabic (CH/GA) nanoparticles as solid stabilizers for quercetin-loaded Pickering emulsions to enhance the stability and antioxidant bioactivity of quercetin (QE), a plant-derived flavonoid known for its potent radical-scavenging activity but limited by oxidative degradation. A systematic formulation strategy was employed to evaluate the effects of CH/GA concentration (0.5–2.0% w/v), oil type (olive, soybean, sunflower, and coconut), and oil volume fraction (ϕ = 0.5–0.7) on emulsion stability. The formulation containing 1.5% CH/GA and olive oil at ϕ = 0.6 exhibited optimal physical and interfacial stability. Quercetin (0.1% w/w) was incorporated into the optimized emulsions and characterized for long-term stability, particle size, droplet morphology, rheology, antioxidant activity (DPPH), cytocompatibility, and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) protection using HaCaT keratinocytes. The olive oil-based formulation (D1-QE) exhibited greater viscosity retention and antioxidant stability than its soybean-based counterpart (E2-QE) under both room temperature (RT) and accelerated heating–cooling (H/C) storage conditions. Confocal microscopy confirmed the accumulation of CH/GA nanoparticles at the oil–water interface, forming a dense interfacial barrier and enhancing emulsion stability. HPLC analysis showed that D1-QE retained 92.8 ± 0.5% of QE at RT and 82.8 ± 1.5% under H/C conditions after 30 days. Antioxidant activity was largely preserved, with only 4.7 ± 1.7% and 14.9 ± 4.8% loss of DPPH radical scavenging activity at RT and H/C, respectively. Cytotoxicity testing in HaCaT keratinocytes confirmed that the emulsions were non-toxic at 1 mg/mL QE and effectively reduced H2O2-induced oxidative stress, decreasing intracellular ROS levels by 75.16%. These results highlight the potential of CH/GA-stabilized Pickering emulsions as a polymer-based delivery system for maintaining the stability and functional antioxidant activity of QE in bioactive formulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application II)
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11 pages, 6984 KiB  
Article
Self-Assembly of Amphiphilic Comb-like Copolymers into Micelles and Vesicles in Solution
by Qiaoyue Chen, Kun Tian, Ruiqi Zhu, Mingming Ding and Zhanwen Xu
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1870; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131870 - 4 Jul 2025
Viewed by 354
Abstract
Combining Brownian dynamics simulations and self-consistent field theory, we demonstrate that stable assembled structures, such as vesicles, toroidal micelles, bowl-like micelles, sheet-like micelles, non-spherical vesicles, and cylindrical micelles, are dependent on the molecular parameters of amphiphilic comb-like copolymers. Importantly, we find that vesicle [...] Read more.
Combining Brownian dynamics simulations and self-consistent field theory, we demonstrate that stable assembled structures, such as vesicles, toroidal micelles, bowl-like micelles, sheet-like micelles, non-spherical vesicles, and cylindrical micelles, are dependent on the molecular parameters of amphiphilic comb-like copolymers. Importantly, we find that vesicle formation involves two intermediate states, sheet-like and bowl-like micelles, and the difference in their free energies is minimal, which illustrates the coexisting phase between them. Moreover, the assembled vesicles can be modulated in the membrane thickness with overall size, unchanged only by adjusting the backbone length. We also demonstrate the coexistence of toroidal and cylindrical micelles because neither structure has a significant advantage over the other in free energy. Our work points out how to obtain different morphologies by adjusting the molecular parameters of amphiphilic comb-like copolymers, instilling confidence in their potential for stable drug encapsulation and enhanced targeted drug delivery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications of Block Copolymers II)
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24 pages, 7709 KiB  
Article
Quaternized Polysulfones as Matrix for the Development of Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobial Coatings for Medical Devices
by Oana Dumbrava, Irina Rosca, Daniela Ailincai and Luminita Marin
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1869; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131869 - 3 Jul 2025
Viewed by 375
Abstract
The development and application of antimicrobial coatings has become increasingly important in both medical and industrial settings due to the rising threat of microbial contamination and antibiotic resistance. This paper focuses on the formulation, characterization, and investigation of coatings based on quaternized polysulfone, [...] Read more.
The development and application of antimicrobial coatings has become increasingly important in both medical and industrial settings due to the rising threat of microbial contamination and antibiotic resistance. This paper focuses on the formulation, characterization, and investigation of coatings based on quaternized polysulfone, which are designed to encapsulate two broad-spectrum antimicrobial drugs with complementary activity, amphotericin B (AmB) and norfloxacin (NFX), with the primary aim of inhibiting pathogen colonization on surgical instruments. Structural characterization using FTIR, 1H-NMR, and UV-Vis spectroscopy, along with supramolecular analysis via X-ray diffraction and polarized optical microscopy (POM), revealed strong physical interactions between the drugs and the quaternized polysulfone matrix. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed a uniform distribution of the antimicrobial agents within the polymeric matrix. Surface wettability, assessed through water contact angle measurements, indicated moderate hydrophilicity (70–90°). The coatings also exhibited notable antioxidant activity, showing a 12-fold increase in DPPH radical inhibition compared to the control. Furthermore, all formulations demonstrated strong antimicrobial efficacy against three reference strains frequently associated with hospital-acquired infections, S. aureus, E. coli, and C. albicans, with inhibition zones ranging from 32 to 39.67 mm for bacterial strains and 13.86 to 20.86 mm for C. albicans. These data points indicate that these materials may be useful as antimicrobial coatings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Coatings for High-Performance Applications)
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16 pages, 2087 KiB  
Article
Predictive Modelling and Optimisation of Rubber Blend Mixing Using a General Regression Neural Network
by Ivan Kopal, Ivan Labaj, Juliána Vršková, Marta Harničárová, Jan Valíček, Alžbeta Bakošová, Hakan Tozan and Ashish Khanna
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1868; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131868 - 3 Jul 2025
Viewed by 327
Abstract
This paper presents an intelligent predictive system designed to support real-time decision making in the control of rubber blend mixing processes. The core of the system is a General Regression Neural Network (GRNN), which accurately predicts key process parameters, such as viscosity (expressed [...] Read more.
This paper presents an intelligent predictive system designed to support real-time decision making in the control of rubber blend mixing processes. The core of the system is a General Regression Neural Network (GRNN), which accurately predicts key process parameters, such as viscosity (expressed as torque), temperature, and energy consumption across varying masses of the processed material. The model can evaluate the mixing progress based on the initial 10% of input data, allowing early intervention and process optimisation. Experimental validation was conducted using a Brabender Plastograph EC Plus with a natural rubber-based blend in the mass range of 60–75 g. The GRNN kernel width parameter (σ) was optimised through a 10-fold cross-validation. High predictive accuracy was confirmed by values of the coefficient of determination (R2) approaching 1, and consistently low values of the root mean square error (RMSE). This system offers a robust and scalable solution for intelligent process control, productivity enhancement, and quality assurance across diverse industrial applications, beyond rubber blending. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence in Polymers)
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20 pages, 15028 KiB  
Article
Development and Characterization of Self-Adhesive Polymeric Films with Antiallergic Effect
by Ioana Savencu, Sonia Iurian, Cătălina Bogdan, Valentin Toma, Rareș Știufiuc and Ioan Tomuță
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1867; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131867 - 3 Jul 2025
Viewed by 674
Abstract
This study aimed to design self-adhesive cutaneous films with an antiallergic effect using a Design of Experiments approach. The active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) was diphenhydramine hydrochloride (DPH). A full factorial experimental design with three factors and two levels was created. The factors were [...] Read more.
This study aimed to design self-adhesive cutaneous films with an antiallergic effect using a Design of Experiments approach. The active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) was diphenhydramine hydrochloride (DPH). A full factorial experimental design with three factors and two levels was created. The factors were the polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) ratio, the polyacrylic acid (PAA) ratio, and the type of plasticizer. The responses evaluated were hardness, deformation at hardness, adhesive force, and in vitro DPH release profile. Eleven formulations were generated, prepared in two steps via solvent casting, and characterized in terms of mechanical and adhesive properties, as well as the in vitro DPH release profile. The PVA ratio had the most significant impact on the responses, followed by PEG 400 and PEG 4000. Four film formulations were investigated using Raman spectroscopy, which revealed that the API was distributed in both the base and adhesive layers. Consequently, an optimal formulation was prepared and characterized. Good mechanical properties (a hardness of 463.7 g and a deformation at hardness of 16.56 mm) and an increased adhesive force (76 g) were observed, while the DPH was released up to 68% over 12 h. In conclusion, a novel self-adhesive film was developed, which may enhance patients’ adherence to local antiallergic treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Membranes and Films)
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16 pages, 2745 KiB  
Article
Next-Generation Nafion Membranes: Synergistic Enhancement of Electrochemical Performance and Thermomechanical Stability with Sulfonated Siliceous Layered Material (sSLM)
by Valeria Loise and Cataldo Simari
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1866; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131866 - 3 Jul 2025
Viewed by 312
Abstract
Nafion, while a benchmark proton exchange membrane (PEM) for fuel cells, suffers from significant performance degradation at elevated temperatures and low humidity due to dehydration and diminished mechanical stability. To address these limitations, this study investigated the development and characterization of Nafion nanocomposite [...] Read more.
Nafion, while a benchmark proton exchange membrane (PEM) for fuel cells, suffers from significant performance degradation at elevated temperatures and low humidity due to dehydration and diminished mechanical stability. To address these limitations, this study investigated the development and characterization of Nafion nanocomposite membranes incorporating sulfonated silica layered materials (sSLMs). The inherent lamellar structure, high surface area, and abundant sulfonic acid functionalities of sSLMs were leveraged to synergistically enhance membrane properties. Our results demonstrate that sSLM incorporation significantly improved ion exchange capacity, water uptake, and dimensional stability, leading to superior water retention and self-diffusion at higher temperatures. Critically, the nanocomposite membranes exhibited remarkably enhanced proton conductivity, particularly under demanding conditions of 120 C and low relative humidity (i.e., 20% RH), where filler-free Nafion largely ceases to conduct. Single H2/O2 fuel cell tests confirmed these enhancements, with the optimal sSLM-Nafion nanocomposite membrane (N-sSLM5) achieving a two-fold power density improvement over pristine Nafion at 120 C and 20% RH (340 mW cm−2 vs. 117 mW cm−2 for Nafion). These findings underscore the immense potential of sSLM as a functional filler for fabricating robust and high-performance PEMs, paving the way for the next generation of fuel cells capable of operating efficiently under more challenging environmental conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Membranes and Films)
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21 pages, 8987 KiB  
Article
Modeling and Compensation Methods for Trajectory Errors in Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites Using 3D Printing
by Manxian Liu, Sheng Qu, Shuo Li, Xiaoqiang Yan, Wei Li and Yesong Wang
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1865; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131865 - 3 Jul 2025
Viewed by 247
Abstract
Defects arising from the 3D printing process of continuous fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composites primarily hinder their overall performance. These defects particularly include twisting, folding, and breakage of the fiber bundle, which are induced by printing trajectory errors. This study presents a follow-up theory assumption [...] Read more.
Defects arising from the 3D printing process of continuous fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composites primarily hinder their overall performance. These defects particularly include twisting, folding, and breakage of the fiber bundle, which are induced by printing trajectory errors. This study presents a follow-up theory assumption to address such issues, elucidates the formation mechanism of printing trajectory errors, and examines the impact of key geometric parameters—trace curvature, nozzle diameter, and fiber bundle diameter—on these errors. An error model for printing trajectory is established, accompanied by the proposal of a trajectory error compensation method premised on maximum printable curvature. The presented case study uses CCFRF/PA as an exemplar; here, the printing layer height is 0.1~0.3 mm, the fiber bundle radius is 0.2 mm, and the printing speed is 600 mm/min. The maximum printing curvature, gauged by the printing trajectory of a clothoid, is found to be 0.416 mm−1. Experimental results demonstrate that the error model provides accurate predictions of the printed trajectory error, particularly when the printed trajectory forms an obtuse angle. The average prediction deviations for line profile, deviation kurtosis, and deviation area ratio are 36.029%, 47.238%, and 2.045%, respectively. The error compensation effectively mitigates the defects of fiber bundle folding and twisting, while maintaining the printing trajectory error within minimal range. These results indicate that the proposed method substantially enhances the internal defects of 3D printed components and may potentially be applied to other continuous fiber printing types. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymers Science and Technology: From Nano-Engineering to Multifunctional Applications)
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19 pages, 11146 KiB  
Article
Effect of Build Orientation on Surface Finish and Hydrodynamic Stability of Inkjet 3D-Printed Microfluidic Channels
by Emanuela Cutuli, Lorena Saitta, Nunzio Tuccitto, Gianluca Cicala and Maide Bucolo
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1864; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131864 - 3 Jul 2025
Viewed by 274
Abstract
This study examined the effect of build orientation on the surface finish of micro-optofludic (MoF) devices fabricated via a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-based 3D-printing primary–secondary fabrication protocol, where an inkjet 3D-printing technique was implemented. The molds (i.e., primaries) for fabricating the MoF devices were 3D-printed [...] Read more.
This study examined the effect of build orientation on the surface finish of micro-optofludic (MoF) devices fabricated via a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-based 3D-printing primary–secondary fabrication protocol, where an inkjet 3D-printing technique was implemented. The molds (i.e., primaries) for fabricating the MoF devices were 3D-printed in two orientations: along XY (Dev-1) and across YX (Dev-2) the printhead direction. Next, the surface finish was characterized using a profilometer to acquire the primary profile of the surface along the microchannel’s edge. The results indicated that the build orientation had a strong influence on the latter, since Dev-1 displayed a tall and narrow Gaussian distribution for a channel width of 398.43 ± 0.29 µm; Dev-2 presented a slightly lower value of 393.74 ± 1.67 µm, characterized by a flat and broader distribution, highlighting greater variability due to more disruptive, orthogonally oriented, and striated patterns. These results were also confirmed by hydrodynamically testing the two MoF devices with an air–water slug flow process. A large experimental study was conducted by analyzing the mean period trend in the slug flow with respect to the imposed flow rate and build orientation. Dev-1 showed greater sensitivity to flow rate changes, attributed to its smoother, more consistent microchannel geometry. The slightly narrower average channel width in Dev-2 contributed to increased flow velocity at the expense of having worse discrimination capability at different flow rates. This study is relevant for optimizing 3D-printing strategies for the fabrication of high-performance microfluidic devices, where precise flow control is essential for applications in biomedical engineering, chemical processing, and lab-on-a-chip systems. These findings highlight the effect of microchannel morphology in tuning a system’s sensitivity to flow rate modulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Analysis and Characterization)
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13 pages, 3705 KiB  
Article
Molecular Simulations of Interface-Driven Crosslinked Network Formation and Mechanical Response in Composite Propellants
by Chen Ling, Xinke Zhang, Xin Li, Guozhu Mou, Xiang Guo, Bing Yuan and Kai Yang
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1863; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131863 - 3 Jul 2025
Viewed by 304
Abstract
Composite solid propellants, which serve as the core energetic materials in aerospace and military propulsion systems, necessitate tailored enhancement of their mechanical properties to ensure operational safety and stability. A critical challenge involves elucidating the interfacial interactions among the multiple propellant components (≥6 [...] Read more.
Composite solid propellants, which serve as the core energetic materials in aerospace and military propulsion systems, necessitate tailored enhancement of their mechanical properties to ensure operational safety and stability. A critical challenge involves elucidating the interfacial interactions among the multiple propellant components (≥6 components, including the polymer binder HTPB, curing agent IPDI, oxidizer particles AP/Al, bonding agents MAPO/T313, plasticizer DOS, etc.) and their influence on crosslinked network formation. In this study, we propose an integrated computational framework that combines coarse-grained simulations with reactive force fields to investigate these complex interactions at the molecular level. Our approach successfully elucidates the two-step reaction mechanism propagating along the AP interface in multicomponent propellants, comprising interfacial self-polymerization of bonding agents followed by the participation of curing agents in crosslinked network formation. Furthermore, we assess the mechanical performance through tensile simulations, systematically investigating both defect formation near the interface and the influence of key parameters, including the self-polymerization time, HTPB chain length, and IPDI content. Our results indicate that the rational selection of parameters enables the optimization of mechanical properties (e.g., ~20% synchronous improvement in tensile modulus and strength, achieved by selecting a side-chain ratio of 20%, a DOS molar ratio of 2.5%, a MAPO:T313 ratio of 1:2, a self-polymerization MAPO time of 260 ns, etc.). Overall, this study provides molecular-level insights into the structure–property relationships of composite propellants and offers a valuable computational framework for guided formulation optimization in propellant manufacturing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Polymerization and Kinetic Studies)
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28 pages, 6926 KiB  
Article
Effect of Recycling and UV Ageing on the Properties of PLA-Based Materials Used in Additive Manufacturing
by Petr Jirků, Miroslav Muller, Rajesh Kumar Mishra and Jaroslava Svobodová
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1862; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131862 - 3 Jul 2025
Viewed by 341
Abstract
This article focuses on the possibility of using biodegradable polymer-composite materials in additive manufacturing via fused deposition modelling (FDM) 3D printing. The main objective was to experimentally verify the technical feasibility of the repeated use of recycled PLA and PLA composites containing 10% [...] Read more.
This article focuses on the possibility of using biodegradable polymer-composite materials in additive manufacturing via fused deposition modelling (FDM) 3D printing. The main objective was to experimentally verify the technical feasibility of the repeated use of recycled PLA and PLA composites containing 10% natural coffee-ground (CG) filler in a print–degradation–recycling–print cycle. Special attention was paid to simulated ultraviolet radiation as a degradation factor affecting the materials’ mechanical properties. Pure PLA and PLA_CG were compared at four levels of degradation time and after subsequent recycling. The results show that the inclusion of coffee-ground filler slightly reduces the initial strength but enhances the 3D-printed material’s resistance to UV degradation and thus extends its functional service life. Unlike pure PLA, which loses its processability after 12 weeks, PLA_CG retains structural integrity and mechanical functionality. The research confirms the potential of recycled PLA composites with natural fillers for sustainable manufacturing and supports their use within a circular economy framework. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physicochemical Properties of Polymer Composites)
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2 pages, 473 KiB  
Correction
Correction: Elbedwehy, A.M.; Atta, A.M. Novel Superadsorbent Highly Porous Hydrogel Based on Arabic Gum and Acrylamide Grafts for Fast and Efficient Methylene Blue Removal. Polymers 2020, 12, 338
by Ahmed M. Elbedwehy and Ayman M. Atta
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1861; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131861 - 3 Jul 2025
Viewed by 164
Abstract
In the original publication [...] Full article
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13 pages, 274 KiB  
Article
Chitosan and Cashew Nut Shell Liquid as Sustainable Additives: Enhancing Starch Digestibility and Reducing Methane Emissions in High-Grain Diets for Feedlot Cattle
by Raquel Tenório de Oliveira, Rafael Henrique de Tonissi e Buschinelli de Goes, Jefferson Rodrigues Gandra, Fernanda Naiara Fogaça da Cruz, Nayara Gonçalves da Silva, Lara de Souza Oliveira, Jaqueline Luiza Royer, Lucas Gabriel Batista Domiciano, Tainá Lorraine Pereira Azevedo and Carolina Marques Costa Araújo
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1860; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131860 - 3 Jul 2025
Viewed by 254
Abstract
Chitosan and technical cashew nutshell liquid (CNSLt) have emerged as promising natural compounds due to their antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and fermentation-modulating properties. This study aimed to evaluate the inclusion of chitosan and CNSLt as potential substitutes for the ionophore monensin on feed intake, ruminal [...] Read more.
Chitosan and technical cashew nutshell liquid (CNSLt) have emerged as promising natural compounds due to their antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and fermentation-modulating properties. This study aimed to evaluate the inclusion of chitosan and CNSLt as potential substitutes for the ionophore monensin on feed intake, ruminal fermentation, nitrogen balance, and microbial protein synthesis in steers. Five crossbred steers (Bos taurus), 18 months old with an average body weight of approximately 350 kg and fitted with permanent ruminal cannulas, were assigned to a 5 × 5 Latin square design. The experimental diets consisted of: (1) control (CON), (2) monensin (MON; 25 mg/kg of dry matter [DM]), (3) chitosan (CHI; ≥850 g/kg deacetylation degree, 375 mg/kg DM), (4) CNSLt (500 mg/kg DM), and (5) CNSLt + CHI (500 + 375 mg/kg DM). Supplementation with CHI or CNSLt + CHI reduced the intake of dry matter, crude protein, and neutral detergent fiber. Additionally, fecal excretion of whole corn kernels increased in these treatments. Ruminal fermentation parameters were affected, with the CNSLt + CHI treatment promoting higher molar proportions of propionate and acetate, along with reduced estimated methane emissions. However, purine derivatives, microbial protein synthesis, and nitrogen balance were not significantly affected by any of the treatments. These results suggest that CNSLt and CHI, particularly when combined, may serve as effective natural alternatives to monensin in high-grain diets for ruminants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances of Chitin and Chitosan-Based Materials: Preparation and Applications)
18 pages, 2633 KiB  
Article
Optimizing Tannin-NaCMC Compositions via DOE for Enhanced Carbon Yield and Strength in 3D-Printed Porous Carbon
by Wonseok Tae, Hao Cheng, Sangyou Kim, Yeongjun Lee and Wonsuk Jung
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1859; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131859 - 3 Jul 2025
Viewed by 264
Abstract
We report the fabrication of lightweight porous carbon structures via UV-assisted photopolymerization molding using a commercial photocurable resin modified with natural tannin and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (NaCMC) as sustainable additives. A systematic analysis was conducted by applying a Design of Experiments (DOE) approach [...] Read more.
We report the fabrication of lightweight porous carbon structures via UV-assisted photopolymerization molding using a commercial photocurable resin modified with natural tannin and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (NaCMC) as sustainable additives. A systematic analysis was conducted by applying a Design of Experiments (DOE) approach and regression modeling to evaluate the effects of varying blend compositions on carbon yield and mechanical strength. The results indicate that increasing the tannin content led to a maximum carbon yield of 13.43%, with an average porosity of approximately 80% and a compressive strength around 1 kPa. NaCMC was found to effectively control the resin viscosity within printable limits of 0.2537 Pa·s, although NaCMC indirectly improved carbonization efficiency through normalized yield analysis. This work highlights the synergistic role of bio-based polymers in tuning porous carbon properties. The findings provide a data-driven framework for designing sustainable polymer-derived carbon materials, bridging additive manufacturing with green chemistry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)
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