Endurance and Ultra-Endurance: Implications of Training, Recovery, Nutrition, and Technology on Performance and Health

Topic Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are continually searching for the optimal training methods to enhance endurance and ultra-endurance performance. However, we must consider that recovery plays an equal, or perhaps an even greater part in performance optimization, and consequently nutrition, sleep and technology all play vital roles. Although peak performance itself is an important goal, the use of exercise to improve health and increase longevity is also what many are striving for. Athletes are competing at a professional level at a much higher age than previously believed possible, and we are interested to learn what drives this positive change. We have begun using technology to measure and quantify most aspects related to training, performance, and health, and welcome the numerous benefits the use of technology for e-sports competition can bring. E-sports that require a physical output at the same level as traditional exercise are growing in popularity and technology that supports this new arena is advancing at a very fast rate. We are interested in new developments in technology supporting e-sports requiring physical efforts for sports such as cycling, rowing, and sailing. Therefore, the main objectives of this Topic are to highlight and examine new and optimal training and recovery methods for performance and health, and to examine the use of technology to track and quantify measures of performance and well-being.

Dr. Nicolas Berger
Dr. Russ Best
Topic Editors

Keywords

Participating Journals

Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Biomechanics biomechanics	-	1.5	2021	27.4 Days	CHF 1000	Submit
Healthcare healthcare	2.4	3.5	2013	20.3 Days	CHF 2700	Submit
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ijerph	-	7.3	2004	25.8 Days	CHF 2500	Submit
Nutrients nutrients	4.8	9.2	2009	13.5 Days	CHF 2900	Submit
Sports sports	2.2	4.1	2013	19.1 Days	CHF 1800	Submit
Sensors sensors	3.4	7.3	2001	18.6 Days	CHF 2600	Submit
Muscles muscles	-	-	2022	32 Days	CHF 1000	Submit
Foods foods	4.7	7.4	2012	14.5 Days	CHF 2900	Submit

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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10 pages, 1391 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Efficacy of Oral Supplementation with Cholecalciferol Versus Calcifediol in Patients with Hypovitaminosis D After Stroke

by Stefania Canneva, Anna De Giovanni, Felicita Pagella, Lucia Pellegrino, Francesco Iencinella, Sara Maestrini, Marta Ponzano, Carlo Trompetto and Laura Mori

Nutrients 2025, 17(6), 1035; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17061035 - 15 Mar 2025

Viewed by 610

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Cholecalciferol and Calcifediol are commonly used for oral supplementation in patients with vitamin D deficiency. Several studies have compared these two molecules; however, the studied population has only included healthy postmenopausal women so far. This retrospective observational study aims to evaluate which [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Cholecalciferol and Calcifediol are commonly used for oral supplementation in patients with vitamin D deficiency. Several studies have compared these two molecules; however, the studied population has only included healthy postmenopausal women so far. This retrospective observational study aims to evaluate which molecule is more effective and faster in achieving serum 25(oh)D levels within the normal range in post-stroke patients during the subacute phase. Secondary aims include assessing potential differences in functional outcomes and investigating the possible correlation between the degree of hypovitaminosis D and stroke severity. Methods: We observed 85 in-patients who received either Cholecalciferol or Calcifediol during intensive rehabilitation. All subjects underwent functional evaluations, blood tests, and a bone densitometry (DEXA) scan. Results: Four months after starting supplementation, subjects receiving calcifediol achieved significantly higher 25(oh)D levels (p < 0.001) compared to those receiving cholecalciferol. No significant between-group differences were observed in secondary outcomes. Another key finding is that no statistically significant correlation was found between serum of 25(oh)D levels and stroke severity. Conclusions: These results highlight the importance of further investigating bone metabolism in post-stroke patients, though findings should be confirmed in larger studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Endurance and Ultra-Endurance: Implications of Training, Recovery, Nutrition, and Technology on Performance and Health)

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10 pages, 878 KiB  

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Transferability of Exercise Intensity Based on Muscle Oxygenation from Normoxia to Hypoxia in Ski-Mountaineering Athletes—Exploratory Study

by Kinga Rębiś, Tomasz Kowalski, Kamil Michalik and Andrzej Klusiewicz

Sports 2024, 12(12), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12120351 - 18 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1094

Abstract

Frequent changes in altitude and oxygen levels limit the practical application of traditionally derived exercise thresholds or training zones based on heart rate (HR) or blood lactate concentration (bLa). We investigated the transferability of a muscle oxygenation (SmO₂)-based intensity prescription between [...] Read more.

Frequent changes in altitude and oxygen levels limit the practical application of traditionally derived exercise thresholds or training zones based on heart rate (HR) or blood lactate concentration (bLa). We investigated the transferability of a muscle oxygenation (SmO₂)-based intensity prescription between different hypoxic conditions to assess the suitability of real-time SmO₂ measurements for ski-mountaineering (SKIMO) athletes during submaximal endurance exercise. A group of 15 well-trained male SKIMO athletes performed a graded-intensity run test in normoxia (87 m ASL, FiO₂ = 20.8%) to determine the anaerobic threshold (AnT) with the mod-Dmax method, and maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) assessments in acute normobaric hypoxia (3000 m ASL, FiO₂ = 14.4%) with the intensity aligned to 90–105% of SmO₂ at the normoxia-determined AnT. SmO₂, HR, and bLa were monitored during both tests. The number of MLSS assessments without a bLa increase over 1 mmol·L⁻¹ was reported. Paired t-tests with Cohen’s d effect sizes and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) were computed to compare the bLa and HR at the AnT in normoxia and MLSS averages in hypoxia, as both corresponded to equivalent SmO₂. Out of the 15 MLSS assessments, 11 (73.3%) were performed without a bLa increase over 1 mmol·L⁻¹. Significant differences at equivalent SmO₂ in normoxia and hypoxia were found for HR (175 ± 11.7 vs. 160 ± 14.2 bpm, p = 0.005, d = 1.02), but not for bLa (4.9 ± 1.2 vs. 5.1 ± 2.4 mmol·L⁻¹, p = 0.845, d = −0.05). ICC(2,k) for HR and bLa were 0.56 (95% CI: −0.24, 0.85) and 0.40 (95% CI: −0.75, 0.80), respectively. The results indicate a fair transferability of a SmO₂-based intensity prescription between different hypoxic conditions in well-trained SKIMO athletes during submaximal endurance exercise. The practical significance of the observations depends on the required accuracy of the exercise intensity determination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Endurance and Ultra-Endurance: Implications of Training, Recovery, Nutrition, and Technology on Performance and Health)

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17 pages, 1699 KiB  

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

Exertional Rhabdomyolysis and Ultra-Trail Races: A Systematic Review Highlighting the Significant Impact of Eccentric Load

by Miguel Lecina, Carlos Castellar-Otín, Alejandro García-Giménez and Francisco Pradas

Muscles 2024, 3(3), 242-258; https://doi.org/10.3390/muscles3030022 - 13 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1740

Abstract

Exertional rhabdomyolysis (ER) is a condition where muscle breakdown occurs after intense and unaccustomed exercise in healthy individuals. It is characterized by muscle pain, weakness, and myoglobinuria, potentially leading to acute kidney injury and worsening the patients’ prognosis. Ultra-trail races (UT) necessitate high [...] Read more.

Exertional rhabdomyolysis (ER) is a condition where muscle breakdown occurs after intense and unaccustomed exercise in healthy individuals. It is characterized by muscle pain, weakness, and myoglobinuria, potentially leading to acute kidney injury and worsening the patients’ prognosis. Ultra-trail races (UT) necessitate high energy and extreme muscular exertion, which can result in significant muscle breakdown, leading to ER and elevated biomarkers such as creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). These races involve longer durations and both uphill and downhill elevations, with the latter causing more muscle damage. This systematic review aims to analyse the effect of downhill elevation (at least 1000 m) in UT on muscle and liver damage biomarkers. We conducted a systematic review of four electronic databases (Pubmed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Sportdiscus) based on PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews. We included a total of 15 articles out of 6670 published between January 2005 and March 2024. The total population sample included 348 subjects, comprising 294 men (84.48%) and 54 women (15.52%) with a mean age of 39.82 ± 6.89 years. Only one subject (0.28%) was diagnosed with ER. The median increase in CK post vs. pre was 5370.63 ± 7289.71%, LDH post vs. pre was 311.20 ± 164.4%, and liver damage biomarkers aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) obtained mean increases of 1009.94 ± 743.97% and 207.02 ± 92.84%, respectively. No liver injury cases were reported. These findings suggest that ER is often misdiagnosed in UT and may result in acute kidney injury under certain circumstances. Therefore, it is crucial to define and prepare the characteristics required for ultra runners to safely participate in these extreme races. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Endurance and Ultra-Endurance: Implications of Training, Recovery, Nutrition, and Technology on Performance and Health)

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10 pages, 1301 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Compression Pants on Oxygen Consumption and Heart Rate during Long-Distance Running

by Andrew Craig-Jones, Daniel R. Greene, Haley L. Gilbert, Priya L. Giddens and Jonathan J. Ruiz-Ramie

Biomechanics 2024, 4(3), 473-482; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics4030033 - 4 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1728

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to compare average rate of oxygen consumption (VO₂), slow component of oxygen consumption (VO₂ drift), heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) while wearing compression pants vs. a control garment during long-distance [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was to compare average rate of oxygen consumption (VO₂), slow component of oxygen consumption (VO₂ drift), heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) while wearing compression pants vs. a control garment during long-distance running. Methods: Nine injury-free and recreationally active participants (32 ± 11 years) were recruited for this study. Participants ran in full-leg compression pants (COMP) and a loose-fitting control garment (CON). Participants ran in each condition for 40 min at a preferred submaximal speed. The rate of oxygen consumption (VO₂) was measured continuously via a metabolic cart throughout each condition. Both HR and RPE were recorded every 5 min during each condition. Oxygen consumption was averaged across the entirety of the steady state during the 40 min conditions for analysis. Additionally, the average from the first five minutes of the steady state was subtracted from the average of the last five minutes to assess VO₂. A paired t-test was used to assess for differences for both variables. Both HR and RPE were each compared between conditions using 2 (garment) × 8 (time) repeated measure ANOVAs (α = 0.05). Results: There were no differences between VO₂ or VO₂ drift while running with full-leg compression pants vs. the control garment (p > 0.05). Neither RPE nor HR were influenced by the garments (p > 0.05) or time (p > 0.05) during each condition. Conclusion: Wearing compression pants did not result in reduced VO₂, VO₂ drift, HR or RPE during a long-distance run. Although measured performance variables were not aided using compression pants, there were no negative effects to the use of compression pants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Endurance and Ultra-Endurance: Implications of Training, Recovery, Nutrition, and Technology on Performance and Health)

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14 pages, 2517 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Compression Garments on Biomechanical and Physiological Factors

by Andrew Craig-Jones, Daniel R. Greene, Jonathan J. Ruiz-Ramie, James W. Navalta and John A. Mercer

Biomechanics 2024, 4(1), 109-122; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics4010007 - 23 Feb 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2675

Abstract

To the purpose of this study was to compare muscle oscillation, muscle activation time, and oxygen consumption while wearing compression pants vs. a control garment during running. Methods. Eleven injury-free and recreationally active participants (26.73 ± 12.74 years) were recruited for this study. [...] Read more.

To the purpose of this study was to compare muscle oscillation, muscle activation time, and oxygen consumption while wearing compression pants vs. a control garment during running. Methods. Eleven injury-free and recreationally active participants (26.73 ± 12.74 years) were recruited for this study. Participants ran in full-leg compression pants (COMP) and a loose-fitting control garment (CON). Participants ran for 6 min at three submaximal speeds: preferred speed (PS), preferred speed minus 10% (PS − 10%), and preferred speed plus 10% (PS + 10%). The muscle activity of the leg was measured through electromyography (EMG). Muscle oscillation (MO) was measured with accelerometers attached to the thigh and shank. The rate of oxygen consumption ($\stackrel{.}{\mathrm{V}}$O₂) and heart rate (HR) were recorded during each condition. MO was assessed over the 0–60 Hz range by averaging power across 10 Hz bins per leg segment. EMG data was processed to identify the activation time. Following each condition, a belief score was recorded. Dependent variables were each compared between conditions using 2 (garment) × 3 (speed) repeated measure ANOVAs (α = 0.05). The relationship between the belief score and dependent variables (compression-control) was analyzed using Pearson’s product-moment correlation (α = 0.05). Results. MO was lower with the full-leg compression pants vs. the control garment (p < 0.05). The muscle activation time for each muscle was shorter while wearing the full-leg compression pants (p < 0.05). Neither the $\stackrel{.}{\mathrm{V}}$O₂, RPE, SF, nor the HR were influenced by the garments (p > 0.05). There was no significant correlation between changes in the dependent variables and belief. Conclusion. Wearing compression pants resulted in reduced MO and activation time; however, these changes did not translate into a reduction in $\stackrel{.}{\mathrm{V}}$O₂. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Endurance and Ultra-Endurance: Implications of Training, Recovery, Nutrition, and Technology on Performance and Health)

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21 pages, 2280 KiB  

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Agreement between Ventilatory Thresholds and Bilaterally Measured Vastus Lateralis Muscle Oxygen Saturation Breakpoints in Trained Cyclists: Effects of Age and Performance

by Karmen Reinpõld, Indrek Rannama and Kristjan Port

Sports 2024, 12(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12020040 - 28 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2828

Abstract

This study focused on comparing metabolic thresholds derived from local muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂) signals, obtained using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), with global pulmonary ventilation rates measured at the mouth. It was conducted among various Age Groups within a well-trained cyclist population. [...] Read more.

This study focused on comparing metabolic thresholds derived from local muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂) signals, obtained using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), with global pulmonary ventilation rates measured at the mouth. It was conducted among various Age Groups within a well-trained cyclist population. Additionally, the study examined how cycling performance characteristics impact the discrepancies between ventilatory thresholds (VTs) and SmO₂ breakpoints (BPs). Methods: Junior (n = 18) and Senior (n = 15) cyclists underwent incremental cycling tests to assess their aerobic performance and to determine aerobic (AeT) and anaerobic (AnT) threshold characteristics through pulmonary gas exchange and changes in linearity of the vastus lateralis (VL) muscle SmO₂ signals. We compared the relative power (Pkg) at ventilatory thresholds (VTs) and breakpoints (BPs) for the nondominant (ND), dominant (DO), and bilaterally averaged (Avr) SmO₂ during the agreement analysis. Additionally, a 30 s sprint test was performed to estimate anaerobic performance capabilities and to assess the cyclists’ phenotype, defined as the ratio of P@VT2 to the highest 5 s sprint power. Results: The P_kg@BP for Avr SmO₂ had higher agreement with VT values than ND and DO. Avr SmO₂ P_kg@BP1 was lower (p < 0.05) than P_kg@VT1 (mean bias: 0.12 ± 0.29 W/kg; Limits of Agreement (LOA): −0.45 to 0.68 W/kg; R² = 0.72) and mainly among Seniors (0.21 ± 0.22 W/kg; LOA: −0.22 to 0.63 W/kg); there was no difference (p > 0.05) between Avr P_kg@BP2 and P_kg@VT2 (0.03 ± 0.22 W/kg; LOA: −0.40 to 0.45 W/kg; R² = 0.86). The bias between two methods correlated significantly with the phenotype (r = −0.385 and r = −0.515 for AeT and AnT, respectively). Conclusions: Two breakpoints can be defined in the NIRS-captured SmO₂ signal of VL, but the agreement between the two methods at the individual level was too low for interchangeable usage of those methods in the practical training process. Older cyclists generally exhibited earlier thresholds in muscle oxygenation signals compared to systemic responses, unlike younger cyclists who showed greater variability and no significant differences in this regard in bias values between the two threshold evaluation methods with no significant difference between methods. More sprinter-type cyclists tended to have systemic VT thresholds earlier than local NIRS-derived thresholds than athletes with relatively higher aerobic abilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Endurance and Ultra-Endurance: Implications of Training, Recovery, Nutrition, and Technology on Performance and Health)

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13 pages, 721 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Intra-Day and Inter-Day Reliability and Usefulness of Performance, Kinetic and Kinematic Variables during Drop Jumping in Hurling Players

by Luke Atkins, Colin Coyle, Jeremy Moody, Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo and Paul J. Byrne

Biomechanics 2024, 4(1), 1-13; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics4010001 - 10 Jan 2024

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Abstract

The aim of this study was to estimate the intra-day and inter-day reliability and usefulness of performance (Jump height (JH), ground contact time (GCT) and reactive strength index (RSI)), kinetic (force, power, eccentric rate of force development [E-RFD] and leg stiffness [LS]) and [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to estimate the intra-day and inter-day reliability and usefulness of performance (Jump height (JH), ground contact time (GCT) and reactive strength index (RSI)), kinetic (force, power, eccentric rate of force development [E-RFD] and leg stiffness [LS]) and kinematic (velocity) variables during drop jumping (DJ) in hurling players. Seventeen (n = 17; mean ± SD; age = 23.35 ± 5.78 years, height = 178.35 ± 6.30 cm, body mass = 78.62 ± 8.06 kg) male club-level hurling players completed two maximal DJs from 0.20, 0.30, 0.40, 0.50 and 0.60 m drop heights on three testing days separated by 5–9 days of rest. Reliability was assessed using the coefficient of variation percentage (CV% ≤ 15%) and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC > 0.70). For intra-day reliability, GCT (0.40 m, 0.50 m and 0.60 m), peak force (absolute and relative) (0.40 m and 0.50 m) and leg stiffness (0.40 m and 0.50 m) were found to be unreliable (ICC = 0.32–0.68 and CV% = 3.67–11.83%) from those specific drop heights. All other variables were found to be reliable (ICC = 0.72–0.98 and CV% = 1.07–14.02%) intra-day. All variables were found to be reliable (ICC = 0.72–0.96 and CV% = 2.57–14.68%) inter-day except for relative peak force and absolute and relative eccentric RFD (0.30 m and 0.40 m) (ICC = 0.68–0.90 and CV% = 7.76–16.47%). Practitioners have multiple reliable DJ performance, kinetic and kinematic variables for performance testing and training purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Endurance and Ultra-Endurance: Implications of Training, Recovery, Nutrition, and Technology on Performance and Health)

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11 pages, 305 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence of Ten Gene Variants Involved in Muscular Phenotypes in a Mexican Mestizo Population

by Luz Berenice López-Hernández, Guillermina Avila-Ramírez, Ariadna Del Villar-Morales, Mónica Alejandra Anaya-Segura, Luis Angel Montes-Almanza, Froylan Arturo García-Martínez, Antonio Miranda-Duarte, Carlos Antonio Sosa-Flores, Martha Eunice Rodríguez-Arellano, Ileana Chavez-Maisterra, Alexandra Berenice Luna-Angulo, Miriam Pavelth Casillas-Ávila and Benjamín Gómez-Díaz

Muscles 2023, 2(4), 389-399; https://doi.org/10.3390/muscles2040030 - 8 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1884

Abstract

Several reports have provided evidence that there are genetic variants of genes such as MSTN, BDRKB2, ACTN3 and ADRB2 that are involved in a better response to adaptation during resistance or strength training, while other genes such as GRB14, AGT [...] Read more.

Several reports have provided evidence that there are genetic variants of genes such as MSTN, BDRKB2, ACTN3 and ADRB2 that are involved in a better response to adaptation during resistance or strength training, while other genes such as GRB14, AGT and END1 are reported to be associated with the risk of suffering from some diseases such as diabetes, hypertension or obesity. A cross-sectional study from a Mexican Mestizo population was performed to estimate the frequency of 10 gene variants in 8 genes involved in athletic performance or chronic degenerative diseases, MSTN (rs1805085, rs1805086), BDKRB2 (rs1799722), FST (rs1423560), ACTN3 (rs1815739), ADRB2 (rs1042713, rs1042714), GRB14 (rs8192673), AGT (rs699) and EDN1 (rs5370), and to compare frequencies from 26 populations reported in the Database of 1000 Genomes project. Genotype frequencies fitted the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, except for MST rs1805086 and FST rs1423560, and our study revealed significant differences in the distribution of frequencies of some of these gene variants among populations reported in the 1000 Genomes Project. Our findings provide insights regarding the genetic background of our population, and future case–control studies can be carried out with more accurate sample sizes for genetic association studies. Our results may be also useful in recognizing the roles and mechanisms contributing to athletic performance and/or chronic degenerative diseases in Mexicans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Endurance and Ultra-Endurance: Implications of Training, Recovery, Nutrition, and Technology on Performance and Health)

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18 pages, 1276 KiB  

Open AccessCommunication

Perceptions of Cheating and Doping in E-Cycling

by Andrew Richardson, Nicolas Berger and Phillip Smith

Sports 2023, 11(10), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11100201 - 14 Oct 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5366

Abstract

E-cycling is a growing area of cycling appealing to competitive cyclists and fitness enthusiasts. Zwift is the most popular e-cycling platform, with approx. 1 million subscribers and is a virtual environment that hosts regular races, including the UCI e-cycling world championships. The popularity [...] Read more.

E-cycling is a growing area of cycling appealing to competitive cyclists and fitness enthusiasts. Zwift is the most popular e-cycling platform, with approx. 1 million subscribers and is a virtual environment that hosts regular races, including the UCI e-cycling world championships. The popularity of Zwift has given rise to cases of cheating and hacking the system to gain an advantage in e-racing. As a result, some high-profile professional riders have faced bans. We set out to understand the thoughts and concerns e-cyclists have about cheating, hacking, and doping in e-cycling. A total of 337 females and 1130 males were recruited over a 7-week period via social networking sites to complete an online survey. Forty-four per cent had experienced cheating during e-racing, which made them feel angry, annoyed, disappointed, and cheated. However, 15% of those who experienced cheating said they did not care, possibly because many see e-racing as a game or training tool rather than a competitive event. Eighty-seven per cent of participants were in favour of enforcing a ban on cheaters in e-cycling, while 34% wanted cheaters to be banned during in-person cycling events too. Results indicate that many e-cyclists have experienced cheating and would like clearer rules and bans for cheaters during e-races. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Endurance and Ultra-Endurance: Implications of Training, Recovery, Nutrition, and Technology on Performance and Health)

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