International Journal of Plant Biology

Blue fescue (Festuca glauca) is a widely used ornamental grass worldwide. Drought is an important limiting factor for the growth and development of blue fescue; therefore, cultivating new strains of blue fescue with a strong drought tolerance is of great significance for its production practice. To investigate the drought tolerance mechanism of ds-1, this study subjected both ds-1 and “Festina” to a natural drought treatment and measured their physiological and biochemical indicators. A transcriptomic analysis was also conducted to explore the underlying molecular mechanisms. The results showed that, after the drought treatment, the relative water content (RWC), water use efficiency (WUE), and photosynthetic rate (Pn) of ds-1 leaves were significantly higher than those of “Festina”; in addition, the contents of H₂O₂ and O₂⁻, the relative electrical conductivity (REC), the malondialdehyde (MDA) content, the gas conductance (Gs), and the transpiration rate (Tr) were significantly lower than those of “Festina”. The peroxidase (POD) activity of ds-1 was significantly higher than that of “Festina”, while the superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity of ds-1 was significantly lower than that of “Festina”. The transcriptome data analysis showed that there were a total of 9475 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between ds-1 and “Festina”. A Venn plot analysis showed 692 DEGs between ds-1—8d vs. “Festina”—8d and ds-1—16d vs. “Festina”—16d. A KEGG enrichment analysis showed that these 692 genes were mainly enriched in 86 pathways, including those related to the photosynthesis antenna protein, plant hormone signal transduction, MAPK signaling, starch and sucrose metabolism, and arginine and proline metabolism. Further screening identified genes that may be associated with drought stress, including PYL, PP2C, SnRK2, ABF, BRI1, JAZ, MYC2, Lhc, and MPK6. The qRT-PCR results indicated that the expression trends of the DEGs were consistent with the transcriptome sequencing results. Our research results can provide a basis for exploring candidate genes for drought tolerance in blue fescue. In addition, our research results provide valuable genetic resources for the development of drought-resistant ornamental grass varieties, which can help reduce water consumption in cities and decrease labor and capital investment. Full article

Excess sodium in soil disrupts ionic balance and limits water uptake, negatively affecting growth and stolon production in strawberry plants. This study assessed the effects of chitosan (CTS), brassinosteroids (BRs), and thidiazuron (TDZ) on stolon performance and physiological responses of strawberry cv. ‘Portola’ under saline conditions. A greenhouse experiment included seven treatments: CTS, BRs, CTS + BRs combinations, TDZ, and an untreated control. Foliar applications were used to evaluate impacts on nutrient uptake, photosynthetic pigments, oxidative stress, and stolon production. BRs alone [2.53 × 10⁻⁶ μM] significantly increased crown diameter (+43%), stolon number (+65%), stolon length (+4%), and daughter plant formation (+8%), while reducing leaf sodium by 60% and improving Mg²⁺/Na⁺ and K⁺/Na⁺ ratios. The CTS + BRs combination enhanced phenolic content and produced the heaviest first daughter plants (6.1 g). TDZ, however, resulted in weaker stolons, lower chlorophyll a content, and reduced K⁺/Na⁺ ratios, suggesting a need for dose optimization. Overall, BRs, alone or with CTS, improved salt tolerance and stolon propagation through enhanced ion regulation, photosynthesis, and antioxidant defenses. These findings advance understanding of how biostimulants modulate metal ion homeostasis, antioxidant signaling, and growth in salt-sensitive crops, offering strategies to mitigate salinity stress in strawberry cultivation. Full article

The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a vital food crop worldwide, particularly in Latin America, Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa, due to its high levels of protein, fiber, and essential nutrients. However, it is susceptible to viral infections, especially from the Bean common mosaic virus and Bean common mosaic necrosis virus. While previous research has primarily focused on specific resistance genes, a broader understanding of the plant’s overall immune response remains limited. To investigate this, a study was conducted involving 51 infected leaf samples. RNA was extracted, and deep metatranscriptomic sequencing was performed using the Illumina MiSeq platform. The results indicated that several genes related to stress response, nitrogen metabolism, and biosynthesis pathways were activated during infection. Key defense mechanisms included pathogen recognition, the production of antimicrobial peptides, and changes in metabolic activity. The Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway and enzymes like glycosyl transferases, which aid in building protective structures, played a significant role. These findings suggest that the bean’s defense system is complex and involves not only direct attacks on pathogens but also metabolic shifts and microbial interactions. Understanding these processes provides valuable insights for breeding stronger, disease-resistant, and climate-resilient bean varieties. Full article

Using the biometric differences (i.e., plant physical characteristics) between the C. pallida populations previously treated with herbicide and those of the untreated populations, we tested the prediction that herbicidal treatment suppresses C. pallida plant growth in South Africa, where invasive cacti display high resilience to herbicide treatment. We also determined whether the surrounding communities knew of C. pallida invasion and whether they experienced any negative impacts. Overall, biometric analyses supported the study’s prediction because C. pallida plant height in treated populations was significantly lower than in untreated populations and before treatment. The average plant height of populations not treated with herbicide (i.e., experimental control) and those measured before treatment were not significantly different, but both were significantly greater than the heights of populations previously treated with herbicide. Similarly, the mean number of fruits, cladodes and juveniles per C. pallida plant treated with herbicide was significantly lower than in the untreated populations. We found a significant positive correlation between all measured parameters and C. pallida plant height. Out of 39 participants, 16 (41.0%) confirmed C. pallida presence in and around their properties, with 21 (53.9%) participants having experienced negative impacts directly and indirectly through fatal injuries on pets and livestock in the sampled sites. We confirmed the effectiveness of herbicide in suppressing the invasion of C. pallida and that people experience substantial negative impacts in areas where the species has established. Full article

Drought stress is a major constraint to cassava productivity, especially in drought-prone regions. Although cassava is considered drought-tolerant, prolonged or severe water scarcity significantly reduces tuber yield, carbon assimilation capacity and overall plant growth. The development, selection and deployment of cassava genotypes with enhanced drought tolerance and water use efficiency (WUE) will help to achieve food security. The ability of cassava genotypes to maintain productivity under drought stress is enhanced by drought-responsive genes that regulate stress-related proteins and metabolites, contributing to stomatal closure, osmotic adjustment, antioxidant defense, and efficient carbon assimilation. Therefore, this comprehensive review aimed to document: (i) the effects of drought stress on cassava’s physiological, biochemical and agronomic traits, and (ii) the mitigation strategies and breeding technologies that can improve cassava yield production, drought tolerance and WUE. The key traits discussed include stomatal regulation, chlorophyll degradation, source–sink imbalance, root system architecture and carbon allocation dynamics. In addition, the review presents advances in genomic, proteomic and metabolomic tools, and emphasizes the role of early bulking genotypes, drought tolerance indices, and multi-trait selection in developing cassava cultivars with enhanced drought tolerance, drought escape and drought avoidance mechanism. Therefore, the integration of these strategies will accelerate the development, selection and deployment of improved cassava varieties, which contribute to sustainable productivity and global food security under climate change. Full article

Dioecious hemp cultivation faces significant productivity challenges, as approximately 50% of plants (males) produce no seeds whatsoever, functioning exclusively as pollen donors, creating substantial resource inefficiency in commercial production. This study evaluated ethephon (2-chloroethylphosphonic acid) concentrations from 250 to 1000 ppm for inducing feminization in male plants of the Thai hemp cultivar RPF3 under controlled greenhouse conditions. Complete morphological sex conversion (100%) was achieved across all tested concentrations, successfully transforming male plants into seed-producing individuals. Male plants exhibited a linear, concentration-dependent increase in seed production (R² = 0.76–0.91), with the highest concentration (1000 ppm) producing seven-fold more seeds than the lowest effective concentration (250 ppm). Female plants showed optimal yields at intermediate concentrations (500–750 ppm), with a significant decline in yield at 1000 ppm, indicating hormone toxicity. For commercial optimization, concentration selection depends on production objectives. 500 ppm provides optimal cost-effectiveness for mixed dioecious systems, delivering a 2.2-fold increase in total yield, while 1000 ppm maximizes productivity for male-only cultivation systems. Seeds from feminized males remained consistently 62–73% lighter than those from natural females across all treatments, indicating genetic control over seed morphology, despite hormonal sex conversion. This ethephon-based approach preserves the genetic diversity advantages of dioecious systems while doubling land-use efficiency, providing a sustainable intensification strategy for commercial hemp seed production. Full article

The intensification of rice–livestock systems has encouraged the integration of forage species into rice cultivation. However, the use of imidazolinone-tolerant rice cultivars (imazapyr + imazapic, IMIs), essential for weedy rice control, may hinder the establishment of sensitive forages due to herbicide residues. This study evaluated the emergence and early growth of six forage species through bioassays in soils with different IMI use histories. Over three years (2021–2023), soils were collected from three rice-growing regions in Uruguay with contrasting soil properties, at depths of 0–15 and 16–30 cm, under three IMI conditions: Control (no prior use), IMI-1 (applied one season before sampling), and IMI-2 (applied in the season before sampling). Emergence, plant height, and shoot and root biomass were analyzed using linear mixed models and principal component analysis. Shoot biomass was reduced by up to 60% in IMI-2 soils. Poaceae species and T. pratense were the most affected, while T. repens and L. corniculatus exhibited higher tolerance. Multivariate analysis indicated stronger residual effects on sandy loam soils. These findings highlight that imidazolinone persistence varies with forage species and soil properties, underscoring the need for careful planning in rice–pasture rotations to prevent adverse effects on forage establishment and system sustainability. Full article

The conservation of native blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) from Andean and Amazonian ecosystems faces challenges from climate change, habitat fragmentation, and land use. In this context, this review article provides a comprehensive analysis of the most relevant biotechnological and genomic tools applied to the preservation of these plant genetic resources, as well as their characterization. Among the biotechnological strategies, in vitro micropropagation delivers clonal pathogen-free valuable plants, while cryopreservation offers a viable option for a long-term germplasm storage. We also summarize its protocols focus on high regeneration rates and reproducibility. In the genomic field, we show advances in the use of molecular markers (such as SNPs, SSRs, and RAPDs), DNA barcoding and next-generation sequencing that leads genetic diversity assessment and identification of species. Finally, future perspectives in native blueberry conservation are discussed that allow the integration of emerging technologies such as landscape genomics, environmental transcriptomics, and the use of artificial intelligence tools. Integrating these approaches with the active participation of local communities can substantially strengthen the sustainable conservation of native blueberries in their natural habitats. Full article

Platonia insignis Mart. is a native Amazonian fruit tree with considerable agro-industrial potential, yet it remains underutilized due to limited domestication efforts and the absence of breeding programs or improved genetic lines. This study aimed to estimate genetic parameters based on morpho-agronomic fruit traits and to identify superior genotypes from natural coastal populations in the Brazilian Amazon. Thirteen genotypes were evaluated for 16 biometric and compositional traits. Genetic parameters were estimated using REML/BLUP (Restricted Maximum Likelihood/Best Linear Unbiased Prediction) procedures, and a rank–sum selection index was applied to identify elite individuals. The results revealed substantial phenotypic and genetic variability, with broad-sense heritability values ranging from moderate to high for key traits, including longitudinal fruit diameter (0.81), fruit fresh mass (0.66), and seed fresh mass (0.75). Selection accuracy was high (≥0.96) across most traits, indicating strong experimental reliability. Genotypic correlations highlighted favorable associations among traits related to pulp yield, sugar content, and seed reduction. Six superior genotypes (G7, G1, G6, G3, G2, and G4) exhibited optimal profiles for fruit quality and productivity. These findings provide a strong foundation for breeding strategies and support the genetic conservation and domestication of P. insignis as a native species of high economic and ecological importance. Full article

Glyphosate (N-phosphonomethylglycine) is a broad-spectrum, foliar-applied herbicide that inhibits 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) in plants. EPSPS catalyzes a crucial step in the shikimate pathway for the biosynthesis of folates and aromatic amino acids in plants. A variety of glyphosate-tolerant EPSPS enzymes have been reported. Some of these have been introduced into crops using biotechnology to produce glyphosate-tolerant crops. Glyphosate tolerance in crops permits the use of glyphosate to control weeds while maintaining crop yield. We endeavored to optimize the maize EPSPS enzyme with improvements in both enzymatic activity and reduction in sensitivity to glyphosate to improve the potential for herbicide tolerance in crops. Here, we have improved the glyphosate tolerance of maize EPSPS with the potential of providing an herbicide tolerance trait by utilizing enzyme optimization with in vitro and in planta screening. Overexpressing some of these EPSPS variants into maize have resulted in maize plants with robust vegetative glyphosate tolerance. Full article

Chloroplast genomes are valuable tools for exploring plant evolution, photosynthesis, and molecular systematics due to their relatively conserved structure and gene content. Here, I present a comprehensive comparative analysis of complete chloroplast genomes from 20 taxonomically diverse plant species, focusing on 16 widely used barcoding genes to investigate patterns of genome structure, gene retention, codon usage bias, and phylogenetic relationships. Genome sizes ranged from ~121 kb in Marchantia polymorpha to over 160 kb in Vitis vinifera, with GC content largely conserved across species. A multi-gene Neighbor-Joining phylogenetic framework recovered major taxonomic groupings and revealed gene-specific topological differences, reflecting locus-specific evolutionary histories. Presence/absence profiling showed that 13 of the 16 barcoding genes were consistently retained across species and classified as core genes, while the remaining three exhibited more variable distributions and were considered accessory. This pattern reflects both broad conservation and lineage-specific gene loss across plastomes. Genome-wide similarity analysis revealed high identity among closely related taxa (e.g., Arabidopsis and Brassica) and greater divergence among bryophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms. Codon usage analysis revealed generally conserved patterns, with lineage-specific biases observed in Cucumis sativus and Brassica rapa, suggesting influences from mutational pressure and potential translational selection. This integrative analysis highlights the dynamic yet conserved nature of chloroplast genomes and underscores the value of combining multiple genomic features in plastome evolution studies. The resulting dataset and analytical pipeline offer a useful resource for future phylogenomic, evolutionary, and biodiversity research in plant science. Full article

The application of plasma technology in agriculture has emerged as a promising approach to enhance plant health and manage microbial interactions, offering potential solutions for sustainable crop production and disease control. This study contributes to this field by exploring the effects of plasma treatments on plant physiology and microbial dynamics, with a focus on their potential to improve agricultural outcomes. This investigation aims to systematically determine optimal plasma seed treatment parameters for enhancing plant vigor and promoting beneficial microbial associations while minimizing pathogenic interactions in Arabidopsis thaliana. This study focuses on understanding the effects of various plasma treatments on chlorophyll content, root length, microbial growth, and microbial quantification in plants and microbes. The treatments involve the use of an atmospheric jet plasma handheld device, a globe plasma, and a glow discharge plasma chamber with air and argon. These treatments were applied for varying time durations from 10 s to 5 min. The results demonstrated that the globe plasma treatment for 1 min significantly enhanced chlorophyll a extraction and root length, outperforming the other treatments. Additionally, the study examined the impact of plasma on plant–microbe interactions to assess whether plasma treatments affect beneficial microbes. Plasma treatments showed minimal impact on most beneficial microbe activity, though species-specific sensitivities were observed, with Pseudomonas cedrina showing moderate growth inhibition, revealing no significant disruption to their activity. The microbial quantification assays indicated that the globe plasma treatment effectively reduced microbial counts, while combined treatment with plant and microbe plasma together did not yield significant changes. Additionally, the chlorophyll estimation of plasma-treated samples indicated that the globe plasma and atmospheric jet plasma treatments were effective in enhancing chlorophyll content, whereas the combined treatment with both plant and microbe plasma did not yield significant changes. These findings suggest that plasma treatments, especially the globe plasma, are effective in improving plant health and controlling microbial activity. Future research should focus on optimizing plasma conditions, exploring the influence of plasma parameters and the underlying mechanisms, and expanding the scope to include a wider range of plant species and microbial strains to maximize the benefits of plasma technology in agriculture. Full article

Lilium species produce some of the most commercially valuable ornamental flowers in the world, characterized by their attractiveness and high demand in cut flower markets. However, it is necessary to strengthen the competitiveness of this sector in the global market. Due to strong competition from international producers and an increasingly demanding market regarding quality, shelf life, and sustainability, alternatives are being sought to counteract the use of conventional agrochemicals. The use of nanoparticles has emerged as a promising strategy in ornamental horticulture due to their ability to enhance plant growth, improve stress tolerance, and stimulate physiological processes, ultimately contributing to higher quality and productivity. The hypothesis of this research is that the foliar application of selenium and titanium dioxide nanoparticles during the vegetative growth and flowering stages significantly enhances the growth, development, and flowering of Lilium plants when compared with untreated plants. Therefore, the physiological effects of SeNPs and TiO₂NPs applied via foliar application in two concentrations (SeNPsD1, SeNPsD2, TiNPsD1, and TiNPsD2) were evaluated against absolute control. The treatments were applied in two phenological stages (vegetative and reproductive development), and their effects on vegetative and reproductive variables in Lilium plants were evaluated from 120 to 270 days after sowing. The surface of seeds obtained from SeNPsD1-treated plants was further analyzed via scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The results demonstrate that the application of SeNPs generated variable effects depending on the phenological stage. In the vegetative stage (46 DAS), SeNPsD2 increased the number of leaves by 118%, while SeNPsD1 increased the fresh weight of leaves by 110%. Regarding ovaries, the application of SeNPsD2 resulted in a 276% increase in fresh weight and a 230% increase in dry weight, while SeNPsD1 achieved an increase of 164% in fresh weight. Furthermore, at this stage, SeNPsD2 promoted a 223% increase in the number of bulbils, a 240% increase in fresh weight, and a 199% increase in dry weight. In the reproductive stage (69 DAS), SeNPsD1 increased the leaf fresh weight by 1% and yielded a 107% increase in the number of ovaries, in addition to 307% and 328% increases in their fresh and dry weights, respectively. In the same stage, SeNPsD2 increased the fresh ovary weight by 153%, compared with the control. Finally, capsule formation was observed only under the SeNPsD1 treatment. Meanwhile, TiO₂NPs had an effect on the number of buds and the number of open buds: the number of buds increased by 115% with TiNPsD1 (69 DAS) and the number of open buds increased by 104% (46 DAS) with TiNPsD1; in the reproductive stage, the number increased by 115% with TiNPsD1 compared with the control. In the seed capsules of plants treated with selenium nanoparticles (SeNPsD1), although no surface selenium was detected via EDS, elements that had possibly been physiologically redistributed were identified, including iron (Fe), silicon (Si), and aluminum (Al). These findings confirm the hypothesis of this research, demonstrating that the foliar application of SeNPs and TiO₂NPs to Lilium plants during the vegetative and reproductive stages significantly improves their vegetative growth, reproductive development, and floral quality under controlled conditions. This work presents the first comparative evidence regarding the effects of SeNPs and TiO₂NPs on the vegetative and reproductive characteristics of Lilium Sunny Oriental, providing unprecedented information for the use of nanotechnology in ornamental horticulture. The findings confirm the potential use of nanoparticles as agents to optimize the productivity and commercial quality of ornamental flowers in highly competitive markets. Full article

Exploring microbial resources from coastal environments is crucial for enhancing food security; however, current knowledge remains limited. This study aimed to isolate and molecularly characterize bacteria associated with maize and groundnut, and to evaluate their potential as plant growth-promoting (PGP) agents. Rhizobacteria were isolated from rhizospheric soil, and endophytic bacteria were obtained from surface-sterilized and macerated plant roots. One gram of each sample was suspended in sterile distilled water in test tubes, serially diluted, and plated on nutrient agar. After incubation, distinct colonies were sub-cultured to obtain pure cultures for biochemical tests, screening for PGP traits, assessment of pH and salt tolerance, optimal growth conditions, bioinoculation potential, and molecular analysis. Out of sixty isolated bacteria, five potent strains, BS1-BS5, were identified. BS3 showed the highest mannanase activity, with a 2.3 cm zone of clearance, while BS2 exhibited high indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and phosphate solubilization activities of 10.92 µg/mL and 10.78 mg/L. BS1 and BS4 demonstrated high drought tolerance, 0.94 and 0.98 at 10% PEG, with BS1 also showing maximum salt tolerance of 0.76. At 6.0 g and 2.0 g supplementation, BS1 and BS2 utilized 100% lactose and fructose. BS3 exhibited the highest percentage of antifungal activity, with a 30.12% inhibition rate. BS4 and BS5 promoted shoot lengths of 55.00 cm and 49.80 cm, respectively. Although the bacterial species isolated are generally considered pathogenic, their positive effects contributed significantly to maize growth. Full article

The lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) is an ornamental aquatic plant, highly valued in Asian cultures for its religious symbolism, culinary uses, and medicinal properties. However, the lotus exhibits low genetic diversity in nature, which limits the genetic resources available for breeding programs. Gamma irradiation is an effective method for inducing genetic variation in lotus breeding. The present study examines the gamma sensitivity of lotus seedlings, along with the morphological and anatomical changes induced by various gamma dosages. The results showed that high-dose gamma irradiation (≥100 Gy) significantly inhibited seedling growth and altered most anatomical parameters, each exhibiting distinct dose–response patterns except for midrib diameter. The 100 Gy treatment resulted in the maximum stem diameter, while root diameter peaked at 500 Gy, and the highest dose (600 Gy) produced the largest petioles. Gamma irradiation also triggered tannin accumulation and reduced aerenchyma formation in the leaves. The obtained results demonstrate organ-specific responses to gamma irradiation in the lotus, with leaves being the most sensitive, while petioles, stems, and roots exhibited more variable dose-dependent effects. Full article

Vegetables such as lettuce, tomato, carrot, and beet are vital to the global food industry, providing essential nutrients and supporting sustainable agriculture. Their cultivation in greenhouses across diverse climatic zones (temperate, Mediterranean, tropical, subtropical, and arid) has gained prominence due to controlled environments that enhance yield and quality. However, these crops face significant threats from climate change, including rising temperatures, erratic light availability, and resource constraints, which challenge optimal growth and nutritional content. This study investigates the influence of microclimatic conditions—temperature, light intensity, and CO₂ concentration—on the growth, physiology, and biochemistry of these vegetables under varying greenhouse types and climatic zones, addressing these threats through a systematic review. The methodology followed the PRISMA guidelines, synthesizing peer-reviewed articles from 1995 to 2025 sourced from Web of Science, Pub Med, Scopus, Science Direct, Springer Link, and Google Scholar. Search terms included “greenhouse microclimate”, “greenhouse types”, “Climatic Zones, “and crop-specific keywords, with data extracted on microclimatic parameters and analyzed across growth stages and climatic zones. Eligibility criteria ensured focus on quantitative data from greenhouse studies, excluding pre-1995 or non-peer-reviewed sources. The results identified the following optimal conditions: lettuce and beet thrive at 15–22 °C, 200–250 μmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹, and 600–1100 ppm CO₂ in temperate zones; tomatoes at 18–25 °C, 200–300 μmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹, and 600–1100 ppm in Mediterranean and arid zones; and carrots at 15–20 °C, 150–250 μmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹, and 600–1000 ppm in subtropical zones. Greenhouse types (e.g., glasshouses, polytunnels) modulate these optima, with high-tech systems enhancing resilience. Conclusively, tailored microclimatic management, integrating AI-driven technologies and advanced greenhouse designs, is recommended to mitigate threats and optimize production across climatic zones. Full article

Papaver rhoeas L. has four strikingly red petals with a distinctly black area bordered by a thin white line at the petal base, thus creating a color pattern that makes the center of the flower, where the pollen is located, visually stand out. This paper aims to assess the intra-petal spatial variability in P. rhoeas petal color intensity and hue and associate it with corresponding differences in the amount and type of petal pigments. The distribution of pigments in the petal epidermis was investigated in different petal segments by column chromatography. Fresh petals were extracted with deionized water during blooming, between April and June 2023, in northwestern Greece. UV–visible absorption spectra of the eluted fractions revealed five pigments, with each pigment belonging to a different elution zone. In the black spots of the petals, anthocyanin coexists with a yellow flavonol with a maximum absorption peak at 340 nm. Red petal extract in 70:30 ethanol–water showed a distinct negative Cotton effect at 284 nm, distinct from black segment extract with a negative Cotton effect at 227 nm. The uneven distribution of floral pigments along the petal epidermis creates a unique color palette, enabling UV-reflection, which is key in attracting pollinators responsible for plant reproduction. Full article