Languages

12 pages, 259 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Cooperative Principle in Cross-Cultural Contexts: A Corpus-Based Pragmatic Study of International Students Learning Romanian

by Gabriel Dan Barbulet and Andra Iulia Ursa

Languages 2026, 11(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020029 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

This study examines how international students learning Romanian interpret and apply the Cooperative Principle in everyday and academic interaction. The research is grounded in the observation that pragmatic competence often develops unevenly in second-language learning, particularly in multilingual environments where learners rely on [...] Read more.

This study examines how international students learning Romanian interpret and apply the Cooperative Principle in everyday and academic interaction. The research is grounded in the observation that pragmatic competence often develops unevenly in second-language learning, particularly in multilingual environments where learners rely on norms carried over from their first language. To investigate these dynamics, a small spoken and written corpus was compiled from classroom activities, recorded peer interactions, and informal conversations with students enrolled in Romanian language courses. The data were annotated for instances of maxim observance, weakening, and flouting, as well as for implicatures that required contextual inference. The analysis shows recurring patterns of pragmatic transfer, especially in the interpretation of relevance and quantity, and highlights areas where learners systematically misinterpret or underproduce implicatures. Several examples also reveal successful adaptation to Romanian communicative expectations, suggesting that exposure to diverse interactional settings supports the refinement of pragmatic cues. The findings contribute to a clearer understanding of how the Cooperative Principle operates in cross-cultural learning contexts and point to practical implications for teaching Romanian as a foreign language. Full article

20 pages, 2222 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Mechanism of PF-Deletion Under the Probe–Goal System

by Nobu Goto

Languages 2026, 11(2), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020028 - 31 Jan 2026

Abstract

This paper develops a mechanism of PF-deletion within a probe–goal system that incorporates C-to-T feature inheritance. I propose that the phase head C enters the derivation not only with an edge feature (EF) and agree (φ-)features but also with a delete-feature, which licenses [...] Read more.

This paper develops a mechanism of PF-deletion within a probe–goal system that incorporates C-to-T feature inheritance. I propose that the phase head C enters the derivation not only with an edge feature (EF) and agree (φ-)features but also with a delete-feature, which licenses the deletion of an element at PF (PF-deletion). When C-to-T feature inheritance applies, the target of PF-deletion is determined through φ-probing from T; when it does not, it is determined through EF-probing from C. By linking PF-deletion to phase-internal probing, this approach dispenses with pro, traditionally assumed to exist in the lexicon of null subject languages such as Italian, as a theoretical primitive. Crucially, it offers a unified account of the distribution of null arguments in both Italian (a pro-drop language) and German (a topic-drop language), two language types that have traditionally resisted unified analysis under the principles-and-parameters approach. In addition to the synchronic study of the distribution of null arguments, I further argue that diachronic evidence from old languages such as Old French and Old English lends additional support to the proposal, and conclude that whether C-to-T inheritance applies or not is a crucial factor in explaining crosslinguistic variation in null argument phenomena. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues in Ellipsis and Ellipsis Mismatch: Studies in Japanese and Beyond)

10 pages, 2179 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Absence of Relative Clause Islands in Adara

by Jason Kandybowicz

Languages 2026, 11(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020027 - 31 Jan 2026

Abstract

I argue that definite relative clauses, despite their stable strong island status cross-linguistically, lack island status in Adara. The structure is neither selective nor weak, but rather completely permeable, allowing the free extraction of both arguments and adjuncts. In support of the claim [...] Read more.

I argue that definite relative clauses, despite their stable strong island status cross-linguistically, lack island status in Adara. The structure is neither selective nor weak, but rather completely permeable, allowing the free extraction of both arguments and adjuncts. In support of the claim that A-bar movement may escape relative clause domains in Adara, I adduce evidence from crossover effects, reconstruction effects, and quantifier float. In addition, I show that relative clause-internal material may probe upwards and outwards, triggering long-distance agreement of relativized verbs with clause-external subjects in a way that is not possible with true island structures in the language. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Escaping African ‘Islands’)

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22 pages, 389 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reflexivity and Reciprocity in Two Arabic Varieties: Evidence for REF-REC Category

by Abdulazeez Jaradat, Dina Mahmoud Hammouri, Muneir Gwasmeh and Ahmad S. Haider

Languages 2026, 11(2), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020026 - 30 Jan 2026

Abstract

Languages vary in expressing reflexivity and reciprocity. In some languages, reflexive and reciprocal constructions are formally identical, while in some other languages, they are distinct. The third group comprises languages that have non-reflexive and reflexive–reciprocal (REF-REC) constructions. This paper investigates marking reflexivity and [...] Read more.

Languages vary in expressing reflexivity and reciprocity. In some languages, reflexive and reciprocal constructions are formally identical, while in some other languages, they are distinct. The third group comprises languages that have non-reflexive and reflexive–reciprocal (REF-REC) constructions. This paper investigates marking reflexivity and reciprocity in Standard Arabic and Jordanian Arabic. It demonstrates that these two varieties possess a non-reflexive reciprocal category and a REF-REC category, placing them within the third group. However, these varieties are peculiar in terms of having three possible interpretations of a sentence embedding this category: only reflexive, only reciprocal, and simultaneously both. This peculiar case has been interpreted as a case of sentential vagueness: each of the two markers in the target varieties has a univocal meaning, and the range of possible sentential interpretations arises from contextual clues. From a cross-linguistic perspective, this paper also identifies a novel source of reflexive marking: the nominal ħaal in Jordanian Arabic. This nominal, which primitively means ‘(personal) state’, is the conceptual strategy for reflexivity in this variety. Full article

22 pages, 801 KB

Open AccessArticle

Incremental Processing of Laughter in Interaction

by Vladislav Maraev, Arash Eshghi, Chiara Mazzocconi and Christine Howes

Languages 2026, 11(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020025 - 29 Jan 2026

Abstract

In dialogue, laughter is a frequent non-verbal signal that can precede, follow, or overlap its antecedent—the laughable. Furthermore, the time alignment between the laughter and the laughable is dependent on who produces the laughable, whether laughter overlaps or not with speech and the [...] Read more.

In dialogue, laughter is a frequent non-verbal signal that can precede, follow, or overlap its antecedent—the laughable. Furthermore, the time alignment between the laughter and the laughable is dependent on who produces the laughable, whether laughter overlaps or not with speech and the communicative act performed. Laughter can interrupt either one’s own or one’s conversational partners’ utterances and, like other well-studied features of dialogue such as repair and split utterances, this interruption does not necessarily occur at phrase boundaries. Similarly, much like repair and other feedback like backchannels, laughters can be categorised as forward-looking or backward-looking. Given these parallels, we propose an analysis of how laughter can be processed and integrated using a Dynamic Syntax (DS) model, which already has well-motivated accounts of repair, split utterances, and feedback. We present a corpus study of laughter in dialogue, as well as a model using Dynamic Syntax and Theory of Types with Records (DS-TTR). Analogously to pronouns and ellipsis, our approach uses underspecification to account for laughter types that are different in processing terms as anaphoric or cataphoric, and demonstrates how laughter is processed incrementally as an utterance unfolds. Our analysis covers ≈87% of the annotated corpus data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Dynamic Syntax)

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28 pages, 799 KB

Open AccessReview

Animation in Speech, Language, and Communication Assessment of Children: A Scoping Review

by Triantafyllia I. Vlachou, Maria Kambanaros, Arhonto Terzi and Voula C. Georgopoulos

Languages 2026, 11(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020024 - 29 Jan 2026

Abstract

Animation has been used to assess speech, language, and communication skills in children. We aimed to map and synthesize relevant research addressing how and when animation is used for assessment purposes in speech–language pathology practice. Four databases were searched, yielding 18 studies that [...] Read more.

Animation has been used to assess speech, language, and communication skills in children. We aimed to map and synthesize relevant research addressing how and when animation is used for assessment purposes in speech–language pathology practice. Four databases were searched, yielding 18 studies that met the inclusion criteria. Data was extracted on study design, objectives, participant characteristics, results, assessment areas, purposes of animation use, underlying theoretical and research bases, and technical features. Theoretical grounding for children’s perception of animation was not evident in the studies, while several studies showed research foundations for its use in speech–language pathology assessment. Various animations were used for diverse purposes and research goals, primarily involving typically developing children and fewer clinical samples. All studies focused on language assessment. The diversity in animation research precludes conclusions regarding best practices in use of animation in speech–language pathology assessment. An initial evidence base was established, documenting research approaches, the effects of animation on language and cognition, observed behaviors, the performance of clinical samples, and psychometric properties of the assessment tools. Limitations, knowledge gaps, and future research are discussed. Full article

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17 pages, 351 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Compound Formation in Classical and Modern Papiamentu

by Gabriel Antunes de Araujo and Guilherme Mendes

Languages 2026, 11(2), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020023 - 29 Jan 2026

Abstract

Papiamentu is a creole language lexified by Portuguese and Spanish. In addition to its Iberian foundational lexicon, it has been influenced by Dutch and English. This study analyzes hybrid compound formation in Classical Papiamentu (CP) and Modern Papiamentu (MP), with a focus on [...] Read more.

Papiamentu is a creole language lexified by Portuguese and Spanish. In addition to its Iberian foundational lexicon, it has been influenced by Dutch and English. This study analyzes hybrid compound formation in Classical Papiamentu (CP) and Modern Papiamentu (MP), with a focus on the distribution of etymological sources and morphosyntactic structure. A corpus of 100 hybrid compounds is analyzed according to the etymology of internal components, the distribution of components within the structure of the compound, and their internal grammatical structure. While CP compounds are predominantly headed by Iberian etyma, MP compounds show increased Dutch and English lexical influence, while retaining syntactic properties drawn from Iberian lexifiers, such as a prevalence of prepositional compounds linked by the grammaticalized particle di. This study sheds light on the complex processes of language contact, morphosyntactic formation, and lexical innovation by examining how lexical loanwords from distinct donor languages interact in compound formation across two historical stages. It contributes to the broader understanding of morphosyntactic hybridity and the role of compounding in creole lexical development. Full article

19 pages, 1132 KB

Open AccessArticle

Metapragmatic Awareness in Melbourne Greek: Addressee-Oriented Indicators and the T/V Distinction

by Theodossia-Soula Pavlidou

Languages 2026, 11(2), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020022 - 29 Jan 2026

Abstract

The role of metapragmatics in maintaining interactional coherence and achieving intersubjectivity has been variously underscored in the last three decades. In particular, raising metapragmatic awareness has become increasingly salient in research on intercultural communication and foreign/second language teaching. However, the topic has not [...] Read more.

The role of metapragmatics in maintaining interactional coherence and achieving intersubjectivity has been variously underscored in the last three decades. In particular, raising metapragmatic awareness has become increasingly salient in research on intercultural communication and foreign/second language teaching. However, the topic has not been hitherto discussed in connection with heritage languages, and this is a gap that the present paper aims to fill. Based on interviews with Greek Melburnians who belong (in triads or dyads) to the same family but to different generations, a typology of metapragmatic awareness indicators encountered in the data is presented. Quantitative examination of one type of indicators—those oriented towards the addressee—indicates a decrease in their use across three generations. Similarly, examination of the variants of second-person pronouns and/or verb endings (the T/V distinction) brought to the fore alternations in the T and V forms, indicative of linguistic insecurity, as well as an increasing preference for the informal variants across three generations. The qualitative analysis of extracts from the interviews shed further light on the insecurity regarding the T/V distinction. Overall, the results point to changes in the communicative style of Greek Melburnians, namely away from positive politeness features (typical of the Greek society) towards English interactional norms, and the fostering of a hybrid communicative style—in alignment with their hybrid identities. It is suggested that politeness issues be integrated into the teaching of Greek as a heritage language. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greek Speakers and Pragmatics)

16 pages, 326 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cross-Linguistic Influence in Spanish in Contact with French in Montreal

by Enrique Pato

Languages 2026, 11(2), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020021 - 28 Jan 2026

Abstract

This paper, positioned within the study of immigrant language varieties in Canada, examines mismo si (‘even if’), an understudied grammatical feature of Spanish in contact with French in Montreal. The phenomenon is analyzed cross-linguistically and within the theoretical framework of Distributed Morphology, approaching [...] Read more.

This paper, positioned within the study of immigrant language varieties in Canada, examines mismo si (‘even if’), an understudied grammatical feature of Spanish in contact with French in Montreal. The phenomenon is analyzed cross-linguistically and within the theoretical framework of Distributed Morphology, approaching it from two complementary perspectives: (1) a sociolinguistic analysis of Spanish-French bilinguals in Montreal, and (2) a formal investigation of its structural properties. Mismo si, equivalent to Standard Spanish aunque and incluso si (‘even though’), is a lexical transfer from the French conjunction même si and conveys a concessive meaning. The evidence shows that this structure constitutes a distinctive linguistic adaptation to the bilingual sociolinguistic environment of Montreal. The article is organized in two sections: the first presents a qualitative and quantitative analysis of mismo si occurrences in the COLEM corpus (Corpus Oral de la Lengua Española en Montreal), while the second offers a formal examination of this contact-induced structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Shifting Borders: Spanish Morphosyntax in Contact Zones)

19 pages, 3678 KB

Open AccessReview

Speech Variation in the Teaching of Italian as a Second/Foreign Language: A Critical Review

by Luciano Romito and Elvira Graziano

Languages 2026, 11(2), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020020 - 27 Jan 2026

Abstract

This study analyses the variety of the language used in textbooks for teaching Italian as a second/foreign language. These books use a language much closer to written than to spoken Italian and do not consider its varieties, providing examples and exercises with a [...] Read more.

This study analyses the variety of the language used in textbooks for teaching Italian as a second/foreign language. These books use a language much closer to written than to spoken Italian and do not consider its varieties, providing examples and exercises with a “neutral” standard that speakers rarely use in everyday speech. The aim of this study is to provide a critical review of pronunciation sections in current L2 Italian textbooks, in the light of a renewed and growing interest in the study of the Italian language, not only by students with a migrant background in Italy, but also by second and third-generation emigrants who want to learn Italian to recover their roots. Thirty-two Italian textbooks were examined, considering some geolinguistic variables. The general tendency seems to be the introduction of some neo-standard Italian features. As far as the phonetic–phonological level is concerned, this is probably still insufficient because of the complexity of the Italian linguistic repertoire. Our analysis further suggests the inadequacy of notions such as (neo-)standard Italian for teaching purposes in the linguistic space of global Italian. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Speech Variation in Contemporary Italian)

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21 pages, 1449 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Development of Children’s Request Strategies in L1 Greek

by Stathis Selimis and Evgenia Vassilaki

Languages 2026, 11(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010019 - 22 Jan 2026

Abstract

The study investigated the developmental trajectory of the speech act of request among L1 Greek-speaking children spanning the preschool and primary school years (ages 4–11), aiming to address the scarcity of pragmatic research within this age range in Greek. Seventy-three children participated in [...] Read more.

The study investigated the developmental trajectory of the speech act of request among L1 Greek-speaking children spanning the preschool and primary school years (ages 4–11), aiming to address the scarcity of pragmatic research within this age range in Greek. Seventy-three children participated in an experimental task that elicited oral requests based on scenarios systematically manipulating addressee status/familiarity and the cost of the requested action. Responses were analysed via a bottom-up coding method, which showed that three quarters of all utterances adhered to four highly conventionalised, interrogative request constructions: (i) Can-you V-_SUBJUNCTIVE?, (ii) Will-you V?, (iii) Can-I V-_SUBJUNCTIVE?, and (iv) V-_PRESENT-YOU?. Notably, the direct Imperative mood was marginal even among the youngest participants. Results indicate a statistically significant variation in the distribution of these dominant patterns across age groups. Increasing age correlates with greater sensitivity to sociocultural parameters of communication, specifically the imposition/cost and the addressee’s face needs. This is further evidenced by a more elaborated repertoire of modifiers and supportive moves. We conclude that requestive behaviour progresses developmentally from largely underspecified directive forms toward a repertoire of more complex and contextually specified constructions, thereby providing empirical support for usage-based accounts of language acquisition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greek Speakers and Pragmatics)

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19 pages, 922 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Greek Vocative-Based Marker Moré in Contexts of Disagreement

by Angeliki Alvanoudi

Languages 2026, 11(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010018 - 20 Jan 2026

Abstract

This study examines the functions of the vocative-based marker moré in contexts of disagreement in Greek conversation, drawing on interactional linguistics. The analysis of audio-recorded informal face-to-face conversations and telephone calls from the Corpus of Spoken Greek shows that, in such contexts, moré [...] Read more.

This study examines the functions of the vocative-based marker moré in contexts of disagreement in Greek conversation, drawing on interactional linguistics. The analysis of audio-recorded informal face-to-face conversations and telephone calls from the Corpus of Spoken Greek shows that, in such contexts, moré functions as an interpersonal marker, signaling solidarity and friendliness and thereby mitigating the potential face threat posed by disagreement. It also functions as a cognitive marker, conveying counterexpectation to the addressee. The study compares moré with its grammaticalized form, vre. Both moré and vre appear in contexts of ‘friendly’ disagreement with similar discourse functions. However, unlike vre, moré occurs in a broader range of disagreement types from the most to the least face-aggravating, including challenges, contradictions and counterclaims, and it also appears in contexts of impoliteness. This suggests that the two forms have different affordances, with vre displaying a higher level of solidarity than more. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greek Speakers and Pragmatics)

18 pages, 337 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring GenAI-Powered Listening Test Development

by Junyan Guo

Languages 2026, 11(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010017 - 20 Jan 2026

Abstract

The advent of Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) has ushered in a transformative wave within the field of language education. However, the applications of GenAI are primarily in language teaching and learning, with assessment receiving much less attention. Drawing on task characteristics identified from [...] Read more.

The advent of Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) has ushered in a transformative wave within the field of language education. However, the applications of GenAI are primarily in language teaching and learning, with assessment receiving much less attention. Drawing on task characteristics identified from a corpus of authentic prior tests, this study investigated the capacity of GenAI tools to develop a short College English Test-Band 4 (CET-4) listening test and examined the degree to which its content, concurrent, and face validity corresponded to those of an authentic, human-generated counterpart. The findings indicated that the GenAI-created test aligned well with the task characteristics of the target test domain, supporting its content validity, whereas sufficient robust evidence to substantiate its concurrent or face validity was limited. Overall, GenAI has demonstrated potential in developing listening tests; however, further optimization is needed to enhance their validity. Implications for language teaching, learning and assessment are therefore discussed. Full article

22 pages, 933 KB

Open AccessArticle

‘Ya ves que’—You See That: A Deictic Intersubjective Pragmatic Marker

by Ricardo Maldonado and Juliana De la Mora

Languages 2026, 11(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010016 - 16 Jan 2026

Abstract

In the pragmaticalization of ya ves que… ‘you see that…’, the perceptual basis of the verb becomes diluted, keeping its deictic profile. Most of its pragmatic values extend to non-perceptual phenomena, implying shared knowledge. Further extensions involve bleaching the concrete referent into abstract [...] Read more.

In the pragmaticalization of ya ves que… ‘you see that…’, the perceptual basis of the verb becomes diluted, keeping its deictic profile. Most of its pragmatic values extend to non-perceptual phenomena, implying shared knowledge. Further extensions involve bleaching the concrete referent into abstract shared information in the form of (i) first and second-hand evidentials: shared and alien facts presented as familiar; (ii) mitigators: small appeal to shared information; (iii) miratives missing crucial information; and (iv) a continuity discourse marker where shared information is not relevant. Based on spontaneous oral data from Mexican Spanish, we propose that intersubjectivity prevails given its common ground deictic schema, allowing for assumed information to become diluted into a fictive common space where the speaker assumes the existence of notions the speaker may not always have. Diachronic data support the analysis: data from the 16th–17th century from Spain show the prevalence of testimonial references with no presence of shared knowledge; from the 19th century onward, shared knowledge becomes crucial, and it is not until current informal Mexican Spanish that even referential and shared knowledge may be diluted, and the assessment is validated by incorporating the hearer into the speaker’s mental space. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pragmatic Diachronic Study of the 20th Century)

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23 pages, 1740 KB

Open AccessArticle

Print Exposure Interaction with Neural Tuning on Letter/Non-Letter Processing During Literacy Acquisition: An ERP Study on Dyslexic and Typically Developing Children

by Elizaveta Galperina, Olga Kruchinina, Polina Boichenkova and Alexander Kornev

Languages 2026, 11(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010015 - 14 Jan 2026

Abstract

Background/Objectives: The first step in learning an alphabetic writing system is to establish letter–sound associations. This process is more difficult for children with dyslexia (DYS) than for typically developing (TD) children. Cerebral mechanisms underlying these associations are not fully understood and are [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: The first step in learning an alphabetic writing system is to establish letter–sound associations. This process is more difficult for children with dyslexia (DYS) than for typically developing (TD) children. Cerebral mechanisms underlying these associations are not fully understood and are expected to change during the training course. This study aimed to identify the neurophysiological correlates and developmental changes of visual letter processing in children with DYS compared to TD children, using event-related potentials (ERPs) during a letter/non-letter classification task. Methods: A total of 71 Russian-speaking children aged 7–11 years participated in the study, including 38 with dyslexia and 33 TD children. The participants were divided into younger (7–8 y.o.) and older (9–11 y.o.) subgroups. EEG recordings were taken while participants classified letters and non-letter characters. We analyzed ERP components (N/P150, N170, P260, P300, N320, and P600) in left-hemisphere regions of interest related to reading: the ventral occipito-temporal cortex (VWFA ROI) and the inferior frontal cortex (frontal ROI). Results: Behavioral differences, specifically lower accuracy in children with dyslexia, were observed only in the younger subgroup. ERP analysis indicated that both groups displayed common stimulus effects, such as a larger N170 for letters in younger children. However, their developmental trajectories diverged. The DYS group showed an age-related increase in the amplitude of early components (N/P150 in VWFA ROI), which contrasts with the typical decrease observed in TD children. In contrast, the late P600 component in the frontal ROI revealed an age-related decrease in the DYS group, along with overall reduced amplitudes compared to their TD peers. Additionally, the N320 component differentiated stimuli exclusively in the DYS group. Conclusions: The data obtained in this study confirmed that the mechanisms of letter recognition in children with dyslexia differ in some ways from those of their TD peers. This atypical developmental pattern involves a failure to efficiently specialize early visual processing, as evidenced by the increasing N/P150. Additionally, there is a progressive reduction in the cognitive resources available for higher-order reanalysis and control, indicated by the decreasing frontal P600. This disruption in neural specialization and automation ultimately hinders the development of fluent reading. Full article

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22 pages, 8745 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Vision to Discourse: The Grammaticalization of the Perception Verb Thấy in Vietnamese (13–20th C.)

by Trang Phan

Languages 2026, 11(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010014 - 13 Jan 2026

Abstract

This paper offers the first long-range account of the grammaticalization of the Vietnamese perception verb thấy ‘see’ from the 13th to the mid-20th century. Using a balanced diachronic corpus of ten representative texts (1345 tokens), we combine frequency profiling with constructional analysis to [...] Read more.

This paper offers the first long-range account of the grammaticalization of the Vietnamese perception verb thấy ‘see’ from the 13th to the mid-20th century. Using a balanced diachronic corpus of ten representative texts (1345 tokens), we combine frequency profiling with constructional analysis to trace thấy’s shift from a literal visual predicate to a high-frequency resource for epistemic stance, evidentiality, evaluation, and discourse management. The results reveal a robust progression aligned with the sensory hierarchy and canonical event-schema pathways: early literal uses and multimodal bundling (13–14th c.) provide bridging contexts; the 15th century introduces raising (thấy + VP/Adj) and clausal complementation (thấy (rằng/là) + CP); the 16–17th centuries expand resultative perception complexes (e.g., xem/chiêm bao/nghe + thấy) and reportative frames; the 18th century brings evaluative and speaker-anchored uses (chúng tôi thấy); the 19–20th centuries stabilize discourse-pivot (thấy… thì…), epistemic (thấy cần phải…), and exclamative/affective (thấy ghét) readings. We argue that Vietnamese clause-linking options and optional complementizers facilitate constructionalization via loose complementation and subjectification, while retaining perceptual residues that motivate evidential and interactional meanings. The study contributes: (i) a comprehensive diachrony of thấy; (ii) diagnostics separating perceptual, experiential, propositional, and discourse layers; and (iii) a case study bearing on the relationship between grammaticalization and constructional change in an isolating language. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments on the Semantics of Perception Verbs)

24 pages, 578 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Evolution of Spanish Ver ‘to See’ in Constructions with a Predicate Participle or Adjective

by Chantal Melis, María Isabel Jiménez Martínez and Milagros Alfonso Vega

Languages 2026, 11(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010013 - 31 Dec 2025

Abstract

The focus in this corpus-based study is on a set of Spanish constructions formed with the verb of visual perception, ver ‘to See’, and a predicate adjective or participle. In addition to a clearly recognizable transitive schema, the set includes various instances featuring [...] Read more.

The focus in this corpus-based study is on a set of Spanish constructions formed with the verb of visual perception, ver ‘to See’, and a predicate adjective or participle. In addition to a clearly recognizable transitive schema, the set includes various instances featuring a reflexive clitic pronoun coreferential with the subject, some of which have been argued to evidence the grammaticalization of lexical ver into a univerbated semicopular verb (pronominal verse), meaning little more than ‘be’ in some examples, and proximate to the intransitive sense of English look in other cases. We trace the evolution of these constructions in data spanning the history of the Spanish language, from its recorded beginnings to the present. We establish the need to distinguish two constructional sources of change, namely, an old middle-reflexive and a younger reflexive passive. We draw attention to the “renewal” of the Latin deponent videri ‘appear, look, seem’, which can be said to have taken place in Spanish as a product of the passive-derived process of grammaticalization undergone by ver. And throughout the paper we address problems of analyzability, attributable to the superficially identical strings of words that characterize the constructional patterns with a reflexive morpheme. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Romance Historical Syntax: Special Issue on Syntactic Analyzability in Diachrony)

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28 pages, 742 KB

Open AccessArticle

L2 Pragmatics Instruction in the Greek EFL Classroom: Teachers’ Competence, Beliefs, and Classroom Challenges

by Despoina Tosounidou and Marina Terkourafi

Languages 2026, 11(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010012 - 31 Dec 2025

Abstract

While Greek EFL learners’ pragmatic competence has been frequently investigated, few studies have focused on Greek EFL teachers’ pragmatic knowledge. Complementing these earlier studies based on semi-structured interviews, we employed an extended online questionnaire and discourse completion tasks (DCTs) to explore the pragmatic [...] Read more.

While Greek EFL learners’ pragmatic competence has been frequently investigated, few studies have focused on Greek EFL teachers’ pragmatic knowledge. Complementing these earlier studies based on semi-structured interviews, we employed an extended online questionnaire and discourse completion tasks (DCTs) to explore the pragmatic competence of 72 Greek EFL teachers. Pragmatic comprehension was evaluated using scenarios that required participants to assess speech acts, while their ability to produce pragmatically appropriate responses was also assessed. Likert-scale items explored teachers’ perceptions about L2 instruction and their own abilities in this regard. Findings suggest that Greek EFL teachers possess an above average level of pragmatic competence, which nevertheless has not led to them systematically integrating L2 pragmatics instruction in their classrooms. Additional qualitative data collected through semi-structured interviews suggest that teachers’ lack of integration of explicit pragmatics instruction is not due to their not recognizing its importance, but rather to feeling inadequately prepared to implement this, which in turn points to the lack of emphasis on L2 pragmatics in teacher education programs. We catalog the most significant challenges in incorporating L2 pragmatics instruction in Greek EFL classrooms in terms of teacher and learner factors, as well as the Greek EFL context itself. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greek Speakers and Pragmatics)

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22 pages, 350 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pragmatics or Syntax: The Nature of Adjunct-Inclusive Interpretations

by Yoshiki Fujiwara

Languages 2026, 11(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010011 - 31 Dec 2025

Abstract

This paper investigates the nature of adjunct-inclusive interpretations in Japanese, which has long been debated in the literature. Previous studies have disagreed on whether these interpretations arise from V-stranding VP-ellipsis or adjunct ellipsis. This study argues that adjunct-inclusive interpretations fall into two distinct [...] Read more.

This paper investigates the nature of adjunct-inclusive interpretations in Japanese, which has long been debated in the literature. Previous studies have disagreed on whether these interpretations arise from V-stranding VP-ellipsis or adjunct ellipsis. This study argues that adjunct-inclusive interpretations fall into two distinct types: one semantically encoded and structurally represented, and another pragmatically inferred, depending on context beyond sentence structure. Using anaphoric expressions and negation as diagnostics, this study shows that adjunct-inclusive interpretations involving (i) omission of both adjunct and object in transitive sentences and (ii) adjunct omission in intransitive sentences are syntactically represented, supporting the existence of V-stranding VP-ellipsis. By contrast, adjunct-inclusive interpretations where only the adjunct is omitted and the object is contrastively focused are derived from pragmatic inference via free pragmatic enrichment, rather than from syntactic structure. These findings provide empirical and theoretical support for the view that Japanese does not allow syntactic adjunct ellipsis but does allow V-stranding VP-ellipsis. More broadly, this study contributes to the understanding of the syntax–pragmatics interface in ellipsis, showing that not all implicit interpretations reflect syntactic structure and highlighting the importance of carefully distinguishing between semantic and pragmatic sources in analyzing ellipsis phenomena. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues in Ellipsis and Ellipsis Mismatch: Studies in Japanese and Beyond)

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