Processes

21 pages, 6303 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Analysis of the Injection Mold Process for Complex Fiberglass Reinforced Plastics with Conformal Cooling Channels Using Multiple Optimization Method Models

by Meiyun Zhao and Zhengcheng Tang

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2803; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092803 - 1 Sep 2025

Abstract

During the cooling phase of injection molding, the conformal cooling channel system optimizes the uniformity of mold temperature, diminishes warping deformation, and contributes substantially to heightened product precision. The injection molding process involves complex process parameters that may result in uneven cooling between [...] Read more.

During the cooling phase of injection molding, the conformal cooling channel system optimizes the uniformity of mold temperature, diminishes warping deformation, and contributes substantially to heightened product precision. The injection molding process involves complex process parameters that may result in uneven cooling between components, leading to prolonged cycle times, increased shrinkage depth, and warping deformation of the plastic parts. These manifestations negatively impact the surface quality and structural strength of the final product. This article combined theoretical algorithms with finite element simulation (CAE) methods to optimize complex injection molding processes. Firstly, the characteristics of six different types of materials were examined. Melt temperature, mold opening time, injection time, holding time, holding pressure, and mold temperature were chosen as optimization variables. Meanwhile, the warpage deformation and shrinkage depth of the formed sample were selected as optimization objectives. Secondly, an L27 orthogonal experimental design (OED) was established, and the signal-to-noise ratio was processed. The entropy weight method (EWE) was used to calculate the weights of the total warpage deformation and shrinkage depth, thereby obtaining the grey correlation degree. The influence of process parameters on quality indicators was analyzed using grey relational analysis (GRA) to calculate the range. A second-order polynomial regression model was established using response surface methodology (RSM) to investigate the effects of six factors on the warpage deformation and shrinkage depth of injection molded parts. Finally, a comprehensive comparison was made on the impact of various optimization methods and models on the forming parameters. Analyze according to different optimization principles to obtain the corresponding optimal process parameters. The research results indicate that under the principle of prioritizing warpage deformation, the effectiveness ranking of the three optimization analyses is RSM > OED > GRA. The minimum deformation rate is 0.1592 mm, which is 27.37% lower than before optimization. Under the principle of prioritizing indentation depth, the effectiveness ranking of the three optimization analyses is OED > GRA > RSM. The minimum depth of shrinkage is 0.0312 mm, which is 47.21% lower than before optimization. This discovery provides strong support for the optimal combination of process parameters suitable for production and processing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Composite Materials Processing, Modeling and Simulation)

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20 pages, 740 KB

Open AccessArticle

Elman Network Classifier Based on Hyperactivity Rat Swarm Optimizer and Its Applications for AlSi10Mg Process Classification

by Rui Ni, Hanning Chen, Xiaodan Liang, Maowei He, Yelin Xia and Liling Sun

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2802; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092802 - 1 Sep 2025

Abstract

Classification prediction technology, which utilizes labeled data for training to enable autonomous decision, has emerged as a pivotal tool across numerous fields. The Elman neural network (ENN) exhibits potential in tackling nonlinear problems. However, its computational process faces inherent limitations in escaping local [...] Read more.

Classification prediction technology, which utilizes labeled data for training to enable autonomous decision, has emerged as a pivotal tool across numerous fields. The Elman neural network (ENN) exhibits potential in tackling nonlinear problems. However, its computational process faces inherent limitations in escaping local optimum and experiencing a slow convergence rate. To improve these shortcomings, an ENN classifier based on Hyperactivity Rat Swarm Optimizer (HRSO), named HRSO-ENNC, is proposed in this paper. Initially, HRSO is divided into two phases, search and mutation, by means of a nonlinear adaptive parameter. Subsequently, five search actions are introduced to enhance the global exploratory and local exploitative capabilities of HRSO. Furthermore, a stochastic roaming strategy is employed, which significantly improves the ability to jump out of local positions. Ultimately, the integration of HRSO and ENN enables the substitution of the original gradient descent method, thereby optimizing the neural connection weights and thresholds. The experiment results demonstrate that the accuracy and stability of HRSO-ENNC have been effectively verified through comparisons with other algorithm classifiers on benchmark functions, classification datasets and an AlSi10Mg process classification problem. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Manufacturing Processes and Systems)

28 pages, 4658 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation, Optimization, and Techno-Economic Assessment of 100% Off-Grid Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems for Rural Electrification in Eastern Morocco

by Noure Elhouda Choukri, Samir Touili, Abdellatif Azzaoui and Ahmed Alami Merrouni

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2801; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092801 - 1 Sep 2025

Abstract

Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRESs) can be an effective and sustainable way to provide electricity for remote and rural villages in Morocco; however, the design and optimization of such systems can be a challenging and difficult task. In this context, the objective of [...] Read more.

Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRESs) can be an effective and sustainable way to provide electricity for remote and rural villages in Morocco; however, the design and optimization of such systems can be a challenging and difficult task. In this context, the objective of this research is to design and optimize different (HRESs) that incorporate various renewable energy technologies, namely Photovoltaics (PVs), wind turbines, and Concentrating Solar Power (CSP), whereas biomass generators and batteries are used as a storage medium. Overall, 15 scenarios based on different HRES configurations were designed, simulated, and optimized by the HOMER software for the site of Ain Beni Mathar, located in eastern Morocco. Furthermore, the potential CO₂ emissions reduction from the different scenarios was estimated as well. The results show that the scenario including PVs and batteries is most cost-effective due to favorable climatic conditions and low costs. In fact, the most optimal HRES from a technical and economic standpoint is composed of a 48.8 kW PV plant, 213 batteries, a converter capacity of 43.8 kW, and an annual production of 117.5 MWh with only 8.8% excess energy, leading to an LCOE of 0.184 USD/kWh with a CO₂ emissions reduction of 81.7 tons per year, whereas scenarios with wind turbines, CSP, and biomass exhibit a higher LCOE in the range of 0.472–1.15 USD/kWh. This study’s findings confirm the technical and economic viability of HRESs to supply 100% of the electricity demand for rural Moroccan communities, through a proper HRES design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Heat Transfer and Thermal Energy Storage Systems)

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29 pages, 38336 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Control and Design of a Quasi-Y-Source Inverter for Vehicle-to-Grid Applications in Virtual Power Plants

by Rafael Santos, Guilherme Gomes Leite and Flávio Alessandro Serrão Gonçalves

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2800; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092800 - 1 Sep 2025

Abstract

This paper proposes a design and control methodology for a Quasi-Y-Source impedance source inverter (QS-YSI) as a power electronics interface for Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) and Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V) applications in the context of virtual power plants (VPPs). The work presents an analysis of bidirectional power [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a design and control methodology for a Quasi-Y-Source impedance source inverter (QS-YSI) as a power electronics interface for Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) and Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V) applications in the context of virtual power plants (VPPs). The work presents an analysis of bidirectional power transfer using Electric Vehicles (EVs) to supply power to the utility grid, businesses, and homes, thereby acting as distributed energy resources. The proposed QS-YSI topology supports both V2G and G2V operation while providing reactive power compensation and enabling the decoupled tracking of active power (P) and reactive power (Q), demonstrating the capability of EVs to return energy to the grid and to provide ancillary services such as power factor correction. The key contributions are a detailed control design methodology that includes pulsating DC-link voltage regulation, inverter output current reference tracking in the synchronous

d q

reference frame considering DC-link voltage dynamics, and a modified Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technique for effective decoupling of DC link and inverter output current control. Finally, the feasibility and validity of the proposed approach are demonstrated through simulations of the complete system under nominal conditions and experiments conducted considering a small-scale prototype. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power Converters in Energy and Microgrid Systems)

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18 pages, 4614 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Formation Process of Coal-Bearing Strata Normal Faults Based on Physical Simulation Experiments: A New Experimental Approach

by Zhiguo Xia, Junbo Wang, Wenyu Dong, Chenglong Ma and Bing Chen

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2799; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092799 - 1 Sep 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the formation mechanism and stress response characteristics of normal faults in coal-bearing strata through large-scale physical simulation experiments. A multi-layer heterogeneous model with a geometric similarity ratio of 1:300 was constructed using similar materials that were tailored to match the [...] Read more.

This study investigates the formation mechanism and stress response characteristics of normal faults in coal-bearing strata through large-scale physical simulation experiments. A multi-layer heterogeneous model with a geometric similarity ratio of 1:300 was constructed using similar materials that were tailored to match the mechanical properties of real strata. Real-time monitoring techniques, including fiber Bragg grating strain sensors and a DH3816 static strain system, were employed to record the evolution of deformation, strain, and displacement fields during the fault development. The results show that the normal fault formation process includes five distinct stages: initial compaction, fault initiation, crack propagation, fault slip, and structural stabilization. Quantitatively, the vertical displacement of the hanging wall reached up to 5.6 cm, equivalent to a prototype value of 16.8 m, and peak horizontal stress increments near the fault exceeded 0.07 MPa. The experimental data reveal that stress concentration during the fault slip stage causes severe damage to the upper coal seam roof, with localized vertical stress fluctuations exceeding 35%. Structural planes were found to control crack nucleation and slip paths, conforming to the Mohr–Coulomb shear failure criterion. This research provides new insights into the dynamic coupling of tectonic stress and fault mechanics, offering novel experimental evidence for understanding fault-induced disasters. The findings contribute to the predictive modeling of stress redistribution in fault zones and support safer deep mining practices in structurally complex coalfields, which has potential implications for petroleum geomechanics and energy resource extraction in similar tectonic settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Theoretical Progress in the Exploration and Development of Deep Coal-Measure Gas)

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23 pages, 1969 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Closed-Loop Optimization System for Evaluating the Development Effect and Potential of Producers with Water Alternating Gas Flooding

by Han Zhang, Chenji Wei, Guangya Zhu, Meng Gao, Jian Yang, Liang Sun, Jiaheng Chen and Zhichao Wang

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2798; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092798 - 1 Sep 2025

Abstract

Water alternating gas (WAG) flooding is a relatively mature technology for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). It combines the advantages of water flooding and gas flooding to maintain reservoir pressure and effectively mitigate the issues of high mobility ratio and fingering, demonstrating preferable application [...] Read more.

Water alternating gas (WAG) flooding is a relatively mature technology for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). It combines the advantages of water flooding and gas flooding to maintain reservoir pressure and effectively mitigate the issues of high mobility ratio and fingering, demonstrating preferable application prospects. However, the evaluation of its development effect faces the challenges of complexity and lack of adaptability attributed to the multiple interactions of various factors involved in WAG flooding. Moreover, there are few studies evaluating the development effect of producers. Therefore, the traditional hierarchical analysis process (AHP) is improved in this study to fill the gap in this technological field. This process is combined with the entropy weight method (EWM) to establish a coupled evaluation model. Subsequently, this study classifies the contribution weights of producers and proposes adjustment suggestions for the primary development contradictions. This study finds that the contribution weight of producers to the well group indicates that the development effect of producers is no longer influenced by a single factor, but is determined by the coupling effect of geological, engineering, and development factors. By constructing a coupled model and fully utilizing on-site data to objectively characterize the underground production situation, the development effect of producers can be more accurately reflected. Finally, a closed-loop optimization system for evaluating the development effect and potential of producers with WAG flooding is established, laying a theoretical foundation for dynamic analysis and development adjustment of on-site engineers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) in Unconventional Oil and Gas)

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15 pages, 2733 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Evolution Law of Wettability Degree After Energy Replenishment in Tight Type-II Reservoirs with Different Pore Structures

by Chunguang Li and Daiyin Yin

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2797; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092797 - 1 Sep 2025

Abstract

Tight oil is an important resource replacement in the petroleum industry, with the reserves of Type-II energy accounting for over 40%. However, these reservoirs have small pore throats and complex structures, and their wettability directly affects the EOR by affecting the occurrence of [...] Read more.

Tight oil is an important resource replacement in the petroleum industry, with the reserves of Type-II energy accounting for over 40%. However, these reservoirs have small pore throats and complex structures, and their wettability directly affects the EOR by affecting the occurrence of crude oil and multiphase flow mechanisms. In response to an unclear understanding of the evolution mechanism of wettability after energy replenishment in tight reservoirs with different reservoir formation conditions, the evolution law of wettability in different energy replenishment media for tight type-II reservoirs is evaluated by performing wettability experiments and nuclear magnetic resonance experiments, and the mechanism of differential changes in wettability after energy replenishment in different media is elucidated. The results show that the block with well-developed pores and good connectivity (Block: Z401) had the smallest in situ wetting angle, ranging from 27.1° to 30.4°, and that the interface effect had a small impact, resulting in a small change in the wetting angle after energy replenishment. The wetting angle of the developmental intersection block (Block: G93) is the highest, ranging from 36.6° to 46.4°. The connected pore and throats fully interact with the medium at the interface, resulting in a significant change in the wetting angle. In addition, after natural gas energy supplementation, the principle of similar solubility causes a significant change in the wetting angle of the pore throat interface after adsorption, with a maximum angle of 19.6°. The change in the wetting angle change of the CO₂ mixed-phase principle is in the middle, at about 13.6°, while the change in the wetting angle is minimal after N₂ replenishment, around 10°. The research results improve our understanding of the basic theory of tight oil supplementary energy development and have important practical significance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure Optimization and Transport Characteristics of Porous Media)

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23 pages, 2105 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Sourdoughs, Enzymes, and Their Combinations on Gluten-Based Bread Quality

by Djihane Faten Yahia, Hayat Bourekoua, Awatif Fetouhi, Monika Wójcik, Agnieszka Wójtowicz, Marcin Mitrus, El Hocine Siar and Renata Różyło

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2796; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092796 - 1 Sep 2025

Abstract

The study investigates the impact of sourdoughs made with different flours (white wheat, wholemeal wheat, and barley) and specific enzymes (laccase, lipase, and hemicellulase) on the technological properties of gluten-based wheat breads, thereby exploring the combined role of sourdough and enzymes. Three levels [...] Read more.

The study investigates the impact of sourdoughs made with different flours (white wheat, wholemeal wheat, and barley) and specific enzymes (laccase, lipase, and hemicellulase) on the technological properties of gluten-based wheat breads, thereby exploring the combined role of sourdough and enzymes. Three levels of each sourdough (20, 30, and 40%) were tested, and the optimal level was then used to evaluate the impact of individual and combined enzyme treatment. Pasting properties and FT-IR analyses of the flours were evaluated. White wheat flour displayed the highest peak viscosity (353.50 mPas) and final viscosity (526.50 mPas). β-sheet structures predominated in all samples, although they were most prevalent in wholemeal wheat flour (51%) as opposed to white wheat flour (47%) and barley (47%). Sourdough breads exhibited better texture and moisture retention at 40% inclusion than at other levels. After 72 h, white wheat sourdough maintained the highest specific volume (3.71 cm³/g), while barley sourdough retained the most moisture (38.83%) and the lowest chewiness and hardness results, suggesting better softness and crumb retention. Whereas for enzyme treatment, they had different effects. White wheat and wholemeal wheat sourdough breads treated with enzymes had decreased hardness, chewiness, and gumminess; barley sourdough breads with enzymes were negatively affected by the texture. Correlations and multivariate analysis reveal that bread texture is strongly influenced by the type of sourdough and enzymatic treatment. Higher doses of laccase or hemicellulase improve softness in wholemeal-based sourdough bread, while excessive lipase leads to a firmer and less pleasant crumb. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physicochemical, Thermal, Sensorial, Nutritional, and Flow Properties During Food Processes)

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27 pages, 6990 KB

Open AccessReview

Multiscale Insights into Inorganic Filler Regulation, Ion Transport Mechanisms, and Characterization Advances in Composite Solid-State Electrolytes

by Xinhao Xu, Dingyuan Lu, Sipeng Huang, Fuming Wang, Yulin Min and Qunjie Xu

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2795; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092795 - 1 Sep 2025

Abstract

All-solid-state lithium batteries (ASSLBs) are emerging as a promising alternative to conventional lithium-ion batteries, offering solutions to challenges related to energy density and safety. Their core advancement relies on breakthroughs in solid-state electrolytes (SEs). SEs can be broadly grouped into two main types: [...] Read more.

All-solid-state lithium batteries (ASSLBs) are emerging as a promising alternative to conventional lithium-ion batteries, offering solutions to challenges related to energy density and safety. Their core advancement relies on breakthroughs in solid-state electrolytes (SEs). SEs can be broadly grouped into two main types: inorganic solid electrolytes (ISEs) and organic solid electrolytes (OSEs). ISEs offer high ionic conductivity (0.1~1 mS cm⁻¹), a lithium-ion transference number close to 1, and excellent thermal stability, but their intrinsic brittleness leads to poor interfacial wettability and processing difficulties, limiting practical applications. In contrast, OSEs exhibit good flexibility and interfacial compatibility but suffer from poor ionic conductivity (10⁻⁴~10⁻² mS cm⁻¹) due to high crystallinity at room temperature, in addition to poor thermal stability and weak mechanical integrity, making it difficult to match high-voltage cathodes and suppress lithium dendrite growth. Against this backdrop, the stability of the organic–inorganic interface plays a crucial role. However, challenges such as low overall conductivity and unstable interfaces still limit their performance. This review provides a microscopic perspective on lithium-ion transport pathways across the polymer phase, the inorganic filler phase, and their interfacial regions. It categorizes inert fillers and active fillers, analyzing their structure–performance relationships and emphasizing the synergistic effects of filler dimensionality, surface chemistry, and interfacial interactions. In addition, cutting-edge analytical methods such as time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) and high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM) have also been employed and are summarized into their roles for revealing the microstructures and dynamic interfacial behaviors of OICSEs. Finally, future directions are proposed, such as hierarchical pore structure design, surface functionalization, and simulation-guided optimization, aiming to provide theoretical insights and technological strategies for the development of high-performance composite electrolytes for ASSLBs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Processes and Systems)

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22 pages, 3151 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Removal of Hexavalent Chromium from Aqueous Solution Using Plant-Derived and Industrial Zirconia Nanoparticles

by Guojie Weng, Weidong Li, Fengyue Qin, Menglu Dong, Shuangqi Yue, Jiechang Weng and Sajid Mehmood

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2794; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092794 - 1 Sep 2025

Abstract

This study presents a plant-fabricated nanoparticle system of zirconia (ZrO₂) using Sonchus asper plant extract, compared with conventionally synthesized ZrO_2, for their efficacy in Cr(VI) removal from aqueous solutions. The nanoparticles were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy [...] Read more.

This study presents a plant-fabricated nanoparticle system of zirconia (ZrO₂) using Sonchus asper plant extract, compared with conventionally synthesized ZrO_2, for their efficacy in Cr(VI) removal from aqueous solutions. The nanoparticles were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) for elemental composition, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analysis. The plant-fabricated ZrO₂ exhibited mesoporosity and enhanced surface functionality, attributed to bioactive compounds from Sonchus asper, which improved adsorption performance via increased surface area and residual organic functional groups. Batch adsorption experiments showed that Cr(VI) removal was optimized at 100 mg/L Cr(VI), 300 mg/L adsorbent dosage, pH 5, and 30 min reaction time at 25 °C. Adsorption followed the Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetics models. According to Langmuir model fitting, the maximum adsorption capacity (qmax) reached 142.24 mg/g for PF-ZrO₂ NPs and 133.11 mg/g for conventional ZrO₂ NPs, indicating the superior adsorption performance of the green-synthesized material. This work highlights the sustainable potential of plant-fabricated ZrO₂ nanoparticles as cost-effective and environmentally friendly nano-adsorbents for heavy metal remediation, contributing to the achievement of UN SDG No. 6 by providing clean water solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Biotechnology for Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles from Plant Extracts)

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28 pages, 7141 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimized Extraction and Component Identification of Physalis alkekengi L. Calyx Polyphenols and Antioxidant Dynamics During Thermal Processing

by Heng Yuan, Ziyi Wang, Xingyu Xu, Yu He, Hao Gong, Xuehong Chen and Jun Wang

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2793; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092793 - 31 Aug 2025

Abstract

Physalis alkekengi L. has attracted widespread attention and cultivation due to its unique lantern-shaped fruit and various bioactivities. Existing studies have mainly focused on its fruit, while the calyx, despite its significant bioactivity, has long been neglected. In particular, research on the changes [...] Read more.

Physalis alkekengi L. has attracted widespread attention and cultivation due to its unique lantern-shaped fruit and various bioactivities. Existing studies have mainly focused on its fruit, while the calyx, despite its significant bioactivity, has long been neglected. In particular, research on the changes in polyphenol content and antioxidant activity during its drying process remains scarce. This study aimed to optimize the extraction process, comprehensively profile the polyphenol composition, and evaluate the effects of the drying temperature on the polyphenol content and antioxidant capacity in the calyx of Physalis alkekengi L. (CPAL). Ultrasound-assisted extraction (40 kHz, 300 W) combined with response surface methodology was used to optimize the extraction conditions. The optimized parameters were determined as a 49% ethanol concentration, a 42 mL/g liquid-to-material ratio, a 64 °C extraction temperature, and a 29 min extraction time. Under these settings, the yield reached 10.44 ± 0.16 mg GAE/g, exceeding that of the conventional heat reflux extraction method. Using high-resolution mass spectrometry, 63 polyphenolic compounds were identified, primarily derivatives of kaempferol, quercetin, and hydroxycinnamic acid; 43 of these compounds were first reported in CPAL. CPAL polyphenols possess potent antioxidant activities, with IC₅₀ values of 68.77, 12.76, and 101.24 μg/mL for DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP, respectively. Furthermore, as the drying temperature increased, the polyphenol content and antioxidant activity of CPAL increased significantly. These findings provide a scientific basis for the development of natural antioxidants and functional foods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Food Process Engineering)

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16 pages, 1579 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fourier Optimization and Linear-Algebra-Based Combination of Controls to Improve Bioethanol Production

by María C. Fernández, María N. Pantano, Leandro Rodríguez, María C. Groff, María L. Montoro and Gustavo Scaglia

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2792; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092792 - 31 Aug 2025

Abstract

The development of efficient strategies for optimizing and controlling nonlinear bioprocesses remains a significant challenge due to their complex dynamics and sensitivity to operating conditions. This work addresses the problem by proposing a two-step methodology applied to a laboratory-scale fed-batch bioethanol process. The [...] Read more.

The development of efficient strategies for optimizing and controlling nonlinear bioprocesses remains a significant challenge due to their complex dynamics and sensitivity to operating conditions. This work addresses the problem by proposing a two-step methodology applied to a laboratory-scale fed-batch bioethanol process. The first step employs a dynamic optimization approach based on Fourier parameterization and orthonormal polynomials, which generates smooth and continuous substrate-feed profiles using only three parameters instead of the ten required by piecewise approaches. The second step introduces a controller formulated through basic linear algebra operations, which ensures accurate trajectory tracking of the optimized state variables. Simulation results demonstrate a

3.65 %

increase in ethanol concentration at the end of the process, together with an accumulated tracking error of only

0.0189

under nominal conditions. In addition, the closed-loop strategy outperforms open-loop implementation when the initial conditions deviate from their nominal values. These findings highlight that the proposed methodology reduces mathematical complexity and computational effort while producing continuous control profiles suitable for practical application. The combination of optimization and algebraic control thus provides a promising alternative for improving the efficiency of bioethanol-production processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bioprocess Technology, 2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 3285 KB

Open AccessArticle

Capillary Electro-Osmosis Properties of Water Lubricants Under a Steel-on-Steel Sliding Interface

by Bohua Feng, Xiaomei Guo, Gaoan Zheng, Zeqi Tong, Chen Yang and Xuefeng Xu

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2791; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092791 - 31 Aug 2025

Abstract

The process of penetration of lubricants into the frictional interface in steel machining such as turning and milling is not well revealed, which has thus compromised their machining performance. In this paper, the penetration characteristics of deionized water (Di-water) containing different electro-osmosis additives [...] Read more.

The process of penetration of lubricants into the frictional interface in steel machining such as turning and milling is not well revealed, which has thus compromised their machining performance. In this paper, the penetration characteristics of deionized water (Di-water) containing different electro-osmosis additives were investigated using a steel-on-steel friction pair. The worn surface lubricated with water solutions were examined using advanced surface analysis techniques. The results indicate that water lubricants were electrically driven to the frictional interface for lubrication. The addition of positive electro-osmosis additives helped promote the penetration of water solutions, thus resulting in the formation of a thick lubricating film of iron oxide at the sliding surface. This reduced abrasion damage significantly, therefore producing a lower coefficient of friction (COF) and wear loss in comparison with pure water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Manufacturing Processes and Systems)

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24 pages, 6295 KB

Open AccessArticle

Causes and Controlling Factors of Overpressure Systems in the Qingshankou Formation: Insights for Unconventional Oil and Gas Exploration

by Fangju Chen, Xiuli Fu, Qiang Zheng, Shuangfang Lu, Jie Li, Mengxia Li, Guoshuai Bai and Suo Wang

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2790; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092790 - 31 Aug 2025

Abstract

Overpressure systems in the Qingshankou Formation of the Gulong Sag have a significant impact on unconventional shale oil accumulation, but their distribution and genesis are unknown. This study uses a comparative analysis of three primary pressure prediction methods—the equivalent depth method, the Eaton [...] Read more.

Overpressure systems in the Qingshankou Formation of the Gulong Sag have a significant impact on unconventional shale oil accumulation, but their distribution and genesis are unknown. This study uses a comparative analysis of three primary pressure prediction methods—the equivalent depth method, the Eaton method, and the Bowers method—to investigate the genetic mechanisms of overpressure and their controlling factors. The study clarifies the link between overpressure and hydrocarbon distribution. The key findings are as follows. (1) The Eaton method is identified as the best approach for estimating current formation pore pressure. The Qingshankou Formation exhibits mild overpressure development, with a maximum pressure coefficient of 1.44. (2) Hydrocarbon-generating overpressure, driven by source rock maturation, is confirmed as the dominant mechanism through integrated acoustic velocity–density cross plots and logging analysis. (3) Tectonic-sedimentary factors, such as burial depth, source rock thickness, sand-mud ratio, and faults, collectively control the spatial variability of overpressure. (4) The distribution of the Gulong shale oil and the Fuyu tight oil is influenced by overpressure, with the northwestern part of the sag and the adjacent sand bodies being the respectively favorable areas. These results lay the groundwork for accurately reconstructing paleopressure and better understanding the hydrocarbon accumulation potential of shale oil and Fuyu tight oil. They also provide guidance on the exploration and development of unconventional resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Systems)

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28 pages, 3025 KB

Open AccessArticle

Safety Risk Management in China’s Power Engineering Construction: Insights and Countermeasures from the 14th Five-Year Plan

by Xiaoli Zhu, Jingyi Zhao, Yi Xiang, Chen Li and Fan Hu

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2789; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092789 - 31 Aug 2025

Abstract

Power engineering construction serves as the cornerstone of modern social development. Against the backdrop of new power system development, this study employs field investigations, case analysis, and expert discussions to conduct an in-depth analysis of the current status, existing problems, and characteristics of [...] Read more.

Power engineering construction serves as the cornerstone of modern social development. Against the backdrop of new power system development, this study employs field investigations, case analysis, and expert discussions to conduct an in-depth analysis of the current status, existing problems, and characteristics of safety risk control in China’s power engineering construction during the 14th Five-Year Plan period. Through systematic analysis of 59 accident cases, 66 distinct causes are identified across 14 categories. Chi-squared testing quantitatively determines the top three risk factors: hollowing out of construction units’ own workforce (χ² = 10.22), deficiencies in risk classification and hierarchical implementation (χ² = 9.0), and inadequate hazard identification (χ² = 6.25). Through brainstorming and expert discussions, 11 critical risks in China’s power engineering construction have been identified, and a set of countermeasures has been formulated. These include nine enterprise-level initiatives such as deepening engineering procurement construction management, improving training systems, optimizing bidding methods, and implementing management principles, along with four regulatory measures targeting the National Energy Administration of China and its regulatory agencies. This study innovates by combining quantitative chi-squared analysis with expert-derived countermeasures, offering a model for transitioning economies. While the sample size imposes limitations on generalizability, this research can significantly improve the intrinsic safety management level of power construction enterprises in China and provides valuable reference experience for similar transitioning countries developing energy infrastructure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Governance and Sustainable Development: Multipollutant Control and Resource-Energy Transition)

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28 pages, 8893 KB

Open AccessArticle

Functional Characterization of Scaptotrigona mexicana Honey: Physicochemical Properties, Antioxidant Capacity, and α-Amylase Inhibition for Food Process Applications

by Ana Karen Zaldivar-Ortega, Nuria Morfin, Juan Carlos Angeles-Hernandez, Lucio González-Montiel, Macario Vicente-Flores, Gabriel Aguirre-Álvarez and Antonio de Jesús Cenobio-Galindo

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2788; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092788 - 30 Aug 2025

Abstract

For centuries, Scaptotrigona mexicana honey has been treasured in Mexico, where pre-Columbian cultures harvested it not only for its sweet flavor but also for its medicinal and ceremonial purposes. Today, it remains a high-value product in local markets, prized above Apis mellifera honey [...] Read more.

For centuries, Scaptotrigona mexicana honey has been treasured in Mexico, where pre-Columbian cultures harvested it not only for its sweet flavor but also for its medicinal and ceremonial purposes. Today, it remains a high-value product in local markets, prized above Apis mellifera honey for its unique sensory qualities and traditional health benefits. Yet its scientific characterization and functional potential remain underexplored. In this study, twenty-four samples from diverse regions were analyzed to quantify bioactive compounds and determine physicochemical composition, α-amylase inhibition, and antioxidant activity. Non-parametric statistical tests revealed distinct compositional clusters, with samples from Cruz Blanca showing exceptional phenolic content and stronger α-amylase inhibition (5.6–49.2%). Antioxidant capacity correlated positively with phenols and flavonoids, showing moderate effect sizes for ABTS (η² = 0.49) and DPPH (η² = 0.37). Compared with Apis mellifera honey, Scaptotrigona mexicana contained more moisture, free acidity, phenols, and antioxidants, but less diastase, hydroxymethylfurfural, and reducing sugars. Importantly, natural α-amylase inhibitors can help modulate postprandial glucose, offering dietary support for type 2 diabetes management. Kinetic analyses (EC50, Vmax, and Km) suggested mixed inhibition. These findings highlight Scaptotrigona mexicana as both a heritage product and a promising functional ingredient for developing foods that merge tradition with metabolic health innovation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Extraction and Characterization of Functional Properties of Bioactive Compounds Obtained from Food Processing)

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23 pages, 2965 KB

Open AccessReview

Research Progress on the Pyrolysis Characteristics of Oil Shale in Laboratory Experiments

by Xiaolei Liu, Ruiyang Yi, Dandi Zhao, Wanyu Luo, Ling Huang, Jianzheng Su and Jingyi Zhu

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2787; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092787 - 30 Aug 2025

Abstract

With the progressive depletion of conventional oil and gas resources and the increasing demand for alternative energy, organic-rich sedimentary rock—oil shale—has attracted widespread attention as a key unconventional hydrocarbon resource. Pyrolysis is the essential process for converting the organic matter in oil shale [...] Read more.

With the progressive depletion of conventional oil and gas resources and the increasing demand for alternative energy, organic-rich sedimentary rock—oil shale—has attracted widespread attention as a key unconventional hydrocarbon resource. Pyrolysis is the essential process for converting the organic matter in oil shale into recoverable hydrocarbons, and a detailed understanding of its behavior is crucial for improving development efficiency. This review systematically summarizes the research progress on the pyrolysis characteristics of oil shale under laboratory conditions. It focuses on the applications of thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) in identifying pyrolysis stages, extracting kinetic parameters, and analyzing thermal effects; the role of coupled spectroscopic techniques (e.g., TG-FTIR, TG-MS) in elucidating the evolution of gaseous products; and the effects of key parameters such as pyrolysis temperature, heating rate, particle size, and reaction atmosphere on product distribution and yield. Furthermore, the mechanisms and effects of three distinct heating strategies—conventional heating, microwave heating, and autothermic pyrolysis—are compared, and the influence of inherent minerals and external catalysts on reaction pathways is discussed. Despite significant advances, challenges remain in quantitatively describing reaction mechanisms, accurately predicting product yields, and generalizing kinetic models. Future research should integrate multiscale experiments, in situ characterization, and molecular simulations to construct pyrolysis mechanism models tailored to various oil shale types, thereby providing theoretical support for the development of efficient and environmentally friendly oil shale conversion technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Systems)

20 pages, 5108 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Evaluation of Hydrocarbon-Generation Intensity of Coal-Measure Mudstones in the Shanxi Formation on the Eastern Margin of the Ordos Basin: A Case Study of the Daning–Jixian Area

by Jinggan Song, Kuaile Zhang, Wei Hou, Yi Du, Futao Qu, Sasa Guo, Chang Xu, Miao Wang and Yijing Zhang

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2786; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092786 - 30 Aug 2025

Abstract

Hydrocarbon-generation intensity (HGI) is a critical indicator for evaluating shale gas potential in source rocks. This study proposes a practical method to estimate HGI by integrating experimental pyrolysis data, EasyRo-based maturity transformation, kinetic modeling, and geological parameters. Using core samples from the Shanxi [...] Read more.

Hydrocarbon-generation intensity (HGI) is a critical indicator for evaluating shale gas potential in source rocks. This study proposes a practical method to estimate HGI by integrating experimental pyrolysis data, EasyRo-based maturity transformation, kinetic modeling, and geological parameters. Using core samples from the Shanxi Formation in the eastern margin of the Ordos Basin, gold tube pyrolysis experiments were conducted under closed-system conditions to obtain gas yield data. The EasyRo model was applied to transform temperature to maturity, and a kinetic model was constructed to simulate hydrocarbon generation. Total organic carbon (TOC), maturity (Ro), thickness, and true density were used to calculate HGI at different depths. Spatial prediction of HGI was achieved using Kriging interpolation. Results indicate that although carbonaceous mudstones have higher TOC (14.2%) and gas yields (up to 155.84 mg/g TOC), black mudstones exhibit a 24.77% higher HGI due to greater thickness (average 67.2 m). This highlights the dominant role of formation thickness in controlling. Notably, black mudstones in the deeper western subregion exhibit greater gas-generation potential. These findings offer a robust quantitative basis for evaluating deep coal-measure shale gas resources in the Ordos Basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Systems)

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13 pages, 799 KB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of Antioxidant, Phenolic Compound and Mineral Contents in Olive Leaves by Chromatographic and Spectrophotometric Methods

by Fahad Aljuhaimi, Isam A. Mohamed Ahmed, Mehmet Musa Özcan, Nurhan Uslu and Emad Karrar

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2785; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092785 - 30 Aug 2025

Abstract

In this study, changes in total phenolic content, total flavonoids, tannin content and phenolic constituents, and mineral content of the leaves of five olive varieties (Ayvalık, Gemlik, Sarıulak, Çöpaşı and Delice) collected in Mersin province in Turkey were investigated. Tannin contents of olive [...] Read more.

In this study, changes in total phenolic content, total flavonoids, tannin content and phenolic constituents, and mineral content of the leaves of five olive varieties (Ayvalık, Gemlik, Sarıulak, Çöpaşı and Delice) collected in Mersin province in Turkey were investigated. Tannin contents of olive leaves extracts were determined to be between 1.73 (Sarıulak) and 5.33% (Çöpaşı). Total phenolic and flavonoid amounts in olive leaves were assayed to be between 2122.02 (Sarıulak) and 2338.69 mgGAE/100 g (Çöpaşı), and between 9010.71 (Sarıulak) and 18,910.71 mg quercetin equivalent/100 g (Çöpaşı), respectively. Also, the antioxidant activities of methanol extracts of the olive leaves were discovered to be between 0.85 mmolTE/kg (Gemlik) and 21.04 mmolTE/kg (Sarıulak). The phenolic components of the olive leaves studied showed differences depending on the variety of olive. Catechin, rutin, and 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid were the most abundant phenolics in leaf extracts. Also, “Delice” olive leaves in the wild form generally had more caffeic acid, syringic acid and rutin, compared to the other olive varieties studied. While the olive leaves were determined to be high in macroelements, the microelement contents detected in olive leaves were low. In general, there was a linear connection between the total phenols and antioxidant activities of leaf samples. This connection was also exhibited between the total flavonoid content and antioxidant activities of olive leaves (except for Sarıulak). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biological Processes and Systems)

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