Languages

12 pages, 381 KB

Open AccessArticle

Russian–Belarusian Border Dialects and Their “Language Roof”: Dedialectization and Trajectories of Changes

by Anastasiia Ryko

Languages 2025, 10(9), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090225 - 5 Sep 2025

The dialects discussed in this article were considered Belarusian in the early 20th century, and later, as a result of the transfer of the administrative (state) border, they became part of the Russian territory and were considered Russian. The changes occurring in these [...] Read more.

The dialects discussed in this article were considered Belarusian in the early 20th century, and later, as a result of the transfer of the administrative (state) border, they became part of the Russian territory and were considered Russian. The changes occurring in these dialects as a result of the influence of the standard Russian language are interesting from various perspectives. Firstly, the linguistic self-identification of dialect speakers changes and the perception of their dialect as less prestigious compared to the standard language is formed. Secondly, linguistic features that dialectologists previously defined as characteristic of the Belarusian language are being replaced by standard Russian ones. By analyzing the linguistic data obtained from the dialect speakers of different generations, we can trace the emergence of variation and then its loss. Observing which linguistic features are subject to change first, and which remain more stable, allows us to examine linguistic changes through the lens of the “hierarchy of borrowings” theory. Additionally, given the linguistic inequality between the dialect and the standard language, we can observe the gradual transformation of the dialect under the influence of the prestigious standard idiom. Therefore, the loss of Belarusian–Russian variation can be viewed as a process of dedialectization, bringing the dialect closer to the standard language. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Attitudes and Language Ideologies in Eastern Europe)

34 pages, 3234 KB

Open AccessArticle

L1 Attrition vis-à-vis L2 Acquisition: Lexicon, Syntax–Pragmatics Interface, and Prosody in L1-English L2-Italian Late Bilinguals

by Mattia Zingaretti, Vasiliki Chondrogianni, D. Robert Ladd and Antonella Sorace

Languages 2025, 10(9), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090224 - 4 Sep 2025

Abstract

Late bilingual speakers immersed in a second language (L2) environment often experience the non-pathological attrition of their first language (L1), exhibiting selective and reversible changes in L1 processing and production. While attrition research has largely focused on long-term residents in anglophone countries, examining [...] Read more.

Late bilingual speakers immersed in a second language (L2) environment often experience the non-pathological attrition of their first language (L1), exhibiting selective and reversible changes in L1 processing and production. While attrition research has largely focused on long-term residents in anglophone countries, examining changes primarily within a single L1 domain, the present study employs a novel experimental design to investigate L1 attrition, alongside L2 acquisition, across three domains (i.e., the lexicon, syntax–pragmatics interface, and prosody) in two groups of L1-English L2-Italian late bilinguals: long-term residents in Italy vs. university students in the UK. A total of 112 participants completed online tasks assessing lexical retrieval, anaphora resolution, and sentence stress patterns in both languages. First, both bilingual groups showed comparable levels of semantic interference in lexical retrieval. Second, at the syntax–pragmatics interface, only residents in Italy showed signs of L1 attrition in real-time processing of anaphora, while resolution preferences were similar between groups; in the L2, both bilingual groups demonstrated target-like preferences, despite some slowdown in processing. Third, while both groups showed some evidence of target-like L2 prosody, with residents in Italy matching L1-Italian sentence stress patterns closely, prosodic attrition was only reported for residents in Italy in exploratory analyses. Overall, this study supports the notion of L1 attrition as a natural consequence of bilingualism—one that is domain- and experience-dependent, unfolds along a continuum, and involves a complex (and possibly inverse) relationship between L1 and L2 performance that warrants further investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Determining the Scope, Nature and Causes of Attrition in Adult L1 Grammars)

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24 pages, 1479 KB

Open AccessArticle

Beyond L2 Learners: Evaluating LexTALE-ESP as a Proficiency Measure for Heritage Language Learners of Spanish

by Cristina Lozano-Argüelles and Alberta Gatti

Languages 2025, 10(9), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090223 - 30 Aug 2025

Abstract

LexTALE has emerged as a popular measure of language proficiency in research studies. While it has been widely validated for L2 learners across multiple languages, its applicability to heritage language learners (HLLs)—who often show distinct language development from L2ers—has not been established. Here, [...] Read more.

LexTALE has emerged as a popular measure of language proficiency in research studies. While it has been widely validated for L2 learners across multiple languages, its applicability to heritage language learners (HLLs)—who often show distinct language development from L2ers—has not been established. Here, we evaluate the Spanish version of LexTALE (LexTALE-Esp) as a predictor of writing proficiency among college-aged HLLs in the United States. We show that LexTALE-Esp scores significantly correlate with ACTFL-rated functional writing levels and outperform self-assessment as a predictor of proficiency. Our results suggest that, despite concerns about HLLs’ limited experience with written texts in the heritage language, vocabulary-based tasks capture core aspects of written language ability. These findings indicate that vocabulary-based tests like LexTALE-Esp capture proficiency-relevant lexical knowledge across speaker profiles and may tap into dimensions of both core and extended language competence. Full article

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20 pages, 616 KB

Open AccessArticle

L2 Korean Learners’ Socialization into Discourses Around the Non-Honorific ‘Banmal’ Style: Affective and Pedagogical Consequences

by Devon Renfroe and Katharine E. Burns

Languages 2025, 10(9), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090222 - 30 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study examines L2 Korean learners’ self-reports of their socialization into discourses around the use of two categories of non-honorific (banmal) and honorific (jondaenmal) language. L2 Korean learners (n = 49) of varying proficiency levels completed a questionnaire aimed [...] Read more.

This study examines L2 Korean learners’ self-reports of their socialization into discourses around the use of two categories of non-honorific (banmal) and honorific (jondaenmal) language. L2 Korean learners (n = 49) of varying proficiency levels completed a questionnaire aimed at capturing their beliefs, attitudes, and practices regarding learning and using banmal. A subset of questionnaire participants (n = 11) were interviewed, and transcripts were analyzed using discourse analysis to understand how banmal is positioned discursively in participants’ self-reported accounts of learning and using L2 Korean. Findings revealed three dominant discourses in learners’ self-reported accounts of their socialization into learning and using banmal: (1) jondaenmal is more important to them than banmal, (2) banmal does not belong in formal learning contexts such as classrooms, and (3) banmal instruction should be delayed until the intermediate or advanced level. Additionally, these discourses were connected to two overarching, at times contradictory, affective responses from participants. While they reported heightened anxiety over when to use banmal, they also described how using it instilled confidence in their sociopragmatic abilities. These findings highlight the connection between the affective experiences of learners and prevailing discourses on particular linguistic forms. Finally, we suggest the need for more integrated approaches to teaching speech styles in L2 Korean classrooms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Language Acquisition and Sociolinguistic Studies)

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23 pages, 379 KB

Open AccessArticle

Case-Dependent Agreement in an Active–Stative Language

by Guillaume Thomas, Germino Duarte and Akil Ismael

Languages 2025, 10(9), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090221 - 30 Aug 2025

Abstract

This paper revisits the cross-reference marking system of Mbyá Guaraní, focusing on two phenomena: object agreement using the prefix i- and its allomorphs, and absolutive cross-reference marking in converbs. The analysis demonstrates that cross-reference marking in Mbyá is sensitive to abstract Case. [...] Read more.

This paper revisits the cross-reference marking system of Mbyá Guaraní, focusing on two phenomena: object agreement using the prefix i- and its allomorphs, and absolutive cross-reference marking in converbs. The analysis demonstrates that cross-reference marking in Mbyá is sensitive to abstract Case. Building on a view of agreement as an obligatory operation whose failure does not result in ungrammaticality, this paper argues that the segment i- is an object agreement prefix, rather than part of an allomorph of an active subject agreement prefix. This marker is underspecified for person, allowing it to cross-reference 1st, 2nd or 3rd objects. The paper further argues that converbs in Mbyá Guaraní follow an absolutive cross-reference marking pattern, where only intransitive subjects or objects are cross-referenced. This pattern is shown to be consistent with cross-linguistic and historical data from the Tupí–Guaraní family. This paper’s contributions include a proposal for case-sensitive agreement in Mbyá, with active agreement prefixes realizing agreement with nominative DPs only. The analysis also emphasizes the different roles of Infl and little v as probes for person features, with little v being underspecified and not triggering cyclic expansion. The proposed framework accounts for both hierarchical cross-reference marking in independent clauses and absolutive marking in converbs, unifying these two patterns under the assumption of Case dependence of agreement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Studies on Morpho-Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics: A View from the South American Lowlands and Beyond)

27 pages, 1025 KB

Open AccessArticle

Encoding Nonbinary Reference in Syntax: The German Neo-Pronoun xier and Socially Driven Language Change

by Nicholas Catasso

Languages 2025, 10(9), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090220 - 29 Aug 2025

Abstract

This paper investigates the morphosyntactic and semanto-pragmatic behavior of the German neo-pronoun xier, a gender-neutral form used to refer to nonbinary individuals. Framed within the Minimalist Program, the analysis explores how xier carries a gender feature that encodes nonbinary identity—not through binary [...] Read more.

This paper investigates the morphosyntactic and semanto-pragmatic behavior of the German neo-pronoun xier, a gender-neutral form used to refer to nonbinary individuals. Framed within the Minimalist Program, the analysis explores how xier carries a gender feature that encodes nonbinary identity—not through binary morphological marking, but via presupposition. The use of xier triggers a presupposition about the referent’s identity: that they are nonbinary. This gender feature is not absent, void or underspecified, but interpretively rich and categorically distinct. The analysis thus rejects any account treating xier as lacking gender. Instead, it argues that xier exemplifies a grammatical strategy of encoding gender beyond the binary, through formal structures that engage the interpretive system directly. The paper further argues that xier’s morphosyntactic profile—including its compatibility with standard agreement morphology—shows that nonbinary gender can be syntactically represented and participate fully in φ-feature interactions. Drawing on cross-linguistic comparisons (e.g., English they and the Italian adaptation ze), the study shows how presuppositional gender encoding supports stable φ-Agree, interface-compatible labeling without requiring binary valuation. The proposal refines the architecture of φ-features by allowing for interpretively active gender categories that are formally encoded even when they do not match traditional binary specifications. This account offers a model for how minimalist syntax can accommodate socially driven innovations without abandoning core theoretical principles. Xier, in this light, demonstrates that grammatical systems can expand to encode emerging reference categories—not by omitting gender, but by formally encoding nonbinary gender via presupposition. This study is the first to offer a formal syntactic account of a German neo-pronoun, linking socially driven innovation to core φ-feature operations like Agree and valuation. Full article

20 pages, 1589 KB

Open AccessArticle

Articulatory Control by Gestural Coupling and Syllable Pulses

by Christopher Geissler

Languages 2025, 10(9), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090219 - 29 Aug 2025

Abstract

Explaining the relative timing of consonant and vowel articulations (C-V timing) is an important function of speech production models. This article explores how C-V timing might be studied from the perspective of the C/D Model, particularly the prediction that articulations are coordinated with [...] Read more.

Explaining the relative timing of consonant and vowel articulations (C-V timing) is an important function of speech production models. This article explores how C-V timing might be studied from the perspective of the C/D Model, particularly the prediction that articulations are coordinated with respect to an abstract syllable pulse. Gestural landmarks were extracted from kinematic data from English CVC monosyllabic words in the Wisconsin X-Ray Microbeam Corpus. The syllable pulse was identified using velocity peaks, and temporal lags were calculated among landmarks and the syllable pulse. The results directly follow from the procedure used to identify pulses: onset consonants exhibited stable timing to the pulse, while vowel-to-pulse timing was comparably stable with respect to C-V timing. Timing relationships with jaw displacement and jaw-based syllable pulse metrics were also explored. These results highlight current challenges for the C/D Model, as well as opportunities for elaborating the model to account for C-V timing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Articulation and Prosodic Structure)

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17 pages, 320 KB

Open AccessArticle

Language Attitudes of Parents with Russian L1 in Tartu: Transition to Estonian-Medium Education

by Birute Klaas-Lang, Kristiina Praakli and Diana Vender

Languages 2025, 10(9), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090218 - 29 Aug 2025

Abstract

In 2023, the authors conducted a qualitative study in five bilingual educational institutions (two general education schools and three kindergartens) in Tartu, Estonia, undergoing a transition to Estonian-medium education. The empirical material for this qualitative research was collected during ten discussion evenings with [...] Read more.

In 2023, the authors conducted a qualitative study in five bilingual educational institutions (two general education schools and three kindergartens) in Tartu, Estonia, undergoing a transition to Estonian-medium education. The empirical material for this qualitative research was collected during ten discussion evenings with Russian L1 parents, with around 300 attendees. Given the emotional and political sensitivity of the topic, the discussions were documented through researchers’ handwritten field notes and subsequently reconstructed from these notes for thematic analysis following the principles of qualitative content analysis. This study aimed to map the concerns and fears of Russian L1 parents and to collaboratively explore possible solutions. The broader objective was to understand and interpret Russian-speaking parents’ attitudes toward the shift to Estonian-medium instruction. A further aim was to raise language awareness among parents and to help lay a more positive foundation for the transition process. The theoretical framework draws on the notion that parents’ language attitudes significantly influence their children’s perceptions of the value of the language being learned. Our results show that many Russian L1 parents in Tartu consider it important for both Estonian- and Russian-speaking children to study in a shared, Estonian-medium learning environment. At the same time, parents identified several key challenges, including concerns about a decline in education quality, increased academic pressure and stress for children learning in a non-native language, a lack of suitable learning materials, and parents’ limited ability to assist with homework due to their own insufficient proficiency in Estonian. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Attitudes and Language Ideologies in Eastern Europe)

21 pages, 466 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Position of Clitics in Slovene Imperatives Is Not Special

by Sašo Živanović and Ema Štarkl

Languages 2025, 10(9), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090217 - 29 Aug 2025

Abstract

In general, Slovene clitics occur in the second, so-called Wackernagel position of the clause. However, Slovene is exceptional among Wackernagel languages in that the clitic cluster may also occupy the clause-initial position. Imperative sentences have been argued to form an exception to this [...] Read more.

In general, Slovene clitics occur in the second, so-called Wackernagel position of the clause. However, Slovene is exceptional among Wackernagel languages in that the clitic cluster may also occupy the clause-initial position. Imperative sentences have been argued to form an exception to this exception, again allowing the clitic cluster only in the second position. In this paper, we present corpus data that speaks against this second-order exception. We categorize the imperative clauses containing initial clitic clusters found in the corpora into three classes: modally subordinated imperatives, imperatives containing the adversative or the concessive particle, and imperatives occuring as a step in an instruction. We argue that all three classes involve a covert anaphoric element residing in the clause-initial position, yielding an illusion of a clause-initial clitic cluster. In conclusion, initial clitic clusters in Slovene imperatives are not ungrammatical but merely uncommon, and their distribution is ultimately governed by the discourse. We also make a theoretical point, emphasizing that the presented analysis offers support to the view that all discursive information must be represented in syntax. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue SinFonIJA 17 (Syntax, Phonology and Language Analysis))

24 pages, 6304 KB

Open AccessArticle

Revisiting Particle-Stranding Ellipsis: A Critical Comparison of Two Analyses

by Ryuta Ono

Languages 2025, 10(9), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090216 - 29 Aug 2025

Abstract

This paper presents novel evidence that particle-stranding ellipsis in Japanese is best accounted for by PF-deletion rather than by its theoretical competitor, LF-copying. I begin by examining a central prediction of the LF-copying analysis, which states that overt extraction is categorically ruled out, [...] Read more.

This paper presents novel evidence that particle-stranding ellipsis in Japanese is best accounted for by PF-deletion rather than by its theoretical competitor, LF-copying. I begin by examining a central prediction of the LF-copying analysis, which states that overt extraction is categorically ruled out, and show that this prediction is not supported by the empirical data. Additional evidence comes from covert across-the-board movement, as I demonstrate that particle-stranding ellipsis can occur in environments that are argued to involve this type of movement. This finding presents a serious derivational challenge to the LF-copying theory, given the widely accepted view that covert across-the-board movement is not permitted in the grammar. In addition to these syntactic observations, I present previously unreported prosodic evidence showing that particle-stranding ellipsis involving the negative polarity item -sika can exhibit focus intonation. As the LF-copying analysis cannot account for this prosodic pattern, the data provide strong support for the PF-deletion account. Finally, I show that these findings are well explained by the phonology-based deletion model that was originally proposed in the literature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues in Ellipsis and Ellipsis Mismatch: Studies in Japanese and Beyond)

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52 pages, 827 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Consonant Inventory of Proto-Tsonga-Copi

by Isaac Eaton

Languages 2025, 10(9), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090215 - 29 Aug 2025

Abstract

Recent studies have greatly furthered our understanding of the Southern Bantu languages, but questions about the internal relationships of the Southern Bantu language subgroups and the validity of the clade as a whole still remain. This study attempts to reconstruct the consonant inventory [...] Read more.

Recent studies have greatly furthered our understanding of the Southern Bantu languages, but questions about the internal relationships of the Southern Bantu language subgroups and the validity of the clade as a whole still remain. This study attempts to reconstruct the consonant inventory of one proposed genetic clade, that of Tsonga-Copi (S50–S60). Using published dictionaries and reference works for each language of the subgrouping, a corpus of cognate vocabulary was assembled. Each term was then matched, where possible, to a reconstruction in the Bantu Lexical Reconstructions 3 (BLR3) database. Sound correspondences were identified and used to reconstruct the consonant inventory of Proto-Tsonga-Copi. In addition to the discovery of several typologically unusual sound changes, the results of this study also lend support to existing and developing hypotheses about both the internal relationships of Southern Bantu clades, as well as the nature of language contact in (pre)historic Southern Africa, particularly the influence of Khoisan and other Bantu languages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments on the Diachrony and Typology of Bantu Languages)

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32 pages, 1326 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Practice Types on the Acquisition of English Phrasal Verbs

by Yan Feng and Mei Yang

Languages 2025, 10(9), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090214 - 28 Aug 2025

Abstract

English phrasal verbs are ubiquitous and challenging for second language (L2) learners, particularly for those whose first language does not have an equivalent structure. This study investigates the facilitative role of three distinct L2 practice types in promoting English phrasal verb acquisition. Eighty [...] Read more.

English phrasal verbs are ubiquitous and challenging for second language (L2) learners, particularly for those whose first language does not have an equivalent structure. This study investigates the facilitative role of three distinct L2 practice types in promoting English phrasal verb acquisition. Eighty first-year college students from China were randomly assigned to three groups: the continuation group, which was first presented with an input text and then required to complete it; the retrieval group, which was first presented with the input text and then required to engage in retrieval practice; and the trial-and-error group, which was first required to engage in trial-and-error practice before reading the input text. The effectiveness of these practice types was compared via both an immediate post-test and a 1-week-delayed post-test. The results showed that in the immediate post-test, the continuation group performed comparably with the retrieval group but outperformed the trial-and-error group. However, in the 1-week-delayed post-test, the continuation group significantly outperformed the other two groups. The findings revealed that the continuation writing task not only initially equips learners with declarative knowledge and subsequently closely integrates static L2 learning with dynamic idea expression but also enhances learners’ task self-efficacy, thereby optimally promoting phrasal verb learning and retention. Full article

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28 pages, 5784 KB

Open AccessArticle

Gender and Language Ideologies in Russian: Exploring Linguistic Stereotypes and Politeness Evaluations

by Ilenia Del Popolo Marchitto

Languages 2025, 10(9), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090213 - 28 Aug 2025

Abstract

Language ideologies about gendered linguistic behaviour are crucial in shaping expectations and metapragmatic judgements on politeness. This study focused on how gender and language ideologies reinforce normative assumptions about the relationship between gender and (im)politeness and at the same time influence individuals’ perception [...] Read more.

Language ideologies about gendered linguistic behaviour are crucial in shaping expectations and metapragmatic judgements on politeness. This study focused on how gender and language ideologies reinforce normative assumptions about the relationship between gender and (im)politeness and at the same time influence individuals’ perception of (im)politeness. Based on data collected from 251 respondents through online questionnaires administered between July 2024 and January 2025, the study investigated whether certain linguistic choices tend to be stereotypically associated with a particular gender and if the same utterance is evaluated differently depending on whether it is attributed to a man or a woman. Participants’ responses revealed systematic associations between linguistic forms and perceived gender, indicating that direct requests were more often linked to male speakers, while indirect or mitigated forms were associated with female speakers. Findings also showed that in 17 out of 19 cases, the same utterance was rated as more polite when attributed to a woman, suggesting that among Russian-speaking participants politeness was not only expected from women but also more readily perceived in their speech, reinforcing existing gender ideologies and stereotypes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Attitudes and Language Ideologies in Eastern Europe)

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22 pages, 634 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing English Past Tense Acquisition: Comparative Effects of Structured Input, Referential, and Affective Activities

by Kaiqi Shi

Languages 2025, 10(9), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090212 - 28 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the impact of structured input, referential activities, and affective activities on English simple past tense acquisition in a second language (L2). Thirty-three participants from a senior high school were divided into four groups based on the pretest–posttest design: referential only, [...] Read more.

This study investigates the impact of structured input, referential activities, and affective activities on English simple past tense acquisition in a second language (L2). Thirty-three participants from a senior high school were divided into four groups based on the pretest–posttest design: referential only, affective only, a combination of both, and a control group. A self-paced reading (SPR) test was used to measure accuracy and response times to evaluate the effectiveness of these instructional strategies. Structured input and referential tasks enhance grammatical acquisition more rapidly and accurately than affective-only treatments or controls, showing the beneficial effects of structured input on grammar acquisition. The results emphasized the importance of designing instructional strategies that address specific processing challenges in L2 learning by focusing on form–meaning connections. By demonstrating differential impacts of structured input activities on grammatical learning and processing efficiency, the research contributes to the field of second language acquisition. The SPR method was selected for its ability to capture subtle, immediate differences in processing at the word level, its suitability for controlled classroom-based online administration, and its established validity in L2 processing research. Unlike other methods, SPR allows precise measurement of reaction times for specific sentence components, isolating processing effects of the target grammatical form while minimizing the influence of explicit knowledge. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Research on the Role and Effects of Structured Input in Assessing the Nature of Language Processing)

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20 pages, 356 KB

Open AccessArticle

Variability in the Online Processing of Subject–Verb Number Agreement in Spanish as a Heritage Language: The Role of Lexical Frequency

by Jill Jegerski and Sara Fernández Cuenca

Languages 2025, 10(9), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090211 - 27 Aug 2025

Abstract

This eye tracking study examined the role of lexical frequency in the processing of non-local verbal number agreement by heritage speakers of Spanish. Few prior studies of heritage bilingualism have investigated the role of word frequency in the comprehension or production of morphosyntax, [...] Read more.

This eye tracking study examined the role of lexical frequency in the processing of non-local verbal number agreement by heritage speakers of Spanish. Few prior studies of heritage bilingualism have investigated the role of word frequency in the comprehension or production of morphosyntax, and none have employed a real-time measure of sentence processing, despite the well-known sensitivity of such methods to word frequency and the proposal of some scholars that such online methodologies could be particularly useful in research on heritage speakers. Fifty heritage speakers of Spanish read stimulus sentences containing non-local verbal number agreement that depended on a verb that was either high or low frequency, based on published corpus data. The results suggest that the online integration of verbal agreement was both more immediate and more robust with high frequency verbs than with low frequency verbs. Moreover, an analysis of individual language background variables indicates that faster reading was associated with greater sensitivity to verbal agreement with low frequency verbs. These findings are consistent with theoretical claims that lexical frequency can play an important role in the morphosyntax of heritage speakers, due to reduced exposure to the home language and, particularly, low frequency words. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Processing in Spanish Heritage Speakers)

17 pages, 543 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mismatches and Mitigation at CS-PF Interface: The Curious Case of li

by Marijana Marelj

Languages 2025, 10(9), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090210 - 26 Aug 2025

Abstract

Taking the domain of polar questions in Bosnian/Croatian/Montenegrin/Serbian (BCMS) as the empirical background, the paper probes into the syntax–phonology (CS-PF) interface and discusses insertion and movement as PF-repair strategies mitigating against the lack of convergence at PF. Contra previous accounts, the analysis treats [...] Read more.

Taking the domain of polar questions in Bosnian/Croatian/Montenegrin/Serbian (BCMS) as the empirical background, the paper probes into the syntax–phonology (CS-PF) interface and discusses insertion and movement as PF-repair strategies mitigating against the lack of convergence at PF. Contra previous accounts, the analysis treats li (lexicalization of Q) as a ‘run-of-the-mill’ 2P clitic in BCMS, whose host cannot always be provided by syntax. I provide evidence against Prosodic Inversion—‘the usual suspect’ for post-syntactic movement in Slavic—thus adding to the body of evidence that Prosodic Inversion does not take place in BCMS. I argue that the PF Movement in such cases has to be raising and adopt Local Dislocation to account for them. Probing into the interaction between Future I and polar questions provides further insights into the ordering of PF Movement operations in BCMS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue SinFonIJA 17 (Syntax, Phonology and Language Analysis))

18 pages, 1040 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Self-Adaptors in Lexical Retrieval

by Kazuki Sekine and Hiroshi Hotta

Languages 2025, 10(9), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090209 - 26 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study investigated whether self-adaptor behaviours, defined as non-communicative bodily actions such as touching one’s face or clasping one’s hands, facilitate lexical retrieval. Sixty Japanese-speaking adults were assigned to one of three conditions: a self-adaptor condition (instructed to hold their cheeks), a suppression [...] Read more.

This study investigated whether self-adaptor behaviours, defined as non-communicative bodily actions such as touching one’s face or clasping one’s hands, facilitate lexical retrieval. Sixty Japanese-speaking adults were assigned to one of three conditions: a self-adaptor condition (instructed to hold their cheeks), a suppression condition (hand movements inhibited), and a control condition in which participants were allowed to move their hands freely. Participants completed a lexical retrieval task designed to elicit tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) states, followed by a recall task. Responses were categorised as successful retrieval, retrieval failure, TOT success, or TOT failure. Results showed that the self-adaptor condition achieved significantly more correct responses than the suppression condition, indicating that self-adaptor behaviour supports lexical access during retrieval difficulty. However, self-adaptor behaviour did not enhance the resolution of TOT states or improve recall performance. Video-based analysis further revealed that gestures increased markedly during TOT states, while self-adaptor behaviours were more frequent overall. These findings suggest that self-adaptor behaviour contributes to general lexical retrieval processes but does not directly facilitate the resolution of TOT states. The distinction between the functions of spontaneous bodily movements is therefore essential. This study extends the understanding of how embodied behaviours interact with verbal processes and underscores the cognitive significance of non-communicative bodily actions in speech production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-representational Gestures: Types, Use, and Functions)

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4 pages, 180 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Introducing the Special Issue “Interface Between Sociolinguistics and Music”

by Verónica Loureiro-Rodríguez and María Irene Moyna

Languages 2025, 10(9), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090208 - 26 Aug 2025

Abstract

This Special Issue comprises six original studies that explore the interface between sociolinguistics and music, offering new insights into how language is stylized and perceived in English, Spanish, and code-mixed performance [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interface between Sociolinguistics and Music)

20 pages, 1681 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reading Between the Lines: Digital Annotation Insights from Heritage and L2 Learners

by Edna Velásquez

Languages 2025, 10(9), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090207 - 26 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study investigates how Spanish heritage language (SHL) learners, and second language (L2) learners cognitively and socially engage with texts through collaborative digital annotations. Conducted in two advanced online writing courses with forty students, the study employed Perusall, a social annotation platform, to [...] Read more.

This study investigates how Spanish heritage language (SHL) learners, and second language (L2) learners cognitively and socially engage with texts through collaborative digital annotations. Conducted in two advanced online writing courses with forty students, the study employed Perusall, a social annotation platform, to examine reading behaviors and peer interactions. Quantitative analysis revealed both similarities and differences in strategy use: while both groups demonstrated equal levels of interaction, SHL learners favored Evaluating and Connecting strategies, suggesting reflective, experience-based engagement, whereas L2 learners more frequently used Questioning and Translating strategies, indicating a more analytical approach. Survey responses further highlighted perceived gains in vocabulary, motivation, grammar, and academic language awareness. These findings challenge deficit-based assumptions about SHL literacy and underscore the value of integrating culturally relevant, digitally mediated tasks in language instruction. The study affirms that collaborative annotation not only fosters cognitive engagement but also promotes social presence and academic identity development. It offers practical recommendations for grouping, scaffolding, and platform use, and contributes to a broader understanding of how digital tools can support inclusive, meaningful reading experiences for diverse learners in the twenty-first-century classroom. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Processing in Spanish Heritage Speakers)

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