Foods

21 pages, 1932 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bergamot Essential Oil Beverage: Preparation, Formulation Optimization, and Preliminary Evaluation of Antidepressant-like Effects in Mice Induced by Chronic Corticosterone Treatment

by Qingqing Yang, Zhirenyong Zhang and Yan Li

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1817; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101817 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

Bergamot essential oil (BEO) has demonstrated antidepressant potential, but its oral application is limited by poor water solubility and undesirable organoleptic properties. In this study, a BEO-loaded beverage was developed based on a whey protein-stabilized oil-in-water emulsion system. The optimal formulation, determined via [...] Read more.

Bergamot essential oil (BEO) has demonstrated antidepressant potential, but its oral application is limited by poor water solubility and undesirable organoleptic properties. In this study, a BEO-loaded beverage was developed based on a whey protein-stabilized oil-in-water emulsion system. The optimal formulation, determined via single-factor experiments combined with orthogonal optimization, consisted of inulin (0.5 g/50 g), milk powder (2.0 g/50 g), sucralose (0.008 g/50 g), and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (0.04 g/50 g). The resulting beverage remained stable without visible phase separation during 4 months of storage at 4 °C. In a chronic corticosterone treatment (CCT)-induced mouse model of depression, oral administration of the BEO beverage increased activity in the central area of the open field test and exploratory behavior in the elevated plus maze, while reducing repetitive stereotyped behaviors in the marble burying test. At the molecular level, the BEO beverage was associated with reduced levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and corticosteroid (CORT), and increased levels of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA), and norepinephrine (NE). Additionally, the BEO beverage was associated with observed alleviation of neuronal damage in the hippocampal CA3 region, upregulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), improved gut microbial diversity, and altered host metabolic profiles. Collectively, these findings suggest that the BEO emulsion beverage is a feasible intervention for alleviating depression-like behaviors in the mouse model, and provide initial associative evidence supporting its potential as a functional food for mood management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Foods for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention)

23 pages, 5896 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nutritional Supply vs. Flavor Quality: Characterizing the Physicochemical Properties and Amino Acid Profiles of Tomatoes from Beijing and Shandong

by Yiming Zhao, Fengzhi Lyu, Nasi Ai, Qian Yu, Xin Ding, Yanyan Huang, Xiaomin Xu, Ge Chen, Junmei Liu, Donghui Xu, Ming Yang and Guangyang Liu

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1816; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101816 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

The nutritional quality and amino acid profiles of 165 tomato samples (66 regular and 99 cherry varieties) from Beijing and Shandong in Northern China were assessed. The results showed that the regional origin was associated with differences in Dry Matter (8.88% vs. 6.73%), [...] Read more.

The nutritional quality and amino acid profiles of 165 tomato samples (66 regular and 99 cherry varieties) from Beijing and Shandong in Northern China were assessed. The results showed that the regional origin was associated with differences in Dry Matter (8.88% vs. 6.73%), Soluble Solids (8.04% vs. 5.80%), total titratable acidity (5.57 vs. 4.08 g/kg), and Lycopene levels (67.32 vs. 38.22 mg/kg). Shandong tomatoes generally showed higher values than those from Beijing. Vitamin C levels were comparable between the two regions (17.79 vs. 13.98 mg/100 g), suggesting no linkage between Vitamin C variation and Dry Matter differences in this dataset. These regional differences likely reflect integrated effects of cultivation systems, varietal composition, and environmental conditions. They may not be explained by geographic origin alone. Principal component analysis revealed regional clustering driven by the accumulation of sugars, organic acids, and amino acids, with glutamate and aspartate contributing strongly to flavor-related variation. These findings provide insights into regional tomato quality and may support precision cultivation and breeding strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Food Nutrition)

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16 pages, 10263 KB

Open AccessArticle

Lactiplantibacillus plantarum CCNH185 Attenuates Citrobacter rodentium-Induced Colitis by Reshaping Gut Microbiota Structure and Modulating Innate Immunity

by Yizhi Jing, Xiaoyue Bai, Yuanzhi Yin, Xinfeng Liu, Junzhu Li, Zhichao Chen, Zhengyuan Zhai and Yanling Hao

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1815; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101815 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

Infectious enteritis caused by bacterial pathogens are a significant global health concern, with high incidence and mortalities worldwide. The objective of this research was to explore the benefits of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum CCNH185 against Citrobacter rodentium-induced colitis in mice. Female C57BL/6J mice ( [...] Read more.

Infectious enteritis caused by bacterial pathogens are a significant global health concern, with high incidence and mortalities worldwide. The objective of this research was to explore the benefits of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum CCNH185 against Citrobacter rodentium-induced colitis in mice. Female C57BL/6J mice (n = 8 per group) were orally administered L. plantarum CCNH185 at a dose of 2 × 10⁹ CFU daily for 24 days, followed by a single oral challenge with C. rodentium (2 × 10⁹ CFU) on day 21. L. plantarum CCNH185 significantly alleviated disease symptoms including body weight loss, colon shortening and histopathological damage (p < 0.05). Treatment with L. plantarum CCNH185 also reduced pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, such as IL-1β and IL-6 (p < 0.05), while increasing anti-inflammatory IL-10 expression (p < 0.05) in the colon. Histological and immunofluorescence demonstrated that L. plantarum CCNH185 improved the intestinal barrier integrity by increasing goblet cell numbers, upregulating MUC2 expression, reducing crypt hyperplasia, and suppressing epithelial cell apoptosis. Furthermore, transcriptomic analysis revealed that L. plantarum CCNH185 suppressed excessive immune cell infiltration and inflammatory responses in the colon during C. rodentium infection. Flow cytometry analysis further confirmed that L. plantarum CCNH185 suppressed hyperactivation of innate immune cells including macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils to alleviate inflammation. Furthermore, L. plantarum CCNH185 reshaped the gut microbiota by increasing the abundance of beneficial genera such as Lactobacillus, Dubosiella, and Romboutsia. Correlation analysis linked these microbial shifts with improved inflammatory and apoptotic markers. These findings highlight L. plantarum CCNH185 may serve as a promising preventive probiotic candidate for ameliorating infectious colitis possibly through strengthening the gut mucus barrier, modulating immune responses, and altering gut microbiota composition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Key Bioactive Components of Probiotics and Postbiotics and Their Applications in Foods)

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29 pages, 845 KB

Open AccessReview

Near-Infrared Spectroscopy in Food Analysis: Applications, Chemometric Strategies, and Technological Advances

by Limin Dai, Dong Luo, Jun Zhang, Yuan Chen and Changwei Li

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1814; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101814 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive review on near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy applied in food analysis, systematically elaborating its core principles, widespread industrial applications, advanced chemometric strategies, and cutting-edge technological progress. NIR spectroscopy (760–2500 nm), characterized by rapid, non-destructive detection and minimal sample preparation, has [...] Read more.

This paper presents a comprehensive review on near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy applied in food analysis, systematically elaborating its core principles, widespread industrial applications, advanced chemometric strategies, and cutting-edge technological progress. NIR spectroscopy (760–2500 nm), characterized by rapid, non-destructive detection and minimal sample preparation, has been widely implemented in quality evaluation and safety monitoring of grains, meat, fruits and vegetables, dairy, fermented products, tea, coffee, and other processed foods, realizing quantitative analysis of nutrients, freshness assessment, texture prediction, adulteration identification, origin tracing, and rapid preliminary screening of toxin/pesticide residues. A series of chemometric methods, including spectral preprocessing (SNV, MSC, S-G smoothing), feature extraction, and variable selection (CARS, PSO-CMW, ICPA), as well as linear/nonlinear modeling algorithms (PLS, SVM, BP-ANN, fuzzy clustering) significantly boost the accuracy and robustness of spectral analysis. Meanwhile, portable NIR devices and online monitoring systems promote on-site and real-time detection in food supply chains. Despite existing challenges such as calibration transfer, matrix interference, and model generalization, innovations like multimodal data fusion, deep learning integration, and intelligent algorithm optimization offer effective solutions. This review not only summarizes the latest research advances of NIR technology in the food field but also emphasizes its significant advantages as a rapid, non-destructive complementary tool to traditional destructive detection methods, providing theoretical support and technical reference for accelerating the industrial translation and standardized application of NIR spectroscopy, and ultimately safeguarding global food quality and safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Food Analytical Methods)

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21 pages, 1862 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nutritional Value and Food Safety Assessment of Single-Cell Protein Derived from Ralstonia eutropha for Food Applications

by Xiaoyan You, Le Zhang, Ling Chen, Hui Wang, Hong Zou, Zhiguang Zhu and Guoping Zhao

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1813; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101813 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

The growing global protein demand and environmental concerns from conventional animal agriculture have driven the exploration of sustainable alternative protein sources. Single-cell proteins (SCPs) from microbial fermentation offer a promising solution. This study comprehensively evaluated the nutritional value and safety profile of SCP [...] Read more.

The growing global protein demand and environmental concerns from conventional animal agriculture have driven the exploration of sustainable alternative protein sources. Single-cell proteins (SCPs) from microbial fermentation offer a promising solution. This study comprehensively evaluated the nutritional value and safety profile of SCP produced from Ralstonia eutropha H16 through integrated in vitro and in vivo assessments. Nutritional analyses revealed a high crude protein content of 71.87 ± 5.05 g/100 g dry weight, with total amino acids of 53.67 ± 1.05 g/100 g. The essential amino acid content was 24.38 ± 0.51 g/100 g, accounting for 45% of the total amino acids. An essential amino acid index (EAAI) of 1.46 ± 0.04 and an amino acid score (AAS) of 0.83 ± 0.06 confirmed its classification as a high-quality protein source according to FAO/WHO standards. In vivo rat feeding trials demonstrated an adjusted protein efficiency ratio (PER) of 1.81, exceeding common plant proteins such as wheat (0.8–1.1). True digestibility (TD) reached 85.73%, with a biological value (BV) of 49.37%, net protein utilization (NPU) of 42.33%, and protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) of 0.71. Comprehensive safety assessments included chemical contaminant screening, acute oral toxicity studies in rats and mice, in vitro chromosome aberration tests, and erythrocyte micronucleus tests. Heavy metals and aflatoxin B₁ levels were below regulatory limits. Acute oral toxicity studies established LD₅₀ values exceeding 10,000 mg/kg body weight in both rodent species, classifying this protein source as practically non-toxic. The 28-day sub-acute toxicity study showed no significant adverse effects at low doses (6.25% protein replacement). Both genotoxicity assays (mammalian cell chromosome aberration assay and mammalian erythrocyte micronucleus test) returned negative results. These findings establish R. eutropha H16-derived SCP as a safe, nutritious, and sustainable protein source with considerable potential for feed and food applications, contributing to global food security and environmental sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Food Quality and Safety)

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22 pages, 1347 KB

Open AccessArticle

How Closures Shape Red Wine Characteristics for Medium-Term Storage: Contributions to Explain Orthonasal and Retronasal Perception

by João Mota, Adriana C. S. Pais, Sónia A. O. Santos, Armando J. D. Silvestre, José Pedro Machado and Sílvia M. Rocha

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1812; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101812 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

The sensory perception of wine arises from dynamic interactions processed through two complementary pathways: orthonasal, via inhalation through the nasal cavity, and retronasal, occurring during consumption as compounds are released in the oral cavity and integrated with taste and tactile sensations. Although closures [...] Read more.

The sensory perception of wine arises from dynamic interactions processed through two complementary pathways: orthonasal, via inhalation through the nasal cavity, and retronasal, occurring during consumption as compounds are released in the oral cavity and integrated with taste and tactile sensations. Although closures are known to affect oxidative–reductive balance during bottle storage, their impact on orthonasal and retronasal perception remains largely unexplored. To address this gap, a blend red wine from Burgenland, Austria, sealed with Natural Cork, Microagglomerated cork, and Screw Cap closures, was evaluated after 30 months of in-bottle storage. Analyses of physicochemical parameters and phenolic and volatile composition were combined with oxireduction sensory evaluation by a trained panel. Wine sealed with Natural Cork presented a more balanced and complex aroma profile, while wine sealed with a Screw Cap promoted reductive defaults associated with sulfur compounds. Wine sealed with Microagglomerated cork exhibited an intermediate behavior, with phenolic composition positioned between that with Natural Cork and a Screw Cap, and volatile profile showing, with the exception of sulfur compounds, a greater similarity to that with a Screw Cap. Notably, ortho- and retronasal oxireductive scores co-varied, driven by multiple volatile families, and are aligned with oxidation and/or reduction volatile marker content. These findings highlight the role of closure type in modulating both chemical composition and sensory perception, demonstrating that wine–closure pairing can be strategically used to guide the evolution of a wine’s identity during medium-term storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Food Processing Techniques for Flavor Enhancement and Quality Optimization)

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17 pages, 13159 KB

Open AccessArticle

Super-Enhancer-Associated Gene 3-Hydroxybutyrate Dehydrogenase 1 Increases Intramuscular Fat Deposition of Yaks (Bos grunniens)

by Xue Meng, Jieqiong Ma, Yanjie Yin, Zhenlu Xie, Binglin Yue and Hui Wang

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1811; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101811 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

Intramuscular fat (IMF) is a pivotal determinant of meat quality in yaks (Bos grunniens). While nutritional factors are well-documented, the epigenetic landscape, particularly the transcriptional architecture governed by super-enhancers (SEs), remains largely unexplored in the context of IMF deposition. To investigate [...] Read more.

Intramuscular fat (IMF) is a pivotal determinant of meat quality in yaks (Bos grunniens). While nutritional factors are well-documented, the epigenetic landscape, particularly the transcriptional architecture governed by super-enhancers (SEs), remains largely unexplored in the context of IMF deposition. To investigate SE-associated genes, Chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) assays using H3K27ac antibodies and RNA-sequencing (RNA-Seq) were conducted on longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle tissues with high and low IMF contents. Integrated multi-omics analysis identified 82 enhancer-associated genes exhibiting significant upregulation in high-IMF samples, with 63 loci characterized as SE-associated. In particular, H3K27ac signal distribution analysis indicated that SEs were distributed across functional regions such as promoters, gene bodies, exons, and introns. Among these SE-related genes, 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase 1 (BDH1) was further investigated to understand its function and regulatory mechanisms. To address this, overexpression or knockdown experiments were conducted, followed by CCK-8, EdU, Bodipy functional assays, and Real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) analysis. Functional experiments revealed that BDH1 acts as a key positive regulator of yak preadipocyte differentiation and is a prime SE-associated candidate regulatory gene. Furthermore, dual-luciferase reporter assays were performed to identify its SE region, revealing that the activity of 4 enhancer regions was significantly upregulated. Collectively, these findings implicate SE-associated genes in IMF deposition in yaks, provide a valuable resource for future research, and underscore the functional relevance of BDH1 in this process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Meat)

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22 pages, 1185 KB

Open AccessReview

Multimodal Sensor Fusion for Non-Destructive Tea Quality Evaluation: Deep Learning-Enabled Methods, Applications, and Challenges

by Xinyu Hu, Meng Zhang, Biyue Yang, Yuefei Tao and Wei Wei

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1810; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101810 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

Tea quality evaluation is increasingly moving from subjective sensory assessment and destructive laboratory analysis toward rapid, non-destructive, and data-driven approaches. This review summarizes recent advances in multimodal sensing integrated with deep learning for tea quality evaluation, with emphasis on sensor complementarity, data-fusion strategies, [...] Read more.

Tea quality evaluation is increasingly moving from subjective sensory assessment and destructive laboratory analysis toward rapid, non-destructive, and data-driven approaches. This review summarizes recent advances in multimodal sensing integrated with deep learning for tea quality evaluation, with emphasis on sensor complementarity, data-fusion strategies, representative applications, and deployment-related limitations. Major sensing modalities, including machine vision, near- and mid-infrared spectroscopy, Raman and fluorescence spectroscopy, hyperspectral imaging, and electronic nose/electronic tongue systems, are discussed in relation to their ability to characterize appearance, chemical composition, aroma, flavor, processing status, and safety-related attributes. Applications are examined for quality grading, chemical composition prediction, aroma and flavor characterization, fermentation monitoring, and safety-related extensions across representative tea products, including green tea, black tea, dark tea, matcha, and jasmine tea. Overall, multimodal approaches can outperform single-sensor systems only when the selected modalities provide complementary, rather than redundant, information layers. However, practical translation remains constrained by small and weakly standardized datasets, insufficient external validation, sensor instability, limited model transferability, high computational cost, and insufficient interpretability. Future research should prioritize standardized datasets, leakage-free validation protocols, interpretable multimodal modeling, truly independent external validation, interoperable multi-sensor platforms, and lightweight deployable models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Multidisciplinary Advances in Tea Science: Smart Cultivation, Digital Processing, and Health Innovation)

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15 pages, 2481 KB

Open AccessArticle

Protein Fraction-Dependent Antioxidant Responses to Thermal Processing in Korean Native Black Goat Extracts: A Screening and Multivariate Analysis

by Woo-Young Son, Jun Hwang and Hyun-Wook Kim

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1809; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101809 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

Korean native black goat is commonly consumed as thermally processed extracts and is widely perceived to exhibit health-promoting properties; however, the contribution of intrinsic muscle proteins to these functional characteristics remains unclear. This study evaluated the effects of thermal processing on the antioxidant [...] Read more.

Korean native black goat is commonly consumed as thermally processed extracts and is widely perceived to exhibit health-promoting properties; however, the contribution of intrinsic muscle proteins to these functional characteristics remains unclear. This study evaluated the effects of thermal processing on the antioxidant activity of myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic protein fractions using a screening-based approach. Protein fractions were extracted and subjected to various thermal conditions (60–121 °C), followed by analyses of extractable protein, α-amino group content, and antioxidant activities, including 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging, hydroxyl radical scavenging, iron-chelating ability, and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). Thermal processing increased α-amino group content, particularly in the myofibrillar fraction, indicating enhanced protein degradation. Antioxidant activities improved with increasing temperature, with myofibrillar proteins showing stronger activity than sarcoplasmic proteins. Sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS–PAGE) indicated fragmentation in myofibrillar proteins and aggregation in sarcoplasmic proteins. Cluster analysis supported fraction-dependent differences in antioxidant responses. These findings suggest that thermal processing enhances antioxidant activity in a protein fraction-dependent manner and provide practical insights for optimizing processing conditions of Korean native black goat extracts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Meat and Meat Products: Strategies for Valorization and Preservation)

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20 pages, 6770 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Composition, Interfacial Properties, and Antioxidant Activity of Flaxseed Protein Isolates from Different Varieties

by Xiao Yu, Chen Zhang, Haohe Sun, Yingying Zhu, Dengfeng Peng, Qianchun Deng, Lili Zhang and Limin Wang

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1808; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101808 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

The present study aimed to compare the composition structure, interfacial, and antioxidant activities of flaxseed protein isolates (FPIs) in different flaxseed varieties. The results showed that apparently intact protein bodies (PBs) were manifested as densely staining cytoplasmic inclusions with distinct boundaries and varying [...] Read more.

The present study aimed to compare the composition structure, interfacial, and antioxidant activities of flaxseed protein isolates (FPIs) in different flaxseed varieties. The results showed that apparently intact protein bodies (PBs) were manifested as densely staining cytoplasmic inclusions with distinct boundaries and varying diameter ranges among different flaxseed varieties. Through alkali extraction with isoelectric precipitation, FPIs exhibited a relatively small and irregular lamellar strip structure with varying sizes and shapes packed with spherical particles in studied flaxseed varieties. The different composition structures of FPIs among studied flaxseed varieties were also obtained, involving the protein subunits’ intrinsic fluorescence properties, secondary structures, and amino acid profiles. These structural differences also led to differential purities, aqueous solubility, dispersion properties, and surface charges. Moreover, the varying emulsifying and foaming properties of FPIs from different flaxseed varieties were also observed due to the formation of coarse lipid droplets (5~40 μm) and foams (20~100 μm) with the specific structure of the oil/gas–water interface and bulk aqueous phase. The retention of phenolic compounds into FPIs still displayed evident variety specificity from 323 to 478 mg/100 g and 210 to 347 mg/100 g, which definitely led to escalated antioxidant activities. Thus, FPIs from Longya 13# and Neiya 9# flaxseed varieties were screened for favorable emulsifying and foaming properties due to the balanced molecular rigidity/unfolding and interfacial adsorption/stabilization behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Biological and Functional Properties of Polypeptides and Polysaccharides Isolated from Food Sources)

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4 pages, 163 KB

Open AccessReply

Reply to López-Moreno, M.; López-Gil, J.F. Comment on “Hernández-Lorca et al. Effects of Dry-Cured Ham Consumption on Cardiometabolic and Vascular Health in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Human Intervention Studies. Foods 2026, 15, 1198”

by Manuel Hernández-Lorca, Desirée Victoria-Montesinos, Ana María García-Muñoz, Eva Salazar and Adela Abellán

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1807; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101807 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

We thank the authors of the Comment for their careful reading of our article and for raising important interpretative and methodological considerations [...] Full article

3 pages, 148 KB

Open AccessComment

Comment on Hernández-Lorca et al. Effects of Dry-Cured Ham Consumption on Cardiometabolic and Vascular Health in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Human Intervention Studies. Foods 2026, 15, 1198

by Miguel López-Moreno and José Francisco López-Gil

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1806; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101806 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

We read with interest the systematic review and meta-analysis by Hernández-Lorca et al [...] Full article

12 pages, 1943 KB

Open AccessArticle

Shelf-Life Prediction of Shrimp Gravlax Using Machine Learning: Integrating Traditional Processing with AI Modeling

by Ozlem Emir Coban, Ilhan Firat Kilincer, Aniseh Jamshidi and Mehmet Zulfu Coban

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1805; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101805 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

This study aimed to develop shrimp gravlax (Penaeus japonicus) as a ready-to-eat seafood product and to determine its shelf life. The product was prepared using a curing method and stored at 4 °C for 30 days. Quality changes were monitored at [...] Read more.

This study aimed to develop shrimp gravlax (Penaeus japonicus) as a ready-to-eat seafood product and to determine its shelf life. The product was prepared using a curing method and stored at 4 °C for 30 days. Quality changes were monitored at five-day intervals through analyses of TVB-N, TBARs, peroxide value, pH, water activity, total mesophilic aerobic bacteria, and total psychrophilic bacteria. Gradual shifts in quality parameters were observed during storage, with notable increases in TVB-N, lipid oxidation markers, and microbial counts. Sensory scores declined over time, yet the product remained acceptable until approximately day 25. These findings suggest that shrimp gravlax has a shelf life of around 25 days under the studied conditions. To support freshness evaluation, machine learning models including Support Vector Machine (SVM), K-Nearest Neighbors (K-NN), and Decision Tree (DT) were applied. After data augmentation and parameter optimization, the models achieved high classification performance, reaching up to 100% under optimized conditions. The classification outcomes aligned well with experimental observations, highlighting the potential of machine learning to strengthen shelf-life assessment when multiple quality indicators are considered together. Nevertheless, the models were developed under a single storage condition and focused on classification rather than time-series prediction. Further research using independent datasets and varied storage environments will be necessary to enhance model generalizability. In conclusion, shrimp gravlax can be regarded as a promising ready-to-eat product. Combining traditional processing methods with machine learning provides a practical and innovative approach to shelf-life evaluation in seafood systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Food Engineering and Technology)

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16 pages, 5767 KB

Open AccessArticle

Correlation Between Microbial Communities and Volatile Organic Compounds in Camel Milk at Different Lactation Stages in Xinjiang, China

by Qianqian Duo, Yan Zhao, Henigul Osman, Wei Shao and Yankun Zhao

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1804; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101804 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

The aroma of camel milk is a key sensory indicator for evaluating its quality and flavor. Camel milk collected at different lactation stages exhibits unique flavor characteristics. However, no systematic study has yet explored the aroma characteristics and variation patterns of camel milk [...] Read more.

The aroma of camel milk is a key sensory indicator for evaluating its quality and flavor. Camel milk collected at different lactation stages exhibits unique flavor characteristics. However, no systematic study has yet explored the aroma characteristics and variation patterns of camel milk across these stages. This study employs HS-SPME-GC-MS, multivariate statistical analysis, and metagenomics to systematically reveal differences in aroma formation in camel milk across lactation periods and their interactions with microbial communities. A total of 577 metabolites is detected. Through OPLS-DA screening, 24 key differential flavor compounds are identified. ROAV analysis indicates that 2,4-undecadienal and (E)-2-undecenal are the main contributors to the fatty, creamy, fresh green, and citrus aromas of camel milk. Some compounds are more abundant in colostrum, while others are richer in mature milk. For microbiota, colostrum is dominated by Proteobacteria, Psychrobacter, and Janthinobacterium, whereas mature milk is dominated by Acinetobacter and Moraxella. Mature milk shows significantly higher alpha diversity and species richness. Spearman correlation analysis shows that core bacterial groups such as Enterococcus and Lactococcus are significantly positively correlated with characteristic flavor compounds, including aldehydes and lactones. This finding suggests that HS-SPME-GC-MS, combined with multivariate analysis, effectively distinguishes patterns associated with microbes and flavor metabolites in camel milk at different lactation stages, which provides a theoretical basis for quality control and further processing of camel milk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Dairy)

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21 pages, 4402 KB

Open AccessReview

Galactooligosaccharides Based on β-Galactosidase-Catalyzed Synthesis: Function, Biosynthesis and Optimization Strategy

by Bingyi Tao, Yiping Chen, Ren He, Tingting Huang, Shaoxiong Liang, Hongkun Chen, Xiaoping Rao, Xuchong Tang and Jianchun Jiang

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1803; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101803 - 19 May 2026

Abstract

Galactooligosaccharides (GOS) are one of the internationally recognized prebiotic products, which have become a hot research focus in the field of biofoods because of their strong prebiotic, sugar substitution and inflammation alleviation functions. β-galactosidase (Bgal) of different microorganisms is utilized industrially in order [...] Read more.

Galactooligosaccharides (GOS) are one of the internationally recognized prebiotic products, which have become a hot research focus in the field of biofoods because of their strong prebiotic, sugar substitution and inflammation alleviation functions. β-galactosidase (Bgal) of different microorganisms is utilized industrially in order to achieve the biosynthesis of GOS. Although the biosynthesis of GOS has been supported by certain technologies, there is still room for further improvement of its synthetic yield. This paper mainly introduces the function and biosynthesis of GOS and its research progress in recent years to enhance the yield of biosynthesis. This paper also combines the research progress in related fields in recent years, based on the basic theories of molecular biology and bioinformatics, discusses the research progress of green, innovative approaches including enzyme engineering, enzyme immobilization, surface display, and microbial fermentation on the synthesis of GOS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Trends in Food Enzyme Catalysis and Food Synthetic Biology)

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11 pages, 2193 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Determination of Several Biogenic Amines in Cold-Chain Fish Samples by Portable Ion Trap Mass Spectrometry with Nano-Electrospray Ionization

by Jianxin Wu, Xiaotong Ma, Zongyi Wang, Ying Wei, Yuting Liu, Jiaqian Men and Wenyu Ma

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1802; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101802 - 19 May 2026

Abstract

A novel method was developed for the rapid determination of five biogenic amines (BAs)—histamine (HIS), tyramine (TYR), cadaverine (CAD), spermidine (SPD), and spermine (SPM) in cold-chain fish by portable ion trap mass spectrometry with nano-electrospray(nESI) ionization. Samples were homogenized and extracted with aqueous [...] Read more.

A novel method was developed for the rapid determination of five biogenic amines (BAs)—histamine (HIS), tyramine (TYR), cadaverine (CAD), spermidine (SPD), and spermine (SPM) in cold-chain fish by portable ion trap mass spectrometry with nano-electrospray(nESI) ionization. Samples were homogenized and extracted with aqueous solution containing 1% (v/v) formic acid and 80% (v/v) acetonitrile. With HIS-d4 as an internal standard, the sample solutions were directly injected with the nESI injection device and detected by a portable ion trap mass spectrometer at MS/MS detection mode. The results showed good linearity in the invested range of 0.2 (or 0.5)–10 μg mL⁻¹ with R² > 0.992, The limit of detection (LODs) and limits of quantification (LOQs) for HIS were less than 1.5 mg/kg and 4.0 mg/kg, respectively; the LOD and LOQ for other four BAs were less than 4.0 mg/kg and 12.5 mg/kg, respectively. Recoveries at three fortified levels ranged from 84.26% to 106.6% with relative standard deviations between 4.56% and 13.84%. With the safety limits of HIS as the concentrations of concern, this method demonstrated excellent performance when applied to the eligibility fast screening of HIS in cold-chain fish. The study provided a valuable methodological reference for the rapid detection of BAs in food. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensory Detection and Analysis in Food Industry)

19 pages, 3082 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fractionation and Functional Characterization of Limnospira platensis Extracellular Polysaccharides as Potential Food Ingredients from Recycled Cultivation Media

by Zihan Li, Chen Sang, Yuhuan Liu, Roger Ruan and Qi Zhang

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1801; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101801 - 19 May 2026

Abstract

Limnospira platensis is a promising sustainable biomass for functional food production. During cultivation, it secretes extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) with underutilized potential as food ingredients. This study aimed to strategically fractionate Spirulina EPS (SEPS) by molecular weight (MW: <30, 30–100, >100 kDa) to elucidate [...] Read more.

Limnospira platensis is a promising sustainable biomass for functional food production. During cultivation, it secretes extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) with underutilized potential as food ingredients. This study aimed to strategically fractionate Spirulina EPS (SEPS) by molecular weight (MW: <30, 30–100, >100 kDa) to elucidate their structure-function relationships for targeted food applications. We found distinct functional diversification: The mid-MW fraction (SEPS-2, 30–100 kDa) was an amphiphilic glycoprotein complex with potential interfacial activity. The high-MW fraction (SEPS-3, >100 kDa) formed a dense, glucose-rich glucan network, suggesting utility as a natural thickener or texturizer. In contrast, the low-MW fraction (SEPS-1, <30 kDa), rich in deoxy-sugars, exhibited superior antioxidant capacity, indicating potential as a bioactive preservative or nutraceutical. Spectroscopic and morphological analyses linked these structural differences to their physicochemical properties. Notably, the 30–100 kDa fraction transitions from a cultivation byproduct to a functional food architect, where its interfacial properties can be leveraged to engineer stable, clean-label emulsion-based food products. This work provides a foundation for the valorization of L. platensis EPS, demonstrating how MW-directed fractionation can unlock tailored functionalities-from bioactive agents to structural polymers-for the development of next-generation foods from circular bioeconomy streams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transforming the Food System: Technological Innovations in Biomass Utilization for Functional Food Production and Circular Economy)

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27 pages, 837 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physical–Chemical and Microbiological Characterisation of Blueberry By-Products (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) as Potential Food Ingredients

by Miriam Ortega-Heras, Mª Luisa González-Sanjosé, Ruth Hortigüela-Delgado, Ángela Fernández-Varona, Verónica Rodríguez and Beatriz Melero

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1800; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101800 - 19 May 2026

Abstract

The production of blueberry juice generates large quantities of waste products such as skins, pulp and seeds. These by-products contain high levels of bioactive compounds and are suitable for use as functional ingredients in food systems. In this study three powdered products obtained [...] Read more.

The production of blueberry juice generates large quantities of waste products such as skins, pulp and seeds. These by-products contain high levels of bioactive compounds and are suitable for use as functional ingredients in food systems. In this study three powdered products obtained from blueberry pomace—with skins and seeds, seedless, and with seeds—have been physically–chemically and microbiologically characterised as being the individual anthocyanins and phenolic compounds identified by HPLC-QTOF. Furthermore, to ensure product safety, the effect of a heat treatment at 90 °C for 30, 60, 90 and 120 min was also studied. The three products showed high concentrations of fibre, phosphorus, calcium and potassium. The two products with skins also showed high levels of anthocyanins, phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity. The product from seeds had the highest load of Aerobic Mesophilic Bacteria and Enterobacteriaceae whereas Bacillus spp. was found in the three products. Heat treatment at 90 °C for 90 min reduced the Aerobic Mesophilic Bacteria count below the detection limit. This treatment did not significantly affect the anthocyanin content, although some anthocyanins seemed to be more thermolabile than others, and increased the concentration of the phenolic acids and their derivatives. This study demonstrates the high nutritional and functional value of blueberry by-products, highlighting their potential as sustainable ingredients in the food industry and their viability after a heat treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Nutraceuticals, Functional Foods, and Novel Foods)

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13 pages, 7968 KB

Open AccessArticle

Harnessing the Natural Acidity of Raw Passion Fruit Juice for Pathogen Inactivation in Developing Countries

by Ximena Yepez, Adriana Vanegas-Torres, Hansel A. Mina, Herta Montoya, Manuel Salmeron, Dharmendra K. Mishra and Amanda J. Deering

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1799; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101799 - 19 May 2026

Abstract

Unpasteurized fruit juices in developing countries pose significant public health risks due to potential contamination with foodborne pathogens, particularly in rural areas where reliable energy for thermal processing is lacking. This study evaluates the natural acidity of passion fruit juice as a non-thermal [...] Read more.

Unpasteurized fruit juices in developing countries pose significant public health risks due to potential contamination with foodborne pathogens, particularly in rural areas where reliable energy for thermal processing is lacking. This study evaluates the natural acidity of passion fruit juice as a non-thermal strategy to inactivate Salmonella ser. Typhimurium, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Listeria monocytogenes. Pathogens were inoculated into passion fruit juice at pH 2.9, 3.4, and 3.9, and their survival was monitored at 25 °C (room temperature) and 5 °C (refrigerated). Log-linear and Weibull models were used to predict inactivation kinetics, targeting a 5-log reduction in accordance with FDA requirements. At pH 2.9 and 5 °C, S. Typhimurium and E. coli achieved a 5-log reduction within 8 h, while L. monocytogenes required 24 h to achieve the same reduction level. The Weibull model provided a superior fit (R² > 0.94) at pH 2.9 and 3.4, accurately capturing the nonlinear inactivation dynamics. Increasing pH to 3.9 significantly slowed inactivation, underscoring the critical role of low pH. These findings suggest that the inherent acidity of passion fruit juice provides a practical, energy-independent method for controlling pathogenic bacteria in developing regions, preserving nutritional quality without thermal processing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Food Security and Sustainability)

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