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Biomechanics and Sports Performances
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Biomechanics and Sports Performances

A special issue of Sports (ISSN 2075-4663).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 July 2024) | Viewed by 26697

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Antonino Patti

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Guest Editor
Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, 90144 Palermo, Italy
Interests: physical activity; exercise; gait analysis; dynamic postural; fitness; balance; posture; biomechanics; human movement
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Valerio Giustino

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Guest Editor
Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
Interests: health professions; sport; exercise training; quality of life; health promotion; public health; aging
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Postural control is a topic of growing interest in the scientific field. Many factors contribute to good postural control, and the various receptors of the nervous system have a significant influence on the postural control system. Biomechanics is the study of body systems using the methods of mechanics. Human biomechanics emphasizes how forces act on the musculoskeletal system and how the body reacts to these forces. Both coaches and athletes will have a clear advantage if they can clarify how the forces acting on the muscles influence movements and performances. Improving technique with the help of biomechanics can ultimately be a useful tool in optimizing performance, preventing injuries, and heightening the general well-being of athletes. Interestingly, some studies have suggested that only specific exercise trainings can stimulate the postural system. Therefore, this Special Issue seeks original research articles and reviews on any subject related to specific exercise trainings for aiding balance and posture in athletes in order to summarize the most important biomechanics parameters influencing human performance. However, of particular interest will be articles that examine how to use new technologies to evaluate the deficits and improvements obtained post-training regarding biomechanics. All manuscripts will be peer-reviewed by experts in the field and will be held to the highest level of academic and scientific integrity. We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Antonino Patti
Dr. Valerio Giustino
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • biomechanics
  • sports
  • posture
  • physical activity
  • gait analysis
  • performances
  • dynamic postural
  • fitness
  • balance

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 6943 KiB  
Article
Biomechanical Insights in Ancient Greek Combat Sports: A Static Analysis of Selected Pottery Depictions
by Andreas Bourantanis, Nikitas Nomikos and Weijie Wang
Sports 2024, 12(12), 317; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12120317 - 26 Nov 2024
Viewed by 386
Abstract
Background: Though ancient Greece preserves many pictures of combat sports, there is limited research in terms of biomechanical analysis of their sports. This research aimed to investigate the Pankration postures of ancient Greek athletics, expecting to bridge the gap between historical sports practices [...] Read more.
Background: Though ancient Greece preserves many pictures of combat sports, there is limited research in terms of biomechanical analysis of their sports. This research aimed to investigate the Pankration postures of ancient Greek athletics, expecting to bridge the gap between historical sports practices and contemporary biomechanical applications. Methods: This study employed computer vision (OpenPose) to analyze two images, one as readiness and another as kicking postures, from ancient Greek Pankration by constructing a static multi-segmental model. Using Newton’s Laws, the models simulated the postures as presented in historical depictions, estimated joint forces and moments, and calculated weight distribution and ground reaction forces for these postures. Results: For the readiness posture, it was found that the right hind leg experienced significant forces, with the highest moment at the knee joint, while the ankle and hip joints showed similar slightly lower moments. The front leg encountered lower forces and moments. For the kick posture, the supporting leg experienced the highest moment at the knee, while the kicking leg showed minimal moments at the ankle, knee, and hip. Conclusions: The static analysis provided quantitative estimates of joint forces and moments in the depicted Pankration postures, suggesting that these postures were biomechanically effective for their intended functions in combat. While the analysis cannot confirm whether ancient athletes deliberately applied biomechanical principles, the results highlight the potential of biomechanical modeling to enhance our understanding of ancient sports practices. The research demonstrates the possible benefits of integrating static analysis with historical elements to study the physical demands and techniques of ancient combat sports. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics and Sports Performances)
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12 pages, 5321 KiB  
Article
Rate of Force Development During a Handgrip Task Is Correlated with the Post-Impact Ball Speed of the Flat Serve
by Károly Dobos, Dario Novak, János Péter Tóth and Csaba Ökrös
Sports 2024, 12(11), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12110292 - 24 Oct 2024
Viewed by 800
Abstract
The aim of the present research was to test the hypothesis that rate of force development (RFD) during a handgrip task of the dominant arm in three different positions is associated with maximal post-impact ball speed of flat serve (PIBS). Altogether 23 elite [...] Read more.
The aim of the present research was to test the hypothesis that rate of force development (RFD) during a handgrip task of the dominant arm in three different positions is associated with maximal post-impact ball speed of flat serve (PIBS). Altogether 23 elite junior boys (aged 14.84 ± 2.47 years; weight 59.51 ± 13.83 kg; height 170.47 ± 16.34 cm) tennis players participated in the study. To assess the maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) and RFD during the task, four handgrip tests and a serve test were applied to estimate PIBS. Spearman’s rank correlation showed a significant positive correlation between RFD of dominant arm in each three position and PIBS (r = 0.82–0.86; p < 0.001). A very large, significantly positive correlation was also found between MVC of the dominant arm and PIBS (r = 0.88; p < 0.01). The result of the present study indicated that rapid force generation of muscles in the forearm and wrist may probably play a role in the formation of a stable contact point, and it is in connection with PIBS. It is in contrast to the slow maximal force exertion that much rather characterizes the general strength state of players. Therefore, measurement of the RFD during a handgrip task is suggested in the testing session of the flat serve of junior tennis players. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics and Sports Performances)
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13 pages, 1166 KiB  
Article
Associations between Body Segment Mass and Punch, Front Kick, or Countermovement Jump Performance in Military Cadets
by Michal Vagner, Jan Malecek, Vladan Olah and Petr Stastny
Sports 2024, 12(8), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080205 - 28 Jul 2024
Viewed by 1136
Abstract
Despite the recognized influence of body mass on combat techniques, the relationship between body segment mass (BSM) and combat moves remains unexplored. This study aimed to examine the relationship between the striking arm mass (SAM), kicking leg mass (KLM), and body mass (BM) [...] Read more.
Despite the recognized influence of body mass on combat techniques, the relationship between body segment mass (BSM) and combat moves remains unexplored. This study aimed to examine the relationship between the striking arm mass (SAM), kicking leg mass (KLM), and body mass (BM) and the dynamic forces of direct punch (DP), palm strike (PS), elbow strike (ES), front kick (FK), and countermovement jump (CMJ) performance. Sixteen male military cadets (22.3 ± 1.8 years, 181.4 ± 7.0 cm, 82.1 ± 8.5 kg) performed combat techniques, with their performance measured by using a force plate and their body segment mass assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Spearman’s correlation analysis, the Wilcoxon test, and Cohen’s d were applied. The results indicated the relationship between the KLM or BM and the FK impulse (r = 0.64, p = 0.01; r = 0.52, p = 0.04, respectively) and CMJ impact force (r = 0.80, p ≤ 0.01; r = 0.70, p ≤ 0.01, respectively). The FK peak and impact forces were moderately correlated with the CMJ jump height (r = 0.74, p ≤ 0.01; r = 0.77, p ≤ 0.01). Moreover, the FK peak force was significantly higher than that for DP, PS, and ES (p ≤ 0.01, d = 3.32; p ≤ 0.01, d = 1.6; and p = 0.013, d = 1.3, respectively). The highest relationship was found between the KLM and the FK impulse; however, the difference in variability explained by the KLM versus the body mass was only 12%. This suggests that knowledge of the BSM did not provide a significantly better estimate of the dynamic forces of the punches and FKs than the knowledge of the BM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics and Sports Performances)
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10 pages, 1494 KiB  
Article
Changes in Lower-Extremity Gait Biomechanics Following High-Cadence Cycling
by Tanner A. Thorsen, Rials J. Hester and Christopher J. Keating
Sports 2024, 12(6), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12060159 - 7 Jun 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1059
Abstract
We sought to investigate the lower-extremity biomechanics underlying increased gait velocity following high-cadence cycling. Ground reaction forces (GRF) and lower-extremity kinematics and kinetics were recorded as 15 healthy adults walked at a self-selected pace prior to and immediately following a 15 min bout [...] Read more.
We sought to investigate the lower-extremity biomechanics underlying increased gait velocity following high-cadence cycling. Ground reaction forces (GRF) and lower-extremity kinematics and kinetics were recorded as 15 healthy adults walked at a self-selected pace prior to and immediately following a 15 min bout of cycling at a cadence of 75 rotations per minute. Propulsive GRF and stance-phase peak dorsiflexion and knee extension angles increased, while peak plantarflexion and hip extension angles decreased. Swing-phase peak dorsiflexion, plantarflexion, knee flexion, and hip flexion angles increased, while peak knee extension angle decreased. Peak dorsiflexion, knee extension, and hip extension angular velocity also increased during swing. No changes in peak joint moments were observed; however, peak positive ankle, knee, and hip joint power generation increased following cycling. Completing high-cadence cycling improves gait velocity by increasing propulsive GRF; increasing joint angular velocity during the swing phase of gait for the ankle, knee, and hip; and increasing positive power production by the ankle, knee, and hip during the stance phase. Increased gait velocity post cycling exercise did not increase lower-extremity joint moments. Cycling may be a viable exercise-based modality for increasing gait velocity, especially in populations where gait ability or joint loading is of particular concern. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics and Sports Performances)
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13 pages, 1513 KiB  
Article
Bilateral Asymmetry of Spatiotemporal Running Gait Parameters in U14 Athletes at Different Speeds
by Antonio Cartón-Llorente, Silvia Cardiel-Sánchez, Alejandro Molina-Molina, Andrés Ráfales-Perucha and Alberto Rubio-Peirotén
Sports 2024, 12(5), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12050117 - 27 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1431
Abstract
The assessment of leg asymmetries is gaining scientific interest due to its potential impact on performance and injury development. Athletes around puberty exhibit increased gait variability due to a non-established running pattern. This study aims to describe the asymmetries in the spatiotemporal running [...] Read more.
The assessment of leg asymmetries is gaining scientific interest due to its potential impact on performance and injury development. Athletes around puberty exhibit increased gait variability due to a non-established running pattern. This study aims to describe the asymmetries in the spatiotemporal running parameters in developmentally aged athletes. Forty athletes under 14 (U14) (22 females and 18 males) were assessed running on a treadmill at constant speeds of 12 and 14 km·h−1 for 3 min. Step length, step frequency, along with contact (CT) and flight time, both in absolute values and as a percentage of step time, were recorded using a RunScribe sensor attached to the laces of each shoe. U14 runners exhibited high bilateral symmetry in the spatiotemporal parameters of running, with mean asymmetry values (1–5.7%) lower than the intra-limb coefficient of variation (1.7–9.6%). Furthermore, bilateral asymmetries did not vary between the two speeds. An individual-based interpretation of asymmetries identified subjects with consistent asymmetries at both speeds, particularly in terms of CT and contact ratio (%, CT/step time). This study confirms the high symmetry of pubertal runners and paves the way for the application of portable running assessment technology to detect asymmetries on an individual basis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics and Sports Performances)
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15 pages, 2419 KiB  
Article
ISAK-Based Anthropometric Standards for Elite Male and Female Soccer Players
by Cristian Petri, Francesco Campa, Francis Holway, Luca Pengue and Luis Suarez Arrones
Sports 2024, 12(3), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12030069 - 23 Feb 2024
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4210
Abstract
This study aimed to provide reference values for anthropometric characteristics of elite male and female soccer players, considering a group of individuals from the general population as controls. The anthropometric profiles of 357 elite soccer players [184 males (age 24.3 ± 4.3 y) [...] Read more.
This study aimed to provide reference values for anthropometric characteristics of elite male and female soccer players, considering a group of individuals from the general population as controls. The anthropometric profiles of 357 elite soccer players [184 males (age 24.3 ± 4.3 y) and 173 females (age 25.2 ± 5.1 y)] participating in the first Italian league (Serie A) and 363 subjects from the general population [188 males (age 24.2 ± 4.8 y) and 175 females (age 25.0 ± 5.1 y)] were measured according to the guidelines of the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK). Reference percentiles for stature, body mass, circumferences, eight skinfolds (biceps, triceps, subscapular, suprailiac, supraspinal, abdominal, front thigh, and calf), breadths, and somatotype were calculated and stratified by player position and sex. No difference (p > 0.05) was found in age between the two groups. Soccer players showed lower values for the sum of the eight ISAK skinfolds than individuals from the general population of the same sex. This suggests lower adipose tissue, as indicated by a lower endomorphic component. The somatotype was endomorphic mesomorph and mesomorphic endomorph for the male and female individuals from the general population, respectively. The male soccer players were ectomorphic mesomorphs, while the females were balanced mesomorphs, defining a sport-specific morphology. This study provides sex- and role-specific anthropometric standards for elite soccer players. Raw anthropometric reference values may be useful for evaluating body composition without using any predictive equations or assumptions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics and Sports Performances)
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11 pages, 1433 KiB  
Article
Excessive Knee Internal Rotation during Grand Plié in Classical Ballet Female Dancers
by Aspasia Fotaki, Athanasios Triantafyllou, Panagiotis Koulouvaris, Apostolos Z. Skouras, Dimitrios Stasinopoulos, Panagiotis Gkrilias, Maria Kyriakidou, Sophia Stasi, Dimitrios Antonakis-Karamintzas, Charilaos Tsolakis, Olga Savvidou and Georgios Papagiannis
Sports 2024, 12(2), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12020054 - 7 Feb 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2210
Abstract
Classical ballet dancers are exposed daily to physically demanding movements. Among these, the Grand Plié stands out for its biomechanical complexity, particularly the stress applied to the knee joint. This study investigates the knee kinematics of healthy professional classical ballet dancers performing the [...] Read more.
Classical ballet dancers are exposed daily to physically demanding movements. Among these, the Grand Plié stands out for its biomechanical complexity, particularly the stress applied to the knee joint. This study investigates the knee kinematics of healthy professional classical ballet dancers performing the Grand Plié. Twenty dancers were evaluated with a motion analysis system using a marker-based protocol. Before measurements, the self-reported Global Knee Functional Assessment Scale was delivered for the knees’ functional ability, and the passive range of knee motion was also assessed. The average score on the Global Knee Functional Assessment Scale was 94.65 ± 5.92. During a complete circle of the Grand Plié movement, executed from the upright position, the average maximum internal rotation of the knee joint was 30.28° ± 6.16°, with a simultaneous knee flexion of 134.98° ± 4.62°. This internal rotation observed during knee flexion exceeds the typical range of motion for the joint, suggesting a potential risk for knee injuries, such as meniscal tears. The findings provide an opportunity for future kinematic analysis research, focusing on the movement of the Grand Plié and other common ballet maneuvers. These data have the potential to yield valuable information about the knee kinematics concerning meniscus damage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics and Sports Performances)
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10 pages, 1674 KiB  
Article
Effects of External Abdominal Pressure Support on Dynamic Balance: A Randomized Crossover Study
by Yuki Nakai, Takara Kijimuta, Yasufumi Takeshita, Ryoji Kiyama, Sota Araki, Takasuke Miyazaki and Masayuki Kawada
Sports 2023, 11(11), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11110217 - 7 Nov 2023
Viewed by 2131
Abstract
Abdominal pressure is vital in protecting the lumbar spine and controlling postural balance. Dynamic balance is associated with movement stability, adaptation to load, and reduced injury risk. Although trunk stability has been examined using belts and braces, the effects of external abdominal pressure [...] Read more.
Abdominal pressure is vital in protecting the lumbar spine and controlling postural balance. Dynamic balance is associated with movement stability, adaptation to load, and reduced injury risk. Although trunk stability has been examined using belts and braces, the effects of external abdominal pressure support (APS) on balance control remain unknown. In this study, we aimed to determine the effects of external APS on dynamic balance. Overall, 31 young adults participated in this randomized crossover study. External APS was provided using a device that could be pressurized and decompressed by inflating a cuff belt wrapped around the trunk. The modified Star Excursion Balance Test was performed under external APS and non-APS conditions. The maximum anterior, posterolateral, and posteromedial values normalized to the spinal malleolar distance and their respective composite values were compared between the two conditions with and without APS. Posterolateral, posteromedial, and composite values were significantly higher in the APS condition than in the non-APS condition (p < 0.001). The external APS was effective in immediately improving dynamic balance. Furthermore, APS was effective in dynamic balance control as it improved stability during anterior trunk tilt, which displaces the center of gravity forward. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics and Sports Performances)
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13 pages, 1706 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Training Session in Elite Paralympic Powerlifting Athletes Based on Biomechanical and Thermal Indicators
by Larissa Christine Vieira Santos, Felipe J. Aidar, Rodrigo Villar, Gianpiero Greco, Jefferson Lima de Santana, Anderson Carlos Marçal, Paulo Francisco de Almeida-Neto, Breno Guilherme de Araújo Tinoco Cabral, Georgian Badicu, Hadi Nobari, Raphael Frabrício de Souza and Walderi Monteiro da Silva Júnior
Sports 2023, 11(8), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11080151 - 10 Aug 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1619
Abstract
Background: Paralympic powerlifting (PP) is performed on a bench press, aiming to lift as much weight as possible in a single repetition. Purpose: To evaluate thermal asymmetry and dynamic force parameters with 45 and 80% 1 Repetition Maximum (1 RM) in PP athletes. [...] Read more.
Background: Paralympic powerlifting (PP) is performed on a bench press, aiming to lift as much weight as possible in a single repetition. Purpose: To evaluate thermal asymmetry and dynamic force parameters with 45 and 80% 1 Repetition Maximum (1 RM) in PP athletes. Methods: Twelve elite PP male athletes were evaluated before and after a training session regarding skin temperature (thermography) and dynamic force indicators (Average Propulsive Velocity-MPV, Maximum Velocity-VMax, and Power). The training consisted of five series of five repetitions (5 × 5) with 80% 1 RM. The force indicators and dynamics before and after (45% 1 RM) were evaluated in series “1” and “5” with 80% 1 RM. Results: The temperature did not present asymmetry, and there were differences between the moment before and after. In MPV, Vmax, and Power, with 45% 1 RM, there were differences both in asymmetry and in moments (p < 0.005). With 80% 1 RM, asymmetry was observed, but no differences between moments (p < 0.005). Conclusion: No thermal asymmetry was observed. There were reductions in MVP and VMax at 45 and 80% 1 RM but without significant differences between time points (before and after). However, there was asymmetry in the moments before and after within a safety standard, where Paralympic powerlifting was safe in terms of asymmetries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics and Sports Performances)
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13 pages, 2278 KiB  
Article
The Effect on Flexibility and a Variety of Performance Tests of the Addition of 4 Weeks of Soleus Stretching to a Regular Dynamic Stretching Routine in Amateur Female Soccer Players
by Mohammad Alimoradi, Mansour Sahebozamani, Elham Hosseini, Andreas Konrad and Sajad Noorian
Sports 2023, 11(7), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11070138 - 19 Jul 2023
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3755
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of 4 weeks of soleus stretching on ankle flexibility and dynamic balance, as well as selected monitoring and performance tests in soccer. Forty-five healthy female soccer players were randomly divided into a regular [...] Read more.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of 4 weeks of soleus stretching on ankle flexibility and dynamic balance, as well as selected monitoring and performance tests in soccer. Forty-five healthy female soccer players were randomly divided into a regular stretching group, a regular stretching group with soleus stretching, and a control group. Dynamic stretching protocols were performed for 4 weeks during three sessions per week as part of routine exercises. The regular group stretched three muscle groups (i.e., gastrocnemius, quadriceps, and hamstrings), while the regular + soleus group also stretched the soleus muscle. Before and after the stretching intervention, the ankle range of motion test, Y-balance test, drop jump test, dynamic knee valgus test, and Illinois Agility Running Test were performed. Ankle ROM, Y-balance, and DJ significantly improved in both intervention groups compared to controls. Only the regular + soleus group showed improvement in the Illinois Agility Running Test. Additionally, athletes performing the additional soleus stretching had greater improvements in ankle ROM and DJ but not in DKV or Y-balance. The results showed that adding soleus stretching into regular protocols can provide benefits for female soccer players in terms of performance parameters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics and Sports Performances)
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11 pages, 1367 KiB  
Article
Electromyographic and Stabilometric Analysis of the Static and Dynamic “Standing Bird Dog” Exercise
by Raffaele Losavio, Samuele Contemori, Stefano Bartoli, Cristina V. Dieni, Roberto Panichi and Andrea Biscarini
Sports 2023, 11(6), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11060119 - 16 Jun 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4050
Abstract
(1) Background: The “bird dog” exercise is considered one of the most effective therapeutic exercises for lumbopelvic rehabilitation and the prevention and treatment of low back pain. The “standing bird dog” (SBD) exercise, executed in a single-leg stance, constitutes a natural and challenging [...] Read more.
(1) Background: The “bird dog” exercise is considered one of the most effective therapeutic exercises for lumbopelvic rehabilitation and the prevention and treatment of low back pain. The “standing bird dog” (SBD) exercise, executed in a single-leg stance, constitutes a natural and challenging variation in the “bird dog”; nevertheless, this exercise has not yet been investigated. This study provides a stabilometric and electromyographic analysis of the SBD performed in static and dynamic conditions and in ipsilateral and contralateral variations; (2) Methods: A time-synchronized motion capture system, wireless electromyography sensors, and triaxial force platform were used to analyze the selected SBD exercises; (3) Results: In dynamic conditions, the gluteus maximum, multifidus, lumbar erector spinae, and gluteus medius reached a mean activation level higher than in the static condition, with peak activation levels of 80%, 60%, 55%, and a 45% maximum voluntary isometric contraction, respectively. In the static condition, balance control was more challenging in the mediolateral compared to the anteroposterior direction. In the dynamic condition, the balance challenge was higher in the anteroposterior direction and higher than the static condition in both directions; (4) Conclusions: The SBD was proved to be effective for strengthening the hip and lumbar extensor muscles and provided a powerful challenge to single-leg balance control in both mediolateral and anteroposterior directions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics and Sports Performances)
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21 pages, 3196 KiB  
Review
A Systematic Review of Dynamic Forces and Kinematic Indicators of Front and Roundhouse Kicks across Varied Conditions and Participant Experience
by Michal Vagner, Daniel John Cleather, Vladan Olah, Jan Vacek and Petr Stastny
Sports 2023, 11(8), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11080141 - 28 Jul 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2584
Abstract
Impact force and maximum velocity are important indicators of kick efficiency. Therefore, this systematic review compared the front kick (FK) and roundhouse kick (RK), including their impact force, maximum velocity, angular velocity, and execution time, considering various target types and experience levels. Following [...] Read more.
Impact force and maximum velocity are important indicators of kick efficiency. Therefore, this systematic review compared the front kick (FK) and roundhouse kick (RK), including their impact force, maximum velocity, angular velocity, and execution time, considering various target types and experience levels. Following PRISMA guidelines, the Web of Science, SportDiscus, and PubMed were systematically searched for articles published from January 1982 to May 2022. Normalized kicking values were compared using one-way ANOVA. Eighteen articles included FKs (sample: 113 elite men, 109 sub-elite men, and 46 novices), and twenty-five articles included RKs (sample: 238 elite men, 143 sub-elite men, and 27 novice men). The results indicate that the impact force of the FK were 47% (p < 0.01), 92% (p < 0.01), and 120% (p < 0.01) higher than those of the RK across novice, sub-elite, and elite groups, respectively. Moreover, the maximum foot velocity of the RK was 44% (p < 0.01) and 48% (p < 0.01) higher than that of the FK for the sub-elite and elite groups, respectively. Furthermore, the elite group had 65% (p < 0.01) higher knee extension angular velocity with the RK than with the FK and 138% (p < 0.01) higher hip extension angular velocity with the FK than with the RK. In summary, the findings suggest that the FK is more effective in generating forceful kicks, while the RK has the potential for rapid execution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics and Sports Performances)
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