Minerals

11 pages, 1816 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Acoustic Sensing of Fresh Feed Disturbances in a Locked-Cycle Laboratory AG/SAG Mill

by Kwaku Boateng Owusu, William Skinner, Christopher Greet and Richmond K. Asamoah

Minerals 2023, 13(7), 868; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13070868 - 27 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2024

In a large-scale operation, feed ores are introduced into the AG/SAG mill in a continuous mode at a given flow rate to replace the discharging slurry. Nonetheless, the variations in the feed characteristics, typically hardness and size distribution, could cause sudden disruption to [...] Read more.

In a large-scale operation, feed ores are introduced into the AG/SAG mill in a continuous mode at a given flow rate to replace the discharging slurry. Nonetheless, the variations in the feed characteristics, typically hardness and size distribution, could cause sudden disruption to the mill operation. This would be challenging to detect in practice, owing to the hostile environment of the mill. In this work, an acoustic sensing-based monitoring technique was utilized in a laboratory-scale AG/SAG mill locked-cycle study to keep track of fluctuations caused by feed ore heterogeneity. Analysis of the recorded mill acoustic response using statistical root mean square (RMS) and mill discharge sizes showed that the introduction of fresh feed with varying hardness and size distribution considerably altered the mill product undersize of −150 μm and acoustic emission. Overall, the acoustic sensing technique demonstrated that the AG/SAG mill stability as well as disturbances caused by different feed size fractions and hardness can be monitored using the mill acoustic response, an indication of real-time monitoring and optimisation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Sensors, Machine Learning, Data Analytics, and Process Optimisation in Minerals Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)

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20 pages, 8565 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Three-Dimensional Inversion of Induced Polarization Effects in Airborne Time Domain Electromagnetic Data Using the GEMTIP Model

by Leif H. Cox, Michael S. Zhdanov, Douglas H. Pitcher and Jeremy Niemi

Minerals 2023, 13(6), 779; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13060779 - 7 Jun 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3090

Abstract

This paper discusses the physical and mathematical principles of the airborne induced polarization (IP) method. The possibility of extracting information about the IP properties of rocks from airborne survey data has become a subject of active research recently. We introduce a method for [...] Read more.

This paper discusses the physical and mathematical principles of the airborne induced polarization (IP) method. The possibility of extracting information about the IP properties of rocks from airborne survey data has become a subject of active research recently. We introduce a method for the joint inversion of the airborne EM data into the electrical conductivity and IP parameters based on the generalized effective-medium theory of induced polarization (GEMTIP). We also present the results of the inversion of the airborne EM data collected over the Echum Project Area, in Northwestern Ontario, Canada, into 3D conductivity and chargeability models. Obtaining IP physical property models from an airborne geophysical survey may result in a paradigm change in mineral exploration by pulling more information and value from airborne EM surveys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Mineral Exploration Methods and Applications 2022)

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21 pages, 8125 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Agitation Leaching Behavior of Copper–Cobalt Oxide Ores from the Democratic Republic of the Congo

by Chaozhen Zheng, Kaixi Jiang, Zhanmin Cao, Derek O. Northwood, Kristian E. Waters, Haibei Wang, Sanping Liu, Kun’e Zhu and Hao Ma

Minerals 2023, 13(6), 743; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13060743 - 30 May 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4973

Abstract

Agitation leaching is a promising technology in hydrometallurgy for treating copper–cobalt oxide ores. In this work, the behavior of oxide ores containing around 2.3% Cu and 0.3% Co received from Congo was investigated for varying particle size, acidity, pulp density, temperature, leaching time, [...] Read more.

Agitation leaching is a promising technology in hydrometallurgy for treating copper–cobalt oxide ores. In this work, the behavior of oxide ores containing around 2.3% Cu and 0.3% Co received from Congo was investigated for varying particle size, acidity, pulp density, temperature, leaching time, and reduction potential. XRD, optical microscopy (OM), and ICP-OES methods were used to examine the chemical composition, morphology, and metal content of the samples. The copper and cobalt recovery reached 88.2% and 82.5%, respectively, at room temperature, with a leaching time of 4 h, a pulp density of 33%, an acidity of 178 g/L, and no reductant. The Cu and Co remaining in the leaching residue were found to be in their sulfide forms and coated with dense and fine calcium sulfate. To improve the metal recovery, a combination of flotation and agitation leaching of the flotation tailings method was adopted, after which the Cu and Co recovery reached 96.6% and 86.0%, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface and Interface Physical Chemistry Applied to Mineral Separation and Element Extraction Processes)

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16 pages, 3473 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Pulp Chemistry Variables for Gaussian Process Prediction of Rougher Copper Recovery

by Bismark Amankwaa-Kyeremeh, Kathy Ehrig, Christopher Greet and Richmond Asamoah

Minerals 2023, 13(6), 731; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13060731 - 27 May 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1990

Abstract

Insight about the operation of froth flotation through modelling has been in existence since the early 1930s. Irrespective of the numerous industrial models that have been developed over the years, modelling of the metallurgical outputs of froth flotation often do not involve pulp [...] Read more.

Insight about the operation of froth flotation through modelling has been in existence since the early 1930s. Irrespective of the numerous industrial models that have been developed over the years, modelling of the metallurgical outputs of froth flotation often do not involve pulp chemistry variables. As such, this work investigated the influence of pulp chemistry variables (pH, Eh, dissolved oxygen and temperature) on the prediction performance of rougher copper recovery using a Gaussian process regression algorithm. Model performance assessed with linear correlation coefficient (r), root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) and scatter index (SI) indicated that pulp chemistry variables are essential in predicting rougher copper recovery, and obtaining r values > 0.98, RMSE values < 0.32, MAPE values < 0.20 and SI values < 0.0034. RNCA feature weights reveal the pulp chemistry relevance in the order dissolved oxygen > pH > Eh > temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Sensors, Machine Learning, Data Analytics, and Process Optimisation in Minerals Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)

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33 pages, 34009 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Hydrothermal Alteration in the Nevados de Chillán Geothermal System, Southern Andes: Multidisciplinary Analysis of a Fractured Reservoir

by Diego Morata, Romina Gallardo, Santiago Maza, Gloria Arancibia, Camila López-Contreras, Valentina Mura, Claudia Cannatelli and Martin Reich

Minerals 2023, 13(6), 722; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13060722 - 25 May 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3875

Abstract

The interplay between a heat source, primary plus secondary permeability, and hydrothermal fluids makes geothermal systems a highly dynamic environment where evolving physico-chemical conditions are recorded in alteration mineralogy. A comprehensive characterization of hydrothermal alteration is therefore essential to decipher the major processes [...] Read more.

The interplay between a heat source, primary plus secondary permeability, and hydrothermal fluids makes geothermal systems a highly dynamic environment where evolving physico-chemical conditions are recorded in alteration mineralogy. A comprehensive characterization of hydrothermal alteration is therefore essential to decipher the major processes associated with geothermal system development. In this study, we defined the hydrothermal mineralogical evolution of the Nevados de Chillán Geothermal System (NChGS), located in the Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ) of the central Andes, where the regional framework of the system is formed by a direct association with a currently active volcanic complex, a favorable structural control, and vertically inhibited fluid circulation. To characterize the secondary mineralogy present in the NChGS, we integrated optical petrography, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) observations, X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis, and microthermometric measurements along a drill core with a depth of 1000 m at the Nieblas-1 well. These mineralogical approaches were combined with a structural field analysis to highlight the relevance of multidisciplinary study in understanding active geothermal systems. The results indicated that the evolution of the system involved four paragenetic stages, with the main processes in each phase being the heating, boiling, and mixing of fluids and re-equilibration to new physico-chemical conditions. Additionally, three hydrothermal zones were recognized: an upper argillic section, an intermediate sub-propylitic zone, and a deep propylitic domain. Sampled thermal springs are characterized by pH values of 2.4–5.9 and high SO₄⁼ concentrations (>290 ppm). These acid-sulfate steam-heated waters suggest the contribution of primary magmatic volatiles to the hydrothermal system. Alunite recorded in the alteration halos of veinlets presents at depths of 170–230 m denote the circulation of acidic fluids at these levels which were favored by reverse faults. These findings indicate that, at this depth range, the condensation of magmatic volatiles into shallow aquifers controls the recharge area of the superficial thermal manifestations. Conversely, deep-seated hydrothermal fluids correspond to near-neutral chloride fluids, with salinities ranging from 0.1 to 6.9 wt.% NaCl eq. The distribution of illite/smectite and chlorite/smectite mixed-layered minerals outline the presence of a significant clay cap, which, in this system, separates the steam-heated domain from the deep hydrothermal realm and restricts fluid circulation to existing permeable channels. Our mineralogical and structural study provides critical data for the interpretation of heat–fluid–rock interaction processes in the NChGS. The interplay between hydrothermal fluids and active faults is also discussed in the context of the complex of geological processes in active geothermal systems along the Chilean Southern Volcanic Zone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fluid Geochemistry and Mineralogy in Volcanic/Hydrothermal Environments)

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12 pages, 6001 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Study on the Aeromagnetic System between Fixed-Wing UAV and Unmanned Helicopter

by Yong-Zai Xi, Gui-Xiang Liao, Ning Lu, Yong-Bo Li and Shan Wu

Minerals 2023, 13(5), 700; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13050700 - 20 May 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4104

Abstract

Based on the CH-3 and WH-110A unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) platforms, we independently developed aeromagnetic systems for fixed-wing UAVs (FUAV) and modified unmanned helicopters (MUH), respectively. These systems overcome key technological challenges in system integration, aeromagnetic compensation, and electromagnetic (EM) compatibility. We conducted [...] Read more.

Based on the CH-3 and WH-110A unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) platforms, we independently developed aeromagnetic systems for fixed-wing UAVs (FUAV) and modified unmanned helicopters (MUH), respectively. These systems overcome key technological challenges in system integration, aeromagnetic compensation, and electromagnetic (EM) compatibility. We conducted a 1:100,000 aeromagnetic test using both systems in a tidal flat area in Jiangsu province, China. Both systems successfully completed 240 line km measurement lines and collected high-quality data with magnetic compensation accuracies of 0.01428 nT and 0.04690 nT, respectively. The dynamic noise was below 0.14 nT, accounting for 95.72% and 100% of the measurements. These results indicate that both systems offer high measurement accuracy, efficiency, low cost, convenience, and flexibility. We compared the two aeromagnetic systems based on their system parameters, integration modes, magnetic compensation methods and effects, and practical applications. By comprehensively analyzing their characteristics and application fields, we provide guidance for UAV-based aeromagnetic surveys in mineral exploration, basic geological survey and other related fields. And the FUAV and MUH aeromagnetic systems presented in this paper serve as a valuable reference for future research in this area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gravity and Magnetic Methods in Mineral Exploration)

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31 pages, 33833 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Genesis of Agates from Chihuahua, Northern Mexico

by Maximilian Mrozik, Jens Götze, Yuanming Pan and Robert Möckel

Minerals 2023, 13(5), 687; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13050687 - 18 May 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5006

Abstract

The present study aimed to investigate the genesis and characteristics of some of the world-famous agate deposits in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico (Rancho Coyamito, Ojo Laguna, Moctezuma, Huevos del Diablo, Agua Nueva). Geochemical and textural studies of host rocks showed that all [...] Read more.

The present study aimed to investigate the genesis and characteristics of some of the world-famous agate deposits in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico (Rancho Coyamito, Ojo Laguna, Moctezuma, Huevos del Diablo, Agua Nueva). Geochemical and textural studies of host rocks showed that all the studied deposits are related to the same rock type within the geological unit of Rancho el Agate andesite, a quartz-free latite that shows clear indications of magma mixing. As a result of their large-scale distribution and various differentiation processes, as well as transport separation, different textures and local chemical differences between rocks of different localities can be observed. These differences have also influenced the properties of SiO₂ mineralization in the rocks. The mixing of near-surface fluids from rock alterations with magmatic hydrothermal solutions led to the accumulation of various elements in the SiO₂ matrix of the agates, which were, on the one hand, mobilized during secondary rock alteration (Fe, U, Ca, K, Al, Si) and, on the other hand, transported with magmatic fluids (Zn, Sb, Si, Zr, Cr). Different generations of chalcedony indicate a multi-stage formation as well as multiple cycles of filling the cavities with fluids. The hydrothermal fluids are presumably related to the residual solutions of a rhyolitic volcanism, which followed the latitic extrusions in the area and probably caused the formation of polymetallic ore deposits in the Chihuahua area. The enrichment of highly immobile elements indicates the involvement of volatile fluids in the agate formation. The vivid colors of the agates are almost exclusively due to various mineral inclusions, which consist mainly of iron compounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Origin of Agate: An Ongoing Challenge)

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14 pages, 5951 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Melting Behaviour under Pressure of Kaolinite Clay: A Nanoscale Study

by Brahim Khalil Benazzouz and Ali Zaoui

Minerals 2023, 13(5), 679; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13050679 - 16 May 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2558

Abstract

In this study, the curves of variation of melting temperature as a function of pressure were determined for pressures up to 20 GPa using molecular dynamics (MD) calculations. The CLAYFF force field is used for the simulated PT curve of the clay kaolinite [...] Read more.

In this study, the curves of variation of melting temperature as a function of pressure were determined for pressures up to 20 GPa using molecular dynamics (MD) calculations. The CLAYFF force field is used for the simulated PT curve of the clay kaolinite structure. For this purpose, we have adopted the Z-method to determine the melting point (Tm) and superheat limit temperature (TLS) for different densities in kaolinite clay. In addition, various quantities, such as the radial distribution function (RDF), the mean square displacement (MSD), and the diffusion coefficient were evaluated in order to ensure the solid behaviour at the superheat limit temperature and the liquid behaviour at the melting point for the equilibrated structure of kaolinite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Clays and Engineered Mineral Materials)

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34 pages, 31258 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mineralogy and Distribution of REE in Oxidised Ores of the Mount Weld Laterite Deposit, Western Australia

by Nigel J. Cook, Cristiana L. Ciobanu, Benjamin P. Wade, Sarah E. Gilbert and Robert Alford

Minerals 2023, 13(5), 656; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13050656 - 10 May 2023

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 8438

Abstract

The Mount Weld rare earth element (REE) deposit, Western Australia, is one of the largest of its type on Earth. Current mining exploits the high-grade weathered goethite-bearing resource that lies above, and which represents the weathering product of a subjacent carbonatite. The mineralogy, [...] Read more.

The Mount Weld rare earth element (REE) deposit, Western Australia, is one of the largest of its type on Earth. Current mining exploits the high-grade weathered goethite-bearing resource that lies above, and which represents the weathering product of a subjacent carbonatite. The mineralogy, petrography, deportment of lanthanides among the different components, and variation in mineral speciation, textures, and chemistry are examined. Microanalysis, involving scanning electron microscope (SEM) imaging, electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) and laser ablation inductively coupled-plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), was conducted on sized fractions of three crushed and ground laterite ore samples from current and planned production, and a representative sample from the underlying carbonatite. High-magnification imaging of particles in laterite samples show that individual REE-bearing phases are fine-grained and extend in size well below the micron-scale. Nanoscale inclusions of REE-phosphates are observed in apatite, Fe-(Mn)-(hydr)oxides, and quartz, among others. These have the appearance, particularly in fluorapatite, of pervasive, ultrafine dusty domains. Apart from the discrete REE minerals and abundant nano- to micron-scale inclusions in gangue, all ore components analysed by LA-ICP-MS contain trace to minor levels of REEs within their structures. This includes apatite, where low levels of REE are confirmed in preserved igneous apatite, but also Fe- and Mn-(hydr)oxides in which concentrations of hundreds, even thousands of ppm are measured. This is significant given that Fe-(Mn)-(hydr)oxides are the most abundant component of the laterite and points to extensive mobility and redistribution of REEs, and especially HREE, during progressive lateritisation. Late-formed minerals, notably tiny grains of cerianite, reflect a shift to oxidising conditions. REE-fluorocarbonates are the main host for REEs in carbonatite and are systematically replaced by hydrated, Ca-bearing REE-phosphates (largely rhabdophane). The latter displays varied compositions but is characteristically enriched in HREE relative to monazite in the same sample. Fine-grained, compositionally heterogeneous rhabdophane is accompanied by minor amounts of other paragenetically late, hydrated phosphates with enhanced MREE/HREE relative to LREE (although still LREE-dominant). Minor, relict xenotime and zircon are significant HREE carriers. Ilmenite and pyrochlore group members contain REE but contribute only negligibly to the overall REE budget. Although the proportions of individual mineral species differ, the chemistry of key ore components are similar in different laterite samples from the current resource. Mineral signatures are, however, subtly different in the lower grade southeastern part of the deposit, including higher concentrations of HREE relative to LREE in monazite, rhabdophane, florencite and Fe-(Mn)-(hydr)oxides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Origin, Mobility and Concentration of the Rare Earth Elements in the Crust)

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10 pages, 1625 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Recovered Fly Ashes as an Anthropogenic Raw Material

by Alicja Uliasz-Bocheńczyk and Eugeniusz Mokrzycki

Minerals 2023, 13(5), 623; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13050623 - 29 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2455

Abstract

Poland is a country where the commercial power industry mainly uses coal to produce energy. As a result of energy production processes, by-products of combustion are generated, primarily fly ashes. In Poland, these are mostly obtained from conventional coal combustion boilers. Fly ashes [...] Read more.

Poland is a country where the commercial power industry mainly uses coal to produce energy. As a result of energy production processes, by-products of combustion are generated, primarily fly ashes. In Poland, these are mostly obtained from conventional coal combustion boilers. Fly ashes from coal combustion account for 1.2% of all industrial waste generated in Poland. In addition, fly ashes are produced by fluidized-bed boilers. These are classified as a mixture of fly ashes and solid calcium-based reaction waste from flue-gas desulphurization, and constitute almost 2% of Polish industrial waste. This paper describes the amounts of fly ashes generated in Poland and considers activities related to their recovery and disposal. The high recovery levels of fly ashes (about 90%) and fluidized ashes (about 98%) mean that these waste products can also be considered anthropogenic raw materials. The use of these materials in the cement industry is an example of industrial symbiosis. Such usage benefits not only the economy but also the environment and, therefore, society as a whole. To describe the use of recovered fly ashes in cement plants, the authors use the anthropogenicity index, which characterizes the level of technological advancement and the substitutability of primary raw materials for secondary raw materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fly Ashes: Characterization, Processing and Utilization)

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19 pages, 14163 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Petrogenesis of Early Triassic Felsic Volcanic Rocks in the East Kunlun Orogen, Northern Tibet: Implications for the Paleo-Tethyan Tectonic and Crustal Evolution

by Dongdong Yan, Zhiqiang Chu, Zhongyuan Liu, Wei Wang and Fuhao Xiong

Minerals 2023, 13(5), 607; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13050607 - 27 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2732

Abstract

The felsic volcanic rocks in orogenic belts are vital probes to understand the tectonic evolution and continental crust growth. Here, we present a comprehensive study on the zircon U–Pb geochronology, whole-rock geochemistry, and zircon Lu-Hf isotopes of Early felsic volcanic rocks from the [...] Read more.

The felsic volcanic rocks in orogenic belts are vital probes to understand the tectonic evolution and continental crust growth. Here, we present a comprehensive study on the zircon U–Pb geochronology, whole-rock geochemistry, and zircon Lu-Hf isotopes of Early felsic volcanic rocks from the Hongshuichuan Formation, East Kunlun Orogen, Northern Tibet, aiming to explore their petrogenesis and implications for the Paleo-Tethyan orogeny and crustal evolution. The studied felsic volcanics comprise rhyolite porphyry and rhyolite, exhibiting coeval zircon U–Pb ages of ca. 247–251 Ma. Rhyolite porphyries show metaluminous to peraluminous nature (A/CNK = 0.88–1.24) with high SiO₂ contents (72.1–78.9 wt%) and moderate Mg^# values (22–40), and they display enrichment of LREE with (La/Yb)_N ratios of 6.02–17.9 and depletion of high field strength elements. In comparison, the rhyolites are strongly peraluminous (A/CNK = 1.09–1.74) with high SiO₂ contents (71.7–74.3 wt%) and high Mg^# values (43–52) and are also enriched in LREE ((La/Yb)_N of 6.65–18.4) and depleted in HFSE (e.g., Nb, Ta, Ti). Combining with their different zircon Lu-Hf isotopes, i.e., enriched isotopes for the rhyolite porphyries (εHf(t) = −7.3 to −3.8) and depleted Hf isotopes for the rhyolites (ɛHf = −0.6 to +3.0), we interpret that the studied rhyolite porphyries and rhyolites were derived by partial melting of Mesoproterozoic metagreywacke sources followed by plagioclase-dominated fractional crystallization, but the latter shows the significant contribution of crust–mantle magma mixing. The mixed mantle-derived magma comes from an enriched lithospheric mantle source that had been metasomatized by subduction-related fluids. Combining with other geological evidence, we propose that the studied Early Triassic felsic volcanic rocks were formed in a subduction arc setting, and the reworking of ancient continental crust with crust–mantle magma mixing is the major mechanism of crustal evolution in the East Kunlun Paleo-Tethyan orogenic belt. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tectono-Magmatic Evolution and Metallogeny of Tethyan Orogenic Belts)

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18 pages, 10029 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Preparation and Properties of Phosphoric Acid-Based Porous Geopolymer with High Magnesium Nickel Slag and Fly Ash

by Xingchun Yang, Yuan Wu, Zhigao Sun, Yufeng Li, Dongsheng Jia, Dongliang Zhang, Dehua Xiong and Mitang Wang

Minerals 2023, 13(4), 564; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13040564 - 17 Apr 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3864

Abstract

Phosphoric acid-based porous geopolymers were prepared by two different foaming agents (H₂O₂ and Al powder) with phosphoric acid as the activator. High-magnesium nickel slag (HMNS) and fly ash (FA) were the precursor combination. The effects of foaming agent types and [...] Read more.

Phosphoric acid-based porous geopolymers were prepared by two different foaming agents (H₂O₂ and Al powder) with phosphoric acid as the activator. High-magnesium nickel slag (HMNS) and fly ash (FA) were the precursor combination. The effects of foaming agent types and contents on the properties of HMNS-FA-phosphate-based porous geopolymers were investigated in terms of dry density, pore structure, compressive strength, thermal conductivity, and water absorption. The phase was analyzed by x-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). It was found that both foaming agents could successfully prepare porous geopolymers, and the compressive strength and dry density of porous geopolymers gradually decreased and the low-thermal conductivity and water absorption gradually increased with the increase in foaming agent content. The foaming agents formed porous structures inside porous geopolymers but did not affect the phases of geopolymerization reactions. This study demonstrates that both foaming agents can be used to prepare HMNS-FA-phosphate-based porous geopolymers for the application of phosphate-activated geopolymers in the direction of refractory materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metallurgical Solid Waste: Mineralogy, Chemistry and Application/Treatment)

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26 pages, 8815 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Timing of Transition from Proto- to Paleo-Tethys: Evidence from the Early Devonian Bimodal Volcanics in the North Qaidam Tectonic Belt, Northern Tibetan Plateau

by Mao Wang, Xianzhi Pei, Ruibao Li, Lei Pei, Zuochen Li, Chengjun Liu, Lili Xu and Hao Lin

Minerals 2023, 13(4), 532; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13040532 - 10 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2659

Abstract

The transition from the Proto- to the Paleo-Tethys is still a controversial issue. This study reports a new petrology, zircon U–Pb geochronology, and whole-rock geochemistry of volcanic rocks from the Maoniushan Formation in the Nankeke area, northern Qaidam (NQ) of the Tibetan Plateau, [...] Read more.

The transition from the Proto- to the Paleo-Tethys is still a controversial issue. This study reports a new petrology, zircon U–Pb geochronology, and whole-rock geochemistry of volcanic rocks from the Maoniushan Formation in the Nankeke area, northern Qaidam (NQ) of the Tibetan Plateau, to provide new evidence for the transition from the Proto- to the Paleo-Tethys oceans. The volcanic suite consists mainly of rhyolitic crystal lithic tuff lavas and minor basalts. Zircon U–Pb data indicate that the bimodal volcanic rocks were formed during the Early Devonian (ca. 410–409 Ma). Geochemically, the basalts have low contents of SiO₂ (48.92 wt.%–51.19 wt.%) and relatively high contents of MgO (8.94 wt.%–9.99 wt.%), TiO₂ (1.05 wt.%–1.29 wt.%), K₂O (2.35 wt.%–4.17 wt.%), and K₂O/Na₂O ratios (1.04–2.56), showing the characteristics of calc-alkaline basalts. Their rare earth element (REE) patterns and trace element spider diagrams are characterized by enrichments in LREEs (LREE/HREE = 18.31–21.34) and large ion lithophile elements (LILEs; Rb, Th, and K) and depletion in high-field-strength elements (HFSEs; Nb, Ta, P, and Ti), with slight negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.82–0.86), which are similar to Etendeka continental flood basalts (CFB). These features suggest that the basalts were most likely derived from low degree (1%–5%) partial melting of the asthenospheric mantle, contaminated by small volumes of continental crust. In contrast, the felsic volcanics have high SiO₂ (68.41 wt.%–77.12 wt.%), variable Al₂O₃ (9.56 wt.%–12.62 wt.%), low MgO, and A/CNK ratios mostly between 1.08 and 1.15, defining their peraluminous and medium-K calc-alkaline signatures. Their trace element signatures show enrichments of LREEs and LILEs (e.g., Rb, Th, U, K, and Pb), depletion of HFSEs (e.g., Nb, Ti, Ta, and P), and negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.22–0.66). These features suggest that the felsic volcanics were derived from partial melting of the middle crust, without interaction with mantle melts. Considering all the previous data and geochemical features, the Maoniushan Formation volcanic rocks in NQ formed in a post-collisional extensional setting associated with asthenospheric mantle upwelling and delamination in the Early Devonian. Together with the regional data, this study proposed that the Proto-Tethys Ocean had closed and evolved to the continental subduction/collision orogeny stage during the Middle to Late Ordovician, evolved to the post-collisional extensional stage in the Early Devonian, and finally formed the Zongwulong Ocean (branches of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean) in the Late Carboniferous, forming the tectonic framework of the Paleo-Tethys Archipelagic Ocean in the northern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Petrology, Geochemistry and Isotopes of Ophiolite and Granites in Kunlun Orogen and Adjacent Area)

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19 pages, 11662 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Fe(III) Biomineralization in the Surface Microlayer of Acid Mine Waters Catalyzed by Neustonic Fe(II)-Oxidizing Microorganisms

by Javier Sánchez-España, Andrey M. Ilin, Iñaki Yusta, Charlotte M. van der Graaf and Irene Sánchez-Andrea

Minerals 2023, 13(4), 508; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13040508 - 1 Apr 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3722

Abstract

The formation of thin mineral films or encrustations floating on the water surface of low-flow or stagnant zones of acid mine drainage (AMD)-affected streams is probably among the most exotic features that can be found in mining areas. However, most fundamental questions about [...] Read more.

The formation of thin mineral films or encrustations floating on the water surface of low-flow or stagnant zones of acid mine drainage (AMD)-affected streams is probably among the most exotic features that can be found in mining areas. However, most fundamental questions about their origin (biotic vs. abiotic), structure, mineralogy, physical stability and metal-retention capacity remain unanswered. This study aims to reveal the factors promoting their formation and to clarify their composition in detail. With this purpose, the major mineral phases were studied with XRD in surface film samples found in different mine sites of the Iberian Pyrite Belt mining district (SW Spain), and the major oxide and trace metal concentrations were measured with XRF and/or ICP-MS. Fe(III) minerals dominated these formations, with mineralogy controlled by the pH (jarosite at pH~2.0, schwertmannite at pH 2.5–3.5, ferrihydrite at pH > 6.0). Other minerals have also been identified in minor proportions, such as brushite or khademite. These mineral formations show an astounding capacity to concentrate, by orders of magnitude (×10² to ×10⁵), many different trace metals present in the underlying aqueous solutions, either as anionic complexes (e.g., U, Th, As, Cr, V, Sb, P) or as divalent metal cations (e.g., Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb). These floating mineral films are usually formed in Fe(II)-rich acidic waters, so their formation necessarily implies the oxidation of Fe(II) to Fe(III) phases. The potential involvement of Fe(II)-oxidizing microorganisms was investigated through 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing of water underneath the Fe(III)-rich floating mineral films. The sequenced reads were dominated by Ferrovum (51.7 ± 0.3%), Acidithiobacillus (18.5 ± 0.9%) and Leptospirillum (3.3 ± 0.1%), three well-known Fe(II)-oxidizing genera. These microorganisms are major contributors to the formation of the ferric mineral films, although other genera most likely also play a role in aspects such as Fe(III) sequestration, nucleation or mineral growth. The floating mineral films found in stagnant acidic mine waters represent hotspots of biosphere/hydrosphere/atmosphere interactions of great value for the study of iron biogeochemistry in redox boundaries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Environmental Mineralogy and Biogeochemistry)

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16 pages, 15588 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Characterization of Alkali Activated Materials Prepared from Continuous Attrition and Ball Milled Fly Ashes

by Jadambaa Temuujin, Batmunkh Davaabal, Ulambayar Rentsennorov, Enkhtur Odbaatar, Dashnyam Enkhbayar, Tserendagva Tsend-Ayush, Sunjidmaa Danzandorj, Claus Henning Ruescher and Kenneth J. D. MacKenzie

Minerals 2023, 13(4), 490; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13040490 - 30 Mar 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1920

Abstract

Mechanical activation is known to greatly influence the reactivity of fly ashes. In this paper, we report a comparative study of the properties of alkali-activated geopolymer materials prepared using both ball-milled and attrition-milled fly ashes. Ball milling was carried out for 30 min [...] Read more.

Mechanical activation is known to greatly influence the reactivity of fly ashes. In this paper, we report a comparative study of the properties of alkali-activated geopolymer materials prepared using both ball-milled and attrition-milled fly ashes. Ball milling was carried out for 30 min and 60 min while attrition milling was carried out continuously in a high-speed attritor. The surface area of the raw fly ash decreased from 4017 cm²/g to 3999 cm²/g and 3912 cm²/g after ball milling for 30 min and 60 min, respectively. By contrast, the surface area of the continuously attrition-milled fly ash increased to 5545 cm²/g. Fly ash processed by continuous attrition milling showed a 50% particle size reduction to 25–38 μm, whereas fly ash ball-milled for 30 and 60 min was reduced in size by 33.4 and 42.9%. The milled fly ash samples were activated with 8 M NaOH solution and cured at 40 °C for 68 h. After curing, the samples were maintained at room temperature, and their 7-, 14-, and 28-day compressive strengths were measured. The compressive strength of the attrition-milled 28-day geopolymer paste was 24.6 MPa; that of the geopolymers ball-milled for 30 and 60 min was 23.37 MPa and 17.58 MPa, respectively; and that of the unmilled control geopolymer fly-ash-based paste was 17 MPa. The improvement in the mechanical properties is attributed to the increased gel formation resulting from the increased surface area (decreased particle size) in the fly ash glass starting material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)

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21 pages, 9191 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Soil Contaminated with Hazardous Waste Materials at Rio Tinto Mine (Spain) Is a Persistent Secondary Source of Acid and Heavy Metals to the Environment

by Sandra Fernández-Landero, Juan Carlos Fernández-Caliani, María Inmaculada Giráldez, Emilio Morales, Cinta Barba-Brioso and Isabel González

Minerals 2023, 13(4), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13040456 - 23 Mar 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4819

Abstract

Mineralogical analysis and laboratory-based leaching tests coupled with speciation modeling were undertaken to quantify the potential for short-term acid generation and the release of trace elements from soils heavily contaminated with mine waste at Rio Tinto. Three different waste materials were considered as [...] Read more.

Mineralogical analysis and laboratory-based leaching tests coupled with speciation modeling were undertaken to quantify the potential for short-term acid generation and the release of trace elements from soils heavily contaminated with mine waste at Rio Tinto. Three different waste materials were considered as case studies: roasted pyrite, copper slags, and leached sulfide ores. The results showed elevated values of net acid generation (up to 663 mmol H⁺/kg), the major pools being potential sulfidic acidity and acidity retained in jarosite. Remarkable contents of As and toxic heavy metals were found especially in the slag-contaminated soil. Copper, Zn, and Pb were the most abundant metals in the acid leach solutions resulting from mine soil-water interaction, with peak values of 55.6 mg L⁻¹, 2.77 mg L⁻¹, and 2.62 mg L⁻¹, respectively. Despite the high total contents of trace elements occurring in soil, the mobile fraction was limited to maximum release values of 12.60% for Cd and 10.27% for Cu, according to the test leaching. Speciation calculations indicated that free metal ions (M²⁺) and sulfate species (MSO₄⁰) accounted for most of the dissolved load. Acid soil drainage is a secondary source of acid and heavy metals in the mine site and, therefore, an effective land reclamation program should ensure that acidity and metal mobility are reduced to environmentally sustainable levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mobility of Potentially Toxic Elements: Environmental Hazards)

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20 pages, 3154 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Treatment Technology and Research Progress of Residual Xanthate in Mineral Processing Wastewater

by Jiaqiao Yuan, Suqi Li, Zhan Ding, Jie Li, Anmei Yu, Shuming Wen and Shaojun Bai

Minerals 2023, 13(3), 435; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13030435 - 18 Mar 2023

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 5682

Abstract

Xanthate is the most widely used and effective collector in the flotation of sulfide minerals. However, the residual xanthate in flotation wastewater may cause serious environmental pollution and even human health hazards. At present, a variety of treatment technologies have been developed to [...] Read more.

Xanthate is the most widely used and effective collector in the flotation of sulfide minerals. However, the residual xanthate in flotation wastewater may cause serious environmental pollution and even human health hazards. At present, a variety of treatment technologies have been developed to degrade xanthate pollutants in wastewater, with the aim of meeting safe discharge standards. This work reviews the research status of xanthate wastewater treatment technologies in recent years. Treatment technologies are evaluated, including coagulation flocculation, adsorption, microbiological, Fenton, ozone oxidation, and photocatalytic methods. The reaction mechanisms and advantages, as well as disadvantages, of the various treatment technologies are summarized. Future research on the treatment of xanthate wastewater should focus on combined methods, which will be conducive to achieving a high efficiency and low cost, with no secondary pollution, and with the aim of generating further original and innovative technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clean Utilization of Nonferrous Metal Resources)

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15 pages, 4047 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Cementitious Backfill with Partial Replacement of Cu-Rich Mine Tailings by Sand: Rheological, Mechanical and Microstructural Properties

by Nihat Utku Guner, Erol Yilmaz, Muhammet Sari and Tugrul Kasap

Minerals 2023, 13(3), 437; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13030437 - 18 Mar 2023

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3262

Abstract

The thinning of tailings gradation during ore processing leads to a sizeable fall in the strength of cementitious paste backfill (CPB), increases operational risks, and encourages researchers to use alternative economic products. This study aims to increase the strength performance by improving CPB’s [...] Read more.

The thinning of tailings gradation during ore processing leads to a sizeable fall in the strength of cementitious paste backfill (CPB), increases operational risks, and encourages researchers to use alternative economic products. This study aims to increase the strength performance by improving CPB’s gradation while cutting costs and reducing the sum of the binder employed per unit volume. An evolution of the slump/strength/structural properties of sand-substituted CPBs was explored experimentally. Samples were made with a fixed cement content (7 wt.%), diverse tailings/sand fractions (e.g., 100/0, 90/10, 80/20, 70/30, and 50/50), and diverse solid contents (e.g., 72 and 76 wt.%). After curing for 3–56 days, several experiments, such as slump, uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), were undertaken for the filling samples. The results demonstrate that adding sand to the backfill greatly increases CPB’s strength (up to 99%), but the replacement rate of sand was limited to 30% due to its segregation effect. Microstructural tests reveal that CPB’s void volume decreases as the added amount of sand increases. To sum up, it was concluded that calcareous sand made a major contribution to the filling strength, incorporating the effects of enhancing the fill gradation’s readjustment and reducing the sum of cement being used in the unit volume for CPB manufacturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solid-Filling Technology in Coal Mining)

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17 pages, 13739 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Rheological and Strength Properties of Steel-Slag Cemented Paste Backfill: Link to Gypsum Type and Dosage

by Fan Wu, Bolin Xiao and Faguang Yang

Minerals 2023, 13(3), 421; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13030421 - 16 Mar 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2427

Abstract

This paper aims to study the effects of gypsum type and dosage on the rheological and strength properties of steel-slag cemented paste backfill (SSB-CPB) using fluorogypsum (FG), phosphogypsum (PG), and desulfurization gypsum (DG). Experimental results indicate that the yield stress and the viscosity [...] Read more.

This paper aims to study the effects of gypsum type and dosage on the rheological and strength properties of steel-slag cemented paste backfill (SSB-CPB) using fluorogypsum (FG), phosphogypsum (PG), and desulfurization gypsum (DG). Experimental results indicate that the yield stress and the viscosity of fresh SSB-CPB are the smallest when using FG, followed by PG, and the highest when using DG. The strength of hardened SSB-CPB is the lowest when using PG, regardless of curing time, and is the highest when using DG after 3 and 7 days of curing or FG after 14 and 28 days of curing. With the increase of DG dosage, yield stress and viscosity of fresh CPB increase, while the strength of hardened CPB first increases and then decreases. For the rheological properties, the zeta potential changes the yield stress of fresh SSB-CPB, while the internal particle size and pH affect its viscosity. For the strength property, regardless of the effect of gypsum type or dosage, the changes in the results of microscopic experiments for hardened paste and SSB-CPB are critical indicators that the strength of SSB-CPB varies. When steel slag dosage is 35%, the best gypsum dosage is 24% and gypsum type is DG in the SSB for backfill. The findings of this study contribute to an enhanced understanding of the backfill binder material, which has beneficials of lower greenhouse gas emission, avoidance of natural raw materials excavation, saving environmental taxes, and reducing backfill costs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cemented Mine Waste Backfill: Experiment and Modelling)

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22 pages, 851 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Potential Future Alternative Resources for Rare Earth Elements: Opportunities and Challenges

by Vysetti Balaram

Minerals 2023, 13(3), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13030425 - 16 Mar 2023

Cited by 76 | Viewed by 19403

Abstract

Currently, there is an increasing industrial demand for rare earth elements (REE) as these elements are now integral to the manufacture of many carbon-neutral technologies. The depleting REE ores and increasing mining costs are prompting us to consider alternative sources for these valuable [...] Read more.

Currently, there is an increasing industrial demand for rare earth elements (REE) as these elements are now integral to the manufacture of many carbon-neutral technologies. The depleting REE ores and increasing mining costs are prompting us to consider alternative sources for these valuable metals, particularly from waste streams. Although REE concentrations in most of the alternative resources are lower than current REE ores, some sources including marine sediments, coal ash, and industrial wastes, such as red mud, are emerging as promising with significant concentrations of REE. This review focuses on the alternative resources for REE, such as ocean bottom sediments, continental shelf sediments, river sediments, stream sediments, lake sediments, phosphorite deposits, industrial waste products, such as red mud and phosphogypsum, coal, coal fly ash and related materials, waste rock sources from old and closed mines, acid mine drainage, and recycling of e-waste. Possible future Moon exploration and mining for REE and other valuable minerals are also discussed. It is evident that REE extractions from both primary and secondary ores alone are not adequate to meet the current demand, and sustainable REE recovery from the alternative resources described here is also necessary to meet the growing REE demand. An attempt is made to identify the potential of these alternative resources and sustainability challenges, benefits, and possible environmental hazards to meet the growing challenges of reaching the future REE requirements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Earth Elements: Occurrence, Exploration, Alternate Resources, Extraction Techniques, Chemical Characterization and Recycling)

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14 pages, 3295 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

KOH-Based Hydrothermal Synthesis of Iron-Rich Titanate Nanosheets Assembled into 3D Hierarchical Architectures from Natural Ilmenite Mineral Sands

by Karina J. Lagos, Bojan A. Marinkovic, Anja Dosen, Alexis Debut, Karla Vizuete, Victor H. Guerrero, Emilio Pardo and Patricia I. Pontón

Minerals 2023, 13(3), 406; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13030406 - 15 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2827

Abstract

The synthesis of titanate nanostructures from low-cost mineral precursors is a topic of continuous interest, considering not only their fundamental aspects but also the benefits of incorporating such nanomaterials in a wide variety of applications. In this work, iron-rich titanate nanosheets were synthesized [...] Read more.

The synthesis of titanate nanostructures from low-cost mineral precursors is a topic of continuous interest, considering not only their fundamental aspects but also the benefits of incorporating such nanomaterials in a wide variety of applications. In this work, iron-rich titanate nanosheets were synthesized from Ecuadorian ilmenite sands (ilmenite–hematite solid solution-IHSS) through an alkaline hydrothermal treatment (AHT) using potassium hydroxide (KOH). The effect of the duration of the KOH-AHT was assessed at 180 °C for 24, 48, 72, and 96 h. The morphology evolution over time and the plausible formation mechanisms of titanate nanostructures were discussed. The most significant morphological transformation was observed after 72 h. At this time interval, the titanate nanostructures were assembled into well-defined 3D hierarchical architectures such as book-block-like arrangements with open channels. Based on X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), selected area electron diffraction (SAED), and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) analyses, it was determined that these nanostructures correspond to iron-rich layered titanates (Fe/Ti mass ratio of 7.1). Moreover, it was evidenced that the conversion of the precursor into layered nanostructures was not complete, since for all the tested reaction times the presence of remaining IHSS was identified. Our experiments demonstrated that the Ecuadorian ilmenite sands are relatively stable in KOH medium. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Mineral Processing and Process Engineering)

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26 pages, 9629 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Chemical Modification of Lherzolite Xenoliths Due to Interaction with Host Basanite Melt: Evidence from Tumusun Volcano, Baikal Rift Zone

by Marina A. Gornova, Vasiliy A. Belyaev, Anas A. Karimov, Alexander B. Perepelov and Sergei I. Dril

Minerals 2023, 13(3), 403; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13030403 - 14 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1930

Abstract

To investigate the process and chemistry of mineral reaction zone formation, we conducted detailed petrographic observations and chemical analysis of rocks and minerals of spinel lherzolite xenoliths from basanites of Tumusun volcano (Baikal Rift Zone). The reaction zones gradually disappear from contact toward [...] Read more.

To investigate the process and chemistry of mineral reaction zone formation, we conducted detailed petrographic observations and chemical analysis of rocks and minerals of spinel lherzolite xenoliths from basanites of Tumusun volcano (Baikal Rift Zone). The reaction zones gradually disappear from contact toward the center of the xenoliths. The influence of basanite melt on major and trace element composition of secondary minerals of reaction zones is notable only at a distance up to 100–200 μm from the contact. At a distance of 0.3–1.0 mm from the contact, the major and trace composition of secondary clinopyroxenes from the orthopyroxene reaction zone indicates their formation from a melt formed by dissolution of orthopyroxene and influenced by the element diffusion from basanite melt. Inside xenoliths, the secondary minerals have Mg# values equal to or higher than Mg# of primary minerals, and secondary clinopyroxenes inherit their depleted or enriched REE pattern from primary pyroxenes. The compositional variations in secondary clinopyroxenes testify melt heterogeneity. Clinopyroxene rims have slightly higher LILE and similar abundances of other trace elements compared to clinopyroxene cores. This is consistent with the model developed from experimental studies: due to the interaction with basanite, incongruent dissolution of orthopyroxene occurs to form a melt which circulates in lherzolite and leads to pyroxenes and spinel dissolution. Diffusion of elements from basanite results in lherzolite enrichment in K, Na, Rb, Ba, La, and Ce, which are incorporated in feldspars and clinopyroxene of reaction zones as well as in feldspar veinlets. Non-dissolved mineral cores are homogenous and similar in major and trace element composition to primary minerals without reaction rims. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Origin and Evolution of Deep-Seated Melts and Their Interactions with the Lithospheric Mantle)

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29 pages, 13162 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Diagenesis, Diagenetic Facies and Their Relationship with Reservoir Sweet Spot in Low-Permeability and Tight Sandstone: Jiaxing Area of the Xihu Sag, East China Sea Basin

by Wenguang Wang, Chengyan Lin, Xianguo Zhang, Chunmei Dong, Lihua Ren and Jianli Lin

Minerals 2023, 13(3), 404; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13030404 - 14 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2856

Abstract

The optimization of reservoir sweet spots is the key to the efficient exploration and development of low-permeability and tight sandstone gas reservoirs. However, offshore deep, low-permeability and tight sandstone has the characteristics of large burial depth, large diagenesis heterogeneity and prominent importance of [...] Read more.

The optimization of reservoir sweet spots is the key to the efficient exploration and development of low-permeability and tight sandstone gas reservoirs. However, offshore deep, low-permeability and tight sandstone has the characteristics of large burial depth, large diagenesis heterogeneity and prominent importance of diagenetic facies, which make it difficult to predict reservoir sweet spots. This work comprehensively used logging data, core observation, conventional core analysis, thin section, powder particle size analysis, clay X-ray diffraction analysis, cathode luminescence analysis, scanning electron microscopy and energy spectrum analysis and carried out the study of diagenesis, diagenetic facies and reservoir sweet spots of low-permeability and tight sandstone of H3 and H4 (the third and fourth members of Huagang Formation) members in the Jiaxing area of the Xihu Sag. The results show that the H3 and H4 sandstones were divided into five diagenetic facies types, and chlorite-coated facies and dissolution facies were favorable diagenetic facies belts. The H3 member mainly develops chlorite-coated facies, dissolution facies and quartz-cemented facies, whereas the H4 member primarily develops quartz-cemented facies and chlorite-coated facies. The percentages of type I sweet spot, type II₁ sweet spot and type II₂ sweet spot in the H3 reservoir are approximately 21%, 23% and 26%, respectively, whereas the percentages of type I sweet spot, type II₁ sweet spot and type II₂ sweet spot in the H4 reservoir are about 16%, 15% and 16%, respectively. The distribution rules of reservoir sweet spots were investigated. Type I sweet spot was mainly developed in the areas of chlorite-coated facies and dissolution facies of medium sandstone and coarse sandstone in the channel bar and braided channel sedimentary microfacies. Type II sweet spot was primarily distributed in the areas of quartz-cemented facies, chlorite-coated facies and minor dissolution facies of medium sandstone, fine sandstone and sandy conglomerate in the braided channel, subaqueous distributary channel and channel bar sedimentary microfacies. Type III sweet spot was chiefly developed in the areas of tightly compacted facies, calcite-cemented facies and quartz-cemented facies of fine sandstone, siltstone and a small amount of sandy conglomerate in the subaqueous distributary channel sedimentary microfacies. Full article

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15 pages, 12427 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Impact of Hydrothermal Fluids on Porosity Enhancement and Hydrocarbon Migration in Qamchuqa Formation, Lower Cretaceous, Kirkuk Oil Company

by Namam M. Salih

Minerals 2023, 13(3), 377; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13030377 - 8 Mar 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2669

Abstract

The Lower Cretaceous reservoir core samples from the upper part of Qamchuqa Formation, Baba Dome, Kirkuk Oil Company, show evidence for multistage episodes of dolomitization and a complex diagenetic history. Optical microscope reveals muti-phase of diagenesis: an early stage of diagenesis and its [...] Read more.

The Lower Cretaceous reservoir core samples from the upper part of Qamchuqa Formation, Baba Dome, Kirkuk Oil Company, show evidence for multistage episodes of dolomitization and a complex diagenetic history. Optical microscope reveals muti-phase of diagenesis: an early stage of diagenesis and its alteration, later, by evaporated seawater under near-surface setting conditions, followed by different event of dolomitization. The stylolite microstructures postdate anhydrite and early matrix dolomite crystals (DI) and predated the coarse rhombohedral (DII) and saddle dolomite crystals (SD), which were formed under a deep burial realm. High-resolution data from stable isotopes integrated with intensive optical observation, ImageJ software, and litho-log are utilized to establish a qualified methods for mapping a better image of hydrothermal diagenesis under subsurface conditions. These methods revealed different types of dolomites, mostly focused on fractures and void spaces, and the paragenetic sequence shows the complex history of diagenetic carbonate rocks hosted in the limestone of Qamchuqa Formation. The sequence is started from older to younger as follow: Micritization, early anhydrite mineral formation, early dolomite, stylolization, rhombohedral dolomite, and saddle dolomite crystals. The early dolomite phase is usually corroded by hydrocarbon phase, and, geometrically, the hydrocarbon phase is overgrown by the early dolomite. Therefore, the dolomitizing fluids enhanced the porosity system and had positive impact on the hydrocarbon movement. This phase of dolomite and anhydrite formation were associated with the first groups of δ¹⁸OVPDB and δ¹³CVPDB data, a narrow range of oxygen values, and inverse Js of Lohmann curve fits towards the near-surface and shallow diagenetic settings. Detailed optical microscope and supportive data from oxygen-carbon isotopes of saddle dolomite confirm the presence of hot fluids under subsurface condition. The latter data were supported by light δ¹⁸OVPDB and constant heavy δ¹³CVPDB, which indicates a hot fluid possibly circulated in deep burial conditions, and this is channeled along the fracture and pore spaces, consistent with hydrocarbon migration. These pore spaces influenced by leaching were hydrocarbon migrations associated with hot fluids under deep sitting conditions. However, a remarkable part of pristine microfacies of host limestone was preserved. In summary, this study will add a new understanding and insight into the origin, genesis, and timing of these dolomites and their direct connection to hydrocarbon exploration and development in most reservoir oil rocks, which are exposed to hydrothermal fluids. Additionally, the study adds new data on hydrothermal fluids in subsurface conditions, whereas most of the previous reported work has mostly focused on exposed rock. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Economic Mineral Deposits: A Review)

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19 pages, 26315 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Significance of Secondary Fe-Oxide and Fe-Sulfide Minerals in Upper Peak Ring Suevite from the Chicxulub Impact Structure

by Christina M. Verhagen, Ji-In Jung, Sonia M. Tikoo, Axel Wittmann, David A. Kring, Stefanie Brachfeld, Laying Wu, Dale H. Burns and Sean P. S. Gulick

Minerals 2023, 13(3), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13030353 - 2 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4327

Abstract

The suevite (polymict melt rock-bearing breccia) composing the upper peak ring of the Chicxulub impact crater is extremely heterogeneous, containing a combination of relict clasts and secondary minerals. Using scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), [...] Read more.

The suevite (polymict melt rock-bearing breccia) composing the upper peak ring of the Chicxulub impact crater is extremely heterogeneous, containing a combination of relict clasts and secondary minerals. Using scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), we investigated the nature and occurrence of primary and secondary Fe-oxide and Fe-sulfide minerals to better understand hydrothermal trends such as mineral precipitation and dissolution, and to document the remobilization of Fe and associated siderophile elements within suevites. Large primary Fe-oxides (~20–100 µm) reveal decomposition and dissolution patterns, forming sub-micrometer to micrometer Fe-oxide phases. Secondary sub-micrometer Fe-oxide crystals are also visibly concentrated within clay. The occurrence of Fe-oxide crystals within clay suggests that these likely formed at temperatures ≤100 °C, near the formation temperature of smectite. The formation of Fe-oxide minerals on clay surfaces is of interest as it may form a micro-setting, where free electrons (from the oxidation of Fe²⁺) and the adsorption of simple organic molecules on the surface of clay could generate reactive conditions favorable to microbial communities. Primary and secondary Fe-sulfide minerals exhibiting a variety of morphologies are present within samples, representing different formation mechanisms. Secondary Fe-sulfide minerals occur within rims of clasts and vesicles and in fractures and voids. Some secondary Fe-sulfide grains are associated with Ni- and Co-rich phases, potentially reflecting the post-impact migration of siderophile elements within the suevite of the Chicxulub crater. Full article

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21 pages, 5294 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Petrogenesis and Tectonic Implications of the Cryogenian I-Type Granodiorites from Gabgaba Terrane (NE Sudan)

by Mabrouk Sami, Munir M. A. Adam, Xinbiao Lv, El Saeed R. Lasheen, Antoaneta Ene, Hesham M. H. Zakaly, Saad S. Alarifi, Nasser M. Mahdy, Abdel Rahman A. Abdel Rahman, Adil Saeed, Esam S. Farahat, Douaa Fathy and Shehata Ali

Minerals 2023, 13(3), 331; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13030331 - 27 Feb 2023

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3749

Abstract

The widely distributed granitic intrusions in the Nubian Shield can provide comprehensive data for understanding its crustal evolution. We present new bulk-rock geochemistry and isotopic (zircon U-Pb and Lu-Hf) data from the Haweit granodiorites in the Gabgaba Terrane (NE Sudan). The dated zircons [...] Read more.

The widely distributed granitic intrusions in the Nubian Shield can provide comprehensive data for understanding its crustal evolution. We present new bulk-rock geochemistry and isotopic (zircon U-Pb and Lu-Hf) data from the Haweit granodiorites in the Gabgaba Terrane (NE Sudan). The dated zircons presented a ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U Concordia age of 718.5 ± 2.2 Ma, indicating that they crystallized during the Cryogenian. The granodiorites contain both biotite and amphibole as the main mafic constituents. The samples exhibit metaluminous (A/CNK = 0.84–0.94) and calc-alkaline signatures. Their mineralogical composition and remarkable low P₂O₅, Zr, Ce, and Nb concentrations confirm that they belong to I-type granites. They exhibit subduction-related magma geochemical characters such as enrichment in LILEs and LREEs and depletion in HFSEs and HREEs, with a low (La/Yb)_N ratio (3.0–5.9) and apparent negative Nb anomaly. The positive Hf(t) values (+7.34 to +11.21) and young crustal model age (T_DM^C = 734–985 Ma) indicates a juvenile composition of the granodiorites. The data suggest that the Haweit granodiorites may have formed from partially melting a juvenile low-K mafic source. During subduction, the ascending asthenosphere melts might heat and partially melt the pre-existing lower crust mafic materials to generate the Haweit granodiorites in the middle segment of the Nubian Shield. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genesis of Calc-Alkaline Granitic Rocks: Evidence from Petrology and Geochemistry)

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25 pages, 16350 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Recovery of Copper and Gold from Waste Printed Circuit Boards Using Monosodium Glutamate Supplemented with Hydrogen Peroxide

by Natrawee Khetwunchai, Saengchai Akeprathumchai and Paitip Thiravetyan

Minerals 2023, 13(3), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13030321 - 24 Feb 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5963

Abstract

This study aimed to recover copper and gold from a waste printed circuit board (WPCB) using monosodium glutamate (MSG) supplemented with a clean oxidizer(s) under 30 °C, 150 rpm, and an initial pH of 7.00. The solder mask of WPCBs needed to be [...] Read more.

This study aimed to recover copper and gold from a waste printed circuit board (WPCB) using monosodium glutamate (MSG) supplemented with a clean oxidizer(s) under 30 °C, 150 rpm, and an initial pH of 7.00. The solder mask of WPCBs needed to be removed before leaching. At the first leaching, 93% of copper was selectively leached from solder–mask–free WPCBs within 3 h using 0.75 M MSG with 0.50% (w/v)

H_{2} O_{2}

. Then, gold (86%) was extracted from the first residue for 3 h by 1 M MSG with 0.25% (w/v)

H_{2} O_{2}

. In the downstream process, 98–100% copper could be directly recovered within 5–6 h from the first leachate by electrowinning (EW). However, gold in the second leachate required separation and purification processes before EW. At 4 h, 98% gold was adsorbed onto the activated carbon. Most impurities were removed from gold-loaded activated carbon by pre-elution using 0.05 M EDTA for 0.5 h without gold release. Afterward, 99% gold was eluted by diluted aqua-regia within an hour. Finally, the gold could be harvested perfectly using EW for 2 h. This complete copper and gold recycling process delivers an innovative concept for hydrometallurgical study and has the potential to develop into a practical industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermodynamics, Mechanism and Kinetics of Metallurgical Processes)

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19 pages, 4622 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Tectonic Background of Carboniferous to Early Permian Sedimentary Rocks in the East Kunlun Orogen: Constraints from Geochemistry and Geochronology

by Xiao Wang, Xianzhi Pei, Ruibao Li, Chengjun Liu, Lei Pei, Zuochen Li, Youxin Chen and Meng Wang

Minerals 2023, 13(3), 312; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13030312 - 23 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3056

Abstract

The formation of the East Kunlun Orogen (EKO) was related to the tectonic evolution of the Proto-Tethys and Paleo-Tethys Oceans. However, how the Paleo-Tethys Ocean transited from the Proto-Tethys Ocean, and whether the Paleo-Tethys Ocean subducted northward beneath the East Kunlun–Qaidam Terrane in [...] Read more.

The formation of the East Kunlun Orogen (EKO) was related to the tectonic evolution of the Proto-Tethys and Paleo-Tethys Oceans. However, how the Paleo-Tethys Ocean transited from the Proto-Tethys Ocean, and whether the Paleo-Tethys Ocean subducted northward beneath the East Kunlun–Qaidam Terrane in Carboniferous to Permian times, is still highly debated. Early Carboniferous Halaguole and Late Carboniferous to Early Permian Haoteluowa formations are extensively outcropped in the EKO, north Tibetan Plateau, and have thus recorded key information about the tectonic processes of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean that have implications for the reconstruction of the Northern Paleo-Tethys Ocean (Buqingshan Ocean). Siliciclastic rocks within these formations are collected for petrogeological, geochemical, and detrital zircon U–Pb dating research. Our results show that sandstones from Halaguole and Haoteluowa formations have an average total quartz–feldspar–lithic fragment ratio of Q₆₇F₁₂L₂₁ and Q₅₀F₂₀L₃₀, respectively, indicating relatively high compositional maturity. The geochemical results suggest that the average values of the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) are 57.83 and 64.66; together with their angular to subangular morphology, this indicates that their source rocks suffered from weak weathering and the sandstones are the result of proximal deposition. Geochemical features such as the low La/Th, TiO₂, and Ni values suggest that the parental rocks in the provenance area are mainly acidic igneous rocks with minor intermediate igneous and old sedimentary components. The detrital zircon U–Pb age spectrum of these samples is dominated by age peaks at ~405–503 Ma and ~781–999 Ma, with subordinate age peaks at ~1610–2997 Ma and ~1002–1529 Ma, which show tectono–thermal events similar to those of the North Qimatag Belt (NQB), North Kunlun Terrane (NKT), and South Kunlun Terrane (SKT). These features suggest a contribution from the Early Paleozoic magmatic arc and Proterozoic basements in the NQB, NKT, and SKT to the Halaguole and Haoteluowa formations in these areas. In addition, the youngest zircon age of ~440 Ma from these sandstones is greater than the depositional age of Halaguole and Haoteluowa formations, which is a typical basin depositional feature in a passive continental margin. Geochemical tectonic discrimination diagrams, based on a major and trace element Ti/Zr–La/Sc plot, in combination with a detrital zircon age distribution pattern, all suggest a passive continental margin setting. Considering this together with the previous data, we argue that the Paleo-Tethys Ocean did not begin to subduct northward and that there was no oceanic subduction zone in the south EKO during Carboniferous to Early Permian times. Combining this information with that from previous studies suggests that the initial opening of the Paleo-Tethyan Ocean may have occurred before the Early Carboniferous time, and all the branches of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean constituted a complex ocean–continent configuration across parts of what is now Asia during the Early Carboniferous to Early Permian. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Petrology, Geochemistry and Isotopes of Ophiolite and Granites in Kunlun Orogen and Adjacent Area)

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21 pages, 4470 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Surfactant Intercalation in Li-Al-Based Binary and Ternary Layered Double Hydroxides by the Microwave-Assisted Rapid Ion-Exchange Process and Its Application in Iodine Adsorption

by Dileep Kumar Yadav, Sitharaman Uma and Rajamani Nagarajan

Minerals 2023, 13(3), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13030303 - 21 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2745

Abstract

Recognizing the extreme speeds of reactions with microwaves, anionic forms of surfactants (sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDBS)) have been intercalated successfully by ion-exchange reactions in binary Li-Al and ternary Li-M-Al (M = Mg, Co, Ni, Cu, and Zn) layered double [...] Read more.

Recognizing the extreme speeds of reactions with microwaves, anionic forms of surfactants (sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDBS)) have been intercalated successfully by ion-exchange reactions in binary Li-Al and ternary Li-M-Al (M = Mg, Co, Ni, Cu, and Zn) layered double hydroxide (LDH) systems with the aid of microwaves. The samples have been characterized extensively. The basal spacings of 28.2 and 30.4 Å have been estimated for Li-Al-DS and Li-Al-DBS LDH samples, respectively, suggesting a perpendicular arrangement of DS⁻ and DBS⁻ anions in the interlayer space. The characteristic vibration bands of both LDH and the surfactant (DS⁻ and DBS⁻) in the FTIR spectra confirmed the binding mode of surfactant molecules within the interlayers. DS⁻-intercalated Li-Al LDH showed lower thermal stability than the DBS⁻-intercalated sample. The nitrate-intercalated Li-M-Al (M = Mg, Co, Ni, Cu, and Zn) LDHs were ion-exchanged with SDS and SDBS to yield DS⁻-and DBS⁻-intercalated systems. The expanded basal spacings and a change in crystallite morphology confirmed the vertical intercalation of DS⁻ and DBS⁻ in Li-M-Al LDHs. ICP-AES and elemental analyses determined the metal contents and the surfactant content. FTIR spectra of intercalated samples confirmed the surfactant’s presence in the interlayer. The presence of Co, Ni, and Cu in Li-M-Al LDHs has been confirmed from UV-visible spectra. The Li-Al-DBS sample adsorbed iodine efficiently from methanol solutions, and the Langmuir model could explain the adsorption data in a better way. The adsorption followed pseudo-second-order kinetics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Clays and Engineered Mineral Materials)

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20 pages, 8025 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Petrogenesis and Geochronology of A₁-Type Rhyolites in the Late Late Triassic of the East Kunlun Orogenic Belt: Constraints on the End of the Paleo-Tethys Orogenic Event

by Zuochen Li, Xianzhi Pei, Lei Pei, Chengjun Liu, Lili Xu, Ruibao Li, Hao Lin, Mao Wang, Shang Ji, Li Qin, Yajie Yang, Meng Wang, Shaowei Zhao and Youxin Chen

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020290 - 18 Feb 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2614

Abstract

The rhyolites which are widely exposed to the northern margin of the East Kunlun orogenic belt were chosen as a research object to discern the post-orogenic tectonic evolution of the East Kunlun orogenic belt and reconstruct the post-collision orogenic processes of the Buqingshan- [...] Read more.

The rhyolites which are widely exposed to the northern margin of the East Kunlun orogenic belt were chosen as a research object to discern the post-orogenic tectonic evolution of the East Kunlun orogenic belt and reconstruct the post-collision orogenic processes of the Buqingshan- A’nyemaqen Ocean. We researched zircon U-Pb ages and geochemistry characteristics of the Late Triassic rhyolites in the eastern segment of the East Kunlun Orogenic Belt in the northern Tibetan Plateau. Zircon U-Pb dating yields coeval ages of 200.4 ± 1.4 Ma and 202.8 ± 1.2 Ma for the Keri rhyolites of the East Kunlun Orogenic Belt, indicating that the volcanic rocks were formed in the Late Triassic Rhaetian–Early Jurassic Hettangian. The Keri rhyolite is a product of the late magmatism of the Elashan Formation volcanic rocks. The rhyolites include rhyolitic brecciated tuff lavas and rhyolitic tuff lavas. The rhyolites are peraluminous and are high-K calc-alkaline, with high contents of SiO₂, K₂O, TFe₂O₃, and low P₂O₅ contents. The A/CNK ratios range from 0.97 to 1.09, indicating that the rhyolites are metaluminous to weakly peraluminous. The chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) distribution shows a significant negative Eu anomaly and low total REE concentrations. All samples are depleted in high field strength elements (HFSEs, e.g., Eu, Sr, Ti, and P), heavy rare earth elements (HREEs), and enriched in large ion lithophile elements (LILEs, e.g., Rb, Zr, Nd, Th, and U) and light rare earth elements (LREEs). The Keri rhyolite has the characteristics of A₁-type magmatic rock, formed in an anorogenic environment after the closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, and was the product of late magmatism in the Elashan Formation volcanic rocks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Petrology, Geochemistry and Isotopes of Ophiolite and Granites in Kunlun Orogen and Adjacent Area)

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22 pages, 7735 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Depositional and Diagenetic Controls on Reservoir Quality of Neogene Surma Group from Srikail Gas Field, Bengal Basin, Bangladesh

by Maimuna Akter, M. Julleh Jalalur Rahman, Ming Ma, Delwar Hossain and Farida Khanam

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 283; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020283 - 17 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3444

Abstract

The development of an effective and profitable exploration and production depends heavily on the quality of the reservoir. The primary goal of this study was to evaluate the reservoir quality of the Neogene Surma Group at the Srikail Gas Field, which is situated [...] Read more.

The development of an effective and profitable exploration and production depends heavily on the quality of the reservoir. The primary goal of this study was to evaluate the reservoir quality of the Neogene Surma Group at the Srikail Gas Field, which is situated in the western part of the eastern folded belt of the Bengal Basin, Bangladesh. Wire-line logs, core analysis, petrography, X-Ray diffraction (XRD) and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) were used to understand the depositional and diagenetic controls of the quality of the reservoir. The Surma Group of the Srikail Gas Field was deposited in a delta system with a dominant influence of tide. The subarkosic to sublitharenitic Neogene Surma Group sandstones have primary porosities ranging from 0% to 25.8%, with an average of 21.5%, and the secondary porosity is approximately 7%. The range of log porosity ranges from 15% to 22.2%, while log permeability and core permeability vary from 3.01 to 54.09 mD and 0.1 to 76 mD, respectively. The primary porosity had been destroyed mainly by mechanical and ductile grain compaction. Most of the clay minerals (illite/illite-smectite, chlorite and kaolinite) in sandstone occur as grain coatings, grain lining (rim) and a few occur as pore-filling. This study reveals that the reservoir quality is predominantly controlled by the depositional environment (sediment texture and facies, ductile grain supply, clay content), and diagenetic process (mainly mechanical and ductile grain compaction followed by clay cement). The information gathered from this research will be useful for future petroleum production and for enhancing predictability in order to find new prospects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical, Petrophysical and Hydromechanical Properties of Reservoirs and Caprocks)

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12 pages, 2577 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Separation of Valuable Metals in The Recycling of Lithium Batteries via Solvent Extraction

by Yi-Chin Tang, Jian-Zhi Wang and Yun-Hwei Shen

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020285 - 17 Feb 2023

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 6619

Abstract

With the development trend and technological progress of lithium batteries, the battery market is booming, which means that the consumption demand for lithium batteries has increased significantly, and, therefore, a large number of discarded lithium batteries will be generated accordingly. Solvent extraction is [...] Read more.

With the development trend and technological progress of lithium batteries, the battery market is booming, which means that the consumption demand for lithium batteries has increased significantly, and, therefore, a large number of discarded lithium batteries will be generated accordingly. Solvent extraction is a promising approach because it is simple. Solvent extraction is low in time consumption and is easy to industrialize. This paper is focused on the selective recovery of cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), and manganese (Mn) contained in leachate obtained by digesting a cathodic material from spent lithium batteries with hydrochloric acid. After leaching the cathodic material, Mn was selectively extracted from leachate by using solvent extraction with D2EHPA diluted in kerosene in an optimized condition. Afterward, Co was extracted from the Mn-depleted aqueous phase using Cyanex272 diluted in kerosene. Finally, the raffinate obtained via a stripping reaction with H₂SO₄ was used in the Ni extraction experiments. Cyanex272 extractant was employed to separate Ni and Li. The process can recover more than 93% of Mn, 90% of Co, and 90% of Ni. The crucial material recovered in the form of sulfuric acid solutions can be purified and returned to the manufacturer for use. This process proposes a complete recycling method by effectively recovering Mn, Co, and Ni with solvent extraction, to contribute to the supply of raw materials and to reduce tensions related to mineral resources for the production of lithium batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Engineering and Technology in Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy, Volume II)

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17 pages, 18017 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Provenance Analysis of Marbles by Combination of Cathodoluminescence Spectroscopy and Electron Microprobe Analyses—Methodological Comments

by Jiří Zachariáš, Aneta Kuchařová and Marek Kotrlý

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020244 - 9 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2385

Abstract

Various marbles from historic quarries of the Czech Republic were examined by means of cathodoluminescence (CL) spectroscopy (quantitative data) to determine the possible inclusion of the method in marble provenance studies. The methodology used was based on a combination of electron microprobe analysis [...] Read more.

Various marbles from historic quarries of the Czech Republic were examined by means of cathodoluminescence (CL) spectroscopy (quantitative data) to determine the possible inclusion of the method in marble provenance studies. The methodology used was based on a combination of electron microprobe analysis (Ca, Mg, Fe and Mn composition) and CL spectroscopy (intensity) of calcite and dolomite grains of the marbles studied. Several statistical techniques were applied to the CL-spectra to find the most effective way of characterization of the CL-spectra for provenance discrimination. The combination of Mg-admixture of calcite and position of the maximum (i.e., centre) of a single Gaussian curve was revealed to be the most discriminative dependence of the marbles studied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crystallography and Physical Chemistry of Minerals & Nanominerals)

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26 pages, 5469 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Antarctic Bioconstructional Bryozoans from Terra Nova Bay (Ross Sea): Morphology, Skeletal Structures and Biomineralization

by Chiara Lombardi, Piotr Kuklinski, Edoardo Spirandelli, Giorgio Bruzzone, Giancarlo Raiteri, Andrea Bordone, Claudio Mazzoli, Matthias López Correa, Robert van Geldern, Laurent Plasseraud, Jérôme Thomas and Frédéric Marin

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020246 - 9 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3331

Abstract

Among Antarctic bryozoans, some species are able to develop calcitic bioconstructions promoting habitat complexity, but the processes leading to biomineral formation are mostly unknown. The present work investigated three Antarctic bryozoans, from morphological to skeletal features, including the organic matrix associated with the [...] Read more.

Among Antarctic bryozoans, some species are able to develop calcitic bioconstructions promoting habitat complexity, but the processes leading to biomineral formation are mostly unknown. The present work investigated three Antarctic bryozoans, from morphological to skeletal features, including the organic matrix associated with the skeleton (SOM). Cellarinella nutti Rogick, 1956 and Reteporella frigida Waters, 1904 were collected in November 2018 from a shallow site (25 m) and Cellarinella njegovanae Rogick, 1956 from a deep site (110 m) at Terra Nova Bay (Ross Sea, Antarctica). Both Cellarinella species showed 5–6 “growth check lines” (gcl) on their laminae. The morphometrical characterization conducted on the growth bands (gb) and zooids, within the band across bands, revealed a variability in length with time (C. nutti: from 4099 µm for gb1 to 1449 µm for gb6; C. njegovanae: from 1974 µm for gb 3 to 7127 µm for gb2). Zooid length varied within gb, from the proximal to the distal part of the bands, but differences also occurred across bands. The shortest zooids (~625 µm) were found at the proximal part and the longest (~ 1190 µm) in the middle part of the gb in C. nutti, whereas in C. njegovanae the shortest zooids (~ 660 µm) were found in the distal part and the longest (~1190 µm) in the proximal part of the gb. Micro-CT analyses indicated the ratio of basal zooidal walls (RbwT gcl/gb) ranged from 3.0 to 4.9 in C. nutti and from 2.3 to 5.9 in C. njegovanae, whereas Reteporella frigida did not form any gcl on either side of the colony. Preliminary characterizations of the SOM for the three species evidenced a mixture of proteins and polysaccharides with properties similar to those of better-known biominerals, in terms of quantity and electrophoretic behavior. In addition, a “lectin fingerprint” has been established for the first time in bryozoans, displaying the presence of chitin or chitin-related saccharides. Understanding the complexity of the processes regulating skeleton formation is a key aspect in comprehending the adaptation of bioconstructional ecosystems and the survival of the associated biodiversity under the future ocean. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomineralization in Marine Environments)

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21 pages, 3515 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Application of Clay Materials for Sorption of Radionuclides from Waste Solutions

by Bhupendra Kumar Singh and Wooyong Um

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020239 - 8 Feb 2023

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4598

Abstract

The wide application of nuclear resources in various fields has resulted in the production of radioactive waste, which poses a serious threat to lives and the environment. Nuclear waste contains long-lived radionuclides and, due to its mobility in environments, the proper management of [...] Read more.

The wide application of nuclear resources in various fields has resulted in the production of radioactive waste, which poses a serious threat to lives and the environment. Nuclear waste contains long-lived radionuclides and, due to its mobility in environments, the proper management of generated waste is necessary. To impede the mobility of radionuclides in environments, various materials have been tested as suitable sorbents under different experimental conditions. In this review, we thoroughly discuss some key and recent contributions to the application of natural clays (NCs) and modified/functionalized clays (MCs) for the sorption of various radionuclides in their cationic and anion forms from (simulated) waste solutions under different experimental conditions. More specifically, we discuss the key developments toward the use of natural clays for the efficient sorption of various radioactive contaminates. Later, this review targets the modification/functionalization of natural clays using various organic moieties to improve their removal capacities for various radionuclides/hazardous ions present in waste solutions. Finally, we summarize the major aspects and highlight the key challenges to be addressed in future studies to further enhance the application of clays and clay-based materials for selective and effective removal of various radionuclides from waste solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis and Application of Porous Clay Materials in Heterogeneous Catalysis and Treatment of Hazardous Wastes)

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12 pages, 1790 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Tentative Model for the Origin of A-Type Granitoids

by Åke Johansson

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020236 - 7 Feb 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 7443

Abstract

A-type granites are typically formed in stable intra-plate, back-arc or postcollisional settings and are characterized by highly ferroan and potassic major element compositions, and by strong enrichment in incompatible trace elements. Unlike I-, S- and M-type granites, where the letters denote the dominant [...] Read more.

A-type granites are typically formed in stable intra-plate, back-arc or postcollisional settings and are characterized by highly ferroan and potassic major element compositions, and by strong enrichment in incompatible trace elements. Unlike I-, S- and M-type granites, where the letters denote the dominant source material (igneous, sedimentary or mantle derived), there is no consensus on the source and processes giving rise to A-type magmas. In this contribution, a conceptual model for the origin of A-type granitoids, using the Bornholm A-type granitoid complex in southern Fennoscandia as an example, is presented. In this model, underplated mantle-derived basaltic magma may develop into intermediate and siliceous A-type magma, which is ferroan, potassic and highly enriched in incompatible trace elements, through a combination of fractional crystallization leading to cumulate formation, and partial melting and crustal assimilation, in a process akin to zone refining in metallurgy. The key factor is a relatively stable tectonic environment (postcollisional, anorogenic, or extensional), where there is little or no replenishment of more primitive basaltic magma to the system, allowing it to attain more evolved, enriched and extreme compositions. The A-type granitoids may then be viewed as a more evolved counterpart of subduction-related I-type granitoids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Petrogenesis, Geochronology, Mineralization and Geochemistry of Granite Rocks)

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18 pages, 3140 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Pyrite Sulfur Isotope Systematics Suggest Low Marine Sulfate Levels across the Ediacaran–Cambrian Transition

by Songzhuo Li, Xianguo Lang, Han Wang, Shengxian Zhu, Kun Zhao and Mingcai Hou

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020227 - 4 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2802

Abstract

The Ediacaran–Cambrian (E–C) transition was a critical period in Earth’s history, and it was characterized by variable but potentially significant increases in atmospheric oxygen levels (pO₂). Sulfate is an essential oxidant and plays a key role in regulating Earth’s surface redox [...] Read more.

The Ediacaran–Cambrian (E–C) transition was a critical period in Earth’s history, and it was characterized by variable but potentially significant increases in atmospheric oxygen levels (pO₂). Sulfate is an essential oxidant and plays a key role in regulating Earth’s surface redox conditions. However, there is uncertainty regarding seawater sulfate levels during the E–C transition. To address this issue, organic carbon (δ¹³C_org) and pyrite sulfur isotope (δ³⁴S_py) analyses of the Heyu section (the Dengying Formation) in the Sichuan Basin, South China, were carried out. The δ¹³C_org varies between −36.4‰ and −27.4‰, and δ³⁴S_py ranges from −6.6‰ to 27.3‰. The TOC and pyrite content ranges from 0.13 wt.% to 4.28 wt.% and from 0.01 wt.% to 0.94 wt.%, respectively. The marine sulfate concentration was modeled using a one-dimensional diffusion–advection–reaction model (1D-DAR). The modeling results indicate that the seawater sulfate level remained at a relatively low level of ~2–6 mM. The increased pyrite burial at extensive marine anoxia during the terminal Ediacaran period was likely a driver of such a low sulfate level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology)

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18 pages, 4902 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Carbonate U-Pb Geochronology and Clumped Isotope Constraints on the Origin of Hydrothermal Dolomites: A Case Study in the Middle Permian Qixia Formation, Sichuan Basin, South China

by Yu Zou, Donghua You, Bo Chen, Huamin Yang, Zhixing Tian, Dongna Liu and Liyu Zhang

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020223 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2880

Abstract

Reservoirs in the dolomites of the Middle Permian Qixia Formation in the Sichuan Basin are currently important oil and gas exploration objects in China. However, the questions concerning the sources of the dolomitized fluids and the control factors of the Qixia hydrothermal dolomites [...] Read more.

Reservoirs in the dolomites of the Middle Permian Qixia Formation in the Sichuan Basin are currently important oil and gas exploration objects in China. However, the questions concerning the sources of the dolomitized fluids and the control factors of the Qixia hydrothermal dolomites remain unclear. In this study, the original hydrothermal dolomites (the replacement dolomites (RDs) and saddle dolomites (SDs)) from the Qixia Formation in the southwestern Sichuan Basin (the PR1 well and Baoxing section) were mainly examined using novel in situ carbonate U-Pb dating with clumped isotopes (∆₄₇). Our results show that the U-Pb ages of the latest SDs from the PR1 well (located in the middle zone of the Emeishan large igneous province (ELIP) and distanced from the Orogenic Belt of Longmenshan) are 257.9–251.0 Ma, coincident with the period of main activity of the ELIP. Combined with the previous U-Pb dating, we propose that the high-temperature T_∆47 (82.2–108.4 °C and 127.5–205.9 °C) recorded for SDs from the PR1 well and Baoxing section may have responded to ELIP activity and Longmenshan orogeny activity, respectively. In addition, in the entire southwestern Sichuan Basin, the RDs and SDs yield similar δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O values, indicating that the dolomites were formed by hydrothermal fluids of similar sources, with marine hydrothermal fluids being a highly possible source. Finally, this study proposes a new hydrothermal dolomite genesis model for the Qixia Formation, emphasizing that the formation of hydrothermal dolomites mainly depends on the proximity to tectonic thermal events in space and time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbonate Petrology and Geochemistry)

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19 pages, 11248 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Effect of Iron- and Calcium-Rich Waste Rock’s Acid Baking Conditions on the Rare-Earth Extraction

by Vitor L. Gontijo, Leandro Augusto Viana Teixeira and Virgínia Sampaio Teixeira Ciminelli

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020217 - 2 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4233

Abstract

The work investigates the effect of sulfuric acid baking on rare earth element (REE) extraction from two waste rock samples from a phosphate mine. The role of different mineralogical assemblages and the degree of alteration (i.e., weathering), and the behavior of the main [...] Read more.

The work investigates the effect of sulfuric acid baking on rare earth element (REE) extraction from two waste rock samples from a phosphate mine. The role of different mineralogical assemblages and the degree of alteration (i.e., weathering), and the behavior of the main impurities–iron, phosphorus, and calcium–on REE extraction are emphasized. For both samples, the sulfuric acid baking at 25 °C, during 15 min, H₂SO₄:sample (w/w) mass ratio of 0.45:1 is the best condition for achieving the selective leaching of REE. For the iron rich-sample, the increase in temperature reduces REE extraction and increases iron dissolution. The corresponding sulfuric acid consumed by goethite (α-FeOOH) from 25 °C to 160 °C acid baking is ten times higher than that required for the monazite (REEPO₄) reaction. Conversely, higher REE and lower iron extraction are observed by increasing (sulfuric acid/sample) mass ratio (0.95:1). Due to the high sulfuric concentration during dissolution, a local saturation zone close to the dissolution front caused the precipitation of iron oxyhydroxides. The calcium-rich sample shows lower REE extraction by leaching (63% maximum) mainly due to the entrapment of REE-bearing minerals by a gypsum layer, and lanthanide’s uptake by calcium sulfate compounds formed during leaching. The results were discussed with the help of a detailed characterization of the residues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Leaching and Solution Treatments of Rare Earth Elements from Various Sources, Volume II)

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25 pages, 8802 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

U-Pb Dating, Lead Isotopes, and Trace Element Composition of Pyrite Hosted in Black Shale and Magmatic Rocks, Malaysia: Implications for Orogenic Gold Mineralization and Exploration

by Charles Makoundi, Khin Zaw and Zakaria Endut

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020221 - 2 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2983

Abstract

Several orogenic/sediment-hosted gold deposits are widely distributed in the Central Belt of Peninsular Malaysia. This study combines U-Pb dating with the isotope composition of lead as well as gold content in ore and magmatic rock-hosted pyrite. It aims to investigate the age of [...] Read more.

Several orogenic/sediment-hosted gold deposits are widely distributed in the Central Belt of Peninsular Malaysia. This study combines U-Pb dating with the isotope composition of lead as well as gold content in ore and magmatic rock-hosted pyrite. It aims to investigate the age of gold mineralization and possibly establish a link between gold mineralization and magmatic intrusion in the district. The results show that the S-type magmatic rocks yield crystallisation ages ranging from 204.1 ± 4.7 Ma to 223 ± 3.2 Ma with low magnetic susceptibility measurements below 3 × 10⁻³ SI unit. These ages fit within the 200–250 Ma Pb-Pb model age of the Pb isotopic composition of K-feldspars. Pyrite trace element mapping has shown that gold and lead show zoning patterns occurring at the same time in pyrite. The Pb isotope composition of the cores of pyrite grains indicate that the approximate model age of gold mineralization is 200 Ma. This age is close to 197–199 Ma (Early Jurassic), previously determined by K-Ar dating of sericite which was interpreted to be the age of gold mineralization. In this study, gold content varies up to 793 ppb in the analysed magmatic rock-hosted pyrites, indicative of a likely magmatic contribution to gold mineralization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology)

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20 pages, 14689 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Geoelectric Signature of Gold Mineralization in the Alta Floresta Gold Province, Mato Grosso State, Brazil

by Eduardo Xavier Seimetz, Alexandre Santos Jeronimo da Costa, Welitom Rodrigues Borges, Marco Ianniruberto and Rafael Espindola Canata

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020203 - 31 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3298

Abstract

The Alta Floresta Gold Province (PAAF) is abundant in gold deposits and, located in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil, is an ideal place to study the geoelectric signature of gold mineralization. Auriferous mineralization occurs along shear zones in quartz veins and disseminated [...] Read more.

The Alta Floresta Gold Province (PAAF) is abundant in gold deposits and, located in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil, is an ideal place to study the geoelectric signature of gold mineralization. Auriferous mineralization occurs along shear zones in quartz veins and disseminated granites in this region. Ores are associated with oxides and sulfides, mainly with pyrites. To identify primary gold or continuities of the mineralized zones, data were acquired using the geophysical methods of electrical resistivity and induced polarization in three gold mines: Raimunda, Truilio, and Porteira. Dipole–dipole arrays with electrode spacings of 20 and 25 m were used to investigate up to 100 m in depth. Resistivity and chargeability range scales were developed with statistical analyses of all the geophysical and geological data. The geophysical models of the Raimunda and Truilio gold mines showed coherence with the boreholes, but the geophysical models of the Porteira gold mine were not coherent with the boreholes. The resistivity and chargeability parameters indicated that the lithotypes (soils, saprolites, and monzogranites) could be characterized and identified as potential mineralized targets. The soils ranged from 1000 to 8000 ohm.m, the saprolites had values from 150 to 800 ohm.m, and the monzogranite values were from 1100 to 9000 ohm.m. The mineralized targets had values from 18 to 35 mV/V. The results confirm the efficiency of the resistivity and induced polarization methods to find sulfides in shear zones in the Alta Floresta Gold Province. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Footprints of Mineral Systems)

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18 pages, 5619 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effect of Agitation on the Dissolution of APAM with Different Molecular Weights and the Equivalent Diameter of Coal Slime Settling Floc with Different Particle Sizes

by Jianbo Li, Wei Zhou, Chuanchuan Cai, Shujie Wang and Jinbo Zhu

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020204 - 31 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2251

Abstract

There are still many problems in the stirring dissolution of flocculants: The law of stirring dissolution of flocculants with different molecular weights is not clear, the microstructure of settling floc with different particle sizes of coal slime is still to be explored, and [...] Read more.

There are still many problems in the stirring dissolution of flocculants: The law of stirring dissolution of flocculants with different molecular weights is not clear, the microstructure of settling floc with different particle sizes of coal slime is still to be explored, and how to apply the law of flocculant dissolution to industrialization? To solve these problems, firstly, mechanical stirring dissolution tests are carried out on anionic polyacrylamide (APAM) with different molecular weights to explore the stirring dissolution law of APAM with 3–25 million molecular weights. Results indicated that the optimal stirring speed of APAM with 3–6 million molecular weight is 800 r/min. The optimal stirring speed of 8–16 million molecular weight APAM is 600 r/min. The optimal stirring speed of 18–25 million molecular weight APAM is 800 r/min. The stirring power formula for APAM dissolution is improved by fitting the experimental data of 3–25 million molecular weight APAM stirring dissolution. Secondly, through APAM performance test, it is verified that the solubility of powdered APAM is the best under optimal solution. Thirdly, through the image measurement and analysis test of settling floc of coal slime, the change law of equivalent diameter of settling floc of different particle sizes of coal slime under the optimal dissolution parameters are explored. Results showed that when the mixing speed is 600 r/min, the equivalent diameter of −0.5 mm slime settling floc is the largest. When the mixing speed is 200 r/min or 400 r/min, the equivalent diameters of 0.5–0.25 mm, 0.25–0.125 mm, 0.125–0.075 mm, 0.075–0.045 mm and −0.045 mm slime settling floc are the largest. The equivalent diameter is positively correlated with the size of slime, and the equivalent diameter of −0.045 mm slime settling floc is the largest. The size of slime is the dominant factor in the change of fractal dimension. The fractal dimension of −0.5 mm slime settling floc is the largest, and the fractal dimension is little affected by mixing speed. Finally, the relationship between the important dissolution parameters of the APAM stirring dissolution test is numerically fitted. In view of the different geometrical parameters of the stirring barrel, a method of deducing the dissolution and stirring time of industrial flocculants is proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)

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46 pages, 43872 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Silicification of Wood: An Overview

by George E. Mustoe

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020206 - 31 Jan 2023

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 14268

Abstract

For many decades, wood silicification has been viewed as a relatively simple process of permineralization that occurs when silica dissolved in groundwater precipitates to fill vacant spaces within the porous tissue. The presence of specific silica minerals is commonly ascribed to diagenetic changes. [...] Read more.

For many decades, wood silicification has been viewed as a relatively simple process of permineralization that occurs when silica dissolved in groundwater precipitates to fill vacant spaces within the porous tissue. The presence of specific silica minerals is commonly ascribed to diagenetic changes. The possibility of rapid silicification is inferred from evidence from modern hot springs. Extensive examination of silicified wood from worldwide localities spanning long geologic time suggests that these generalizations are not dependable. Instead, wood silicification may occur via multiple pathways, permineralization being relatively rare. Mineralization commonly involves silica precipitation in successive episodes, where changes in the geochemical environment cause various polymorphs to coexist in a single specimen. Diagenetic changes may later change the mineral composition, but for many specimens diagenesis is not the dominant process that controls mineral distribution. Rates of silicification are primarily related to dissolved silica levels and permeability of sediment that encloses buried wood. Rapid silica deposition takes place on wood in modern hot springs, but these occurrences have dissimilar physical and chemical conditions compared to those that exist in most geologic environments. The times required for silicification are variable, and cannot be described by any generalization. Full article

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15 pages, 3005 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

In-Situ Single Crystal XRD and Raman Spectra Investigation of (Mg, Fe, Mn)CO₃ at Various Temperatures

by Lin Liang, Xinjian Bao, Wen Liang, Haipeng Song, Xiang Wu and Shan Qin

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020207 - 31 Jan 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3024

Abstract

The in-situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectra of synthetic (Mg, Fe, Mn)CO₃ single crystals for (Mg_0.37Fe_0.31Mn_0.32)CO₃, (Mg_0.49Fe_0.51)CO₃, (Fe_0.47Mn_0.53)CO₃, and (Mg_0.50 [...] Read more.

The in-situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectra of synthetic (Mg, Fe, Mn)CO₃ single crystals for (Mg_0.37Fe_0.31Mn_0.32)CO₃, (Mg_0.49Fe_0.51)CO₃, (Fe_0.47Mn_0.53)CO₃, and (Mg_0.50Mn_0.50)CO₃ were investigated up to 871 K. Lattice parameters and the volumetric thermal expansion coefficients were achieved, demonstrating an inherent anisotropy of c/a near to 3.0. The Raman spectra of our intermediate components all exhibit a negative temperature dependence similar to that of the end members. The temperature dependence of the external modes T, L, anti-symmetric stretching mode ν₃, and out-of-plane bending mode 2ν₂ is generally more prominent than the in-plane bending mode ν₄ and symmetric stretching mode ν₁ except for siderite FeCO₃. Combining thermal expansion coefficients α_V with the relative changes in frequency δνi/δT of Raman spectra, the average thermodynamic Grüneisen parameters (γ_th) for (Mg_0.37Fe_0.31Mn_0.32)CO₃, (Fe_0.47Mn_0.53)CO₃, (Mg_0.50Mn_0.50)CO₃, MgCO₃, and MnCO₃ were obtained as 1.18, 1.36, 1.34, 1.13, and 1.53, respectively. The relationship between Fe²⁺ and Mn²⁺ contents and γ_th illustrates that the concentration of Fe²⁺ causes a negative effect while the concentration of Mn²⁺ causes a positive effect on γ_th. These results could provide a reference for the contribution of Fe²⁺ and Mn²⁺ on the structural and thermodynamic properties of (Mg, Fe, Mn)CO₃ carbonates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crystal Structures and Phase Transitions of Minerals at Extreme Conditions)

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21 pages, 9871 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Age and Composition of Columbite-Tantalite Group Minerals in the Spodumene Pegmatite from the Chakabeishan Deposit, Northern Tibetan Plateau and Their Implications

by Wenli Sun, Zhidan Zhao, Xuanxue Mo, Chunjing Wei, Guochen Dong, Xiaowei Li, Wanming Yuan, Tao Wang, Shuang Yang, Bingzhang Wang, Tong Pan, Jie Han, Hongliang Cao, Yan Tang and Liangliang Zhang

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020201 - 30 Jan 2023

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3709

Abstract

The Chakabeishan (CKBS) deposit is the first pegmatite-type Li-Be deposit discovered in the eastern North Qaidam Tectonic Belt (NQTB) of Tibetan Plateau. The correct understanding of its petrogenesis and the precise determination of its formation age are of great significance for further regional [...] Read more.

The Chakabeishan (CKBS) deposit is the first pegmatite-type Li-Be deposit discovered in the eastern North Qaidam Tectonic Belt (NQTB) of Tibetan Plateau. The correct understanding of its petrogenesis and the precise determination of its formation age are of great significance for further regional prospecting and the discovery of new economically valuable rare-metal deposits. Therefore, a systematic study of texture, major-element composition, and U-Pb dating of columbite-tantalite group minerals (CGMs) in the spodumene pegmatite dyke from the CKBS deposit was undertaken. Three types of CGMs were identified, including concentric oscillatory ferrocolumbite (CGMs-1), homogeneous ferrocolumbite (CGMs-2), and irregular ferrotantalite (minor manganocolumbite) with abundant early ferrocolumbite replacement remnants (CGMs-3). The zoning patterns and chemical compositions in the CGMs record the complex evolutionary history of their host pegmatite from the magmatic stage (CGMs-1, disequilibrium crystallization) to the magmatic-hydrothermal transition stage (CGMs-2, equilibrium crystallization) and then to the late metasomatic stage (CGMs-3, replacement/re-equilibrium). CGMs U-Pb dating results suggest that the spodumene pegmatite dyke (No.15) emplaced at 230.1 ± 2.6 Ma. Subsequently, it experienced fluid metasomatism at 221 ± 5.3 Ma. Based on the new age data and published geochronological data, it can be concluded that the spodumene pegmatite dykes in the CKBS deposit formed in an oceanic subduction-related setting, representing a new metallogenic event in western China. Except for the CKBS deposit, a large number of rare-metal pegmatite dykes have also been discovered in the eastern NQTB, indicating that the eastern NQTB may be an important potential rare-metal metallogenic belt that should be explored in detail and arouse painstaking attention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Hydrothermal Ore Deposits: Insights from In-situ Analyses)

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21 pages, 5943 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

HPHT-Treated Impact Diamonds from the Popigai Crater (Siberian Craton): XRD and Raman Spectroscopy Evidence

by Anatoly Chepurov, Sergey Goryainov, Sergey Gromilov, Egor Zhimulev, Valeriy Sonin, Aleksey Chepurov, Zakhar Karpovich, Valentin Afanasiev and Nikolay Pokhilenko

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020154 - 20 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2807

Abstract

Phase change and graphitization of diamonds from the Popigai impact crater (Krasnoyarsk Territory, Siberian platform, Russia) exposed to high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) conditions of 5.5 GPa and 2000–2200 °C are studied by Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffractometry (XRD). Light-color diamonds of type 1, free [...] Read more.

Phase change and graphitization of diamonds from the Popigai impact crater (Krasnoyarsk Territory, Siberian platform, Russia) exposed to high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) conditions of 5.5 GPa and 2000–2200 °C are studied by Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffractometry (XRD). Light-color diamonds of type 1, free from inclusions, with 0 to 10 % lonsdaleite, are more resistant to HPHT effects than dark diamonds of type 2 rich in lonsdaleite and graphite. The lonsdaleite/diamond ratios in lonsdaleite-bearing impact diamonds become smaller upon annealing, possibly because lonsdaleite transforms to cubic diamond simultaneously with graphitization. Therefore, lonsdaleite is more likely a structure defect in diamond than a separate hexagonal phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Materials and Technologies in Deep Rock Engineering)

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14 pages, 5577 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessing the Baseline Uranium in Groundwater around a Proposed Uraninite Mine and Identification of a Nearby New Reserve

by Ravinder Bhavya, Kaveri Sivaraj and Lakshmanan Elango

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020157 - 20 Jan 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3779

Abstract

The presence of uranium in groundwater is a cause of concern all over the world. In mineralized regions where elevated concentrations of uranium are possible in groundwater, mining activities can further degrade the water quality. Hence, it is essential to document the baseline [...] Read more.

The presence of uranium in groundwater is a cause of concern all over the world. In mineralized regions where elevated concentrations of uranium are possible in groundwater, mining activities can further degrade the water quality. Hence, it is essential to document the baseline uranium concentration in groundwater before the commencement of mining. This study was carried out with the objective of assessing the concentration of uranium in groundwater around a proposed uraninite mining site in the Gogi region, Karnataka, India. Gogi is a village in the Yadgir district of Karnataka where groundwater is the main source of water for domestic needs. The uranium mineralized zone in this region occurs along the major E-W trending Gogi-Kurlagere fault at a depth of about 150 m. Groundwater samples were collected every three months from January 2020 to October 2020 from 52 wells located in this area. The concentration of uranium in groundwater ranged from 1.5 ppb to 267 ppb. The USEPA and WHO have recommended a permissible limit of 30 ppb, while the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board of India has a limit of 60 ppb for the purpose of drinking water. Based on these permissible limits for uranium in drinking water, concentrations exceeded the limit in about 25% of wells within 20 km from the mineralized region. Wells present in the granitic and limestone terrain exhibited higher concentrations of uranium in this area. Uranium concentration in groundwater changes depending on the degree of weathering, lithology, and rainfall recharge. This study will serve as a baseline and will help to assess the impact of mining activities in this region in the future. In wells where the uranium concentration exceeds permissible limits, it is suggested not to use groundwater directly for drinking purposes. These sites need to be explored further for the possible presence of uranium-bearing minerals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Radionuclides and Radiation Exposure in Mine Sites)

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18 pages, 3869 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Stabilization of As and Heavy Metal-Contaminated Soils by Two Mine Drainage-Treated Sludges

by Hyunji Tak, Seonhee Kim, Kyeongtae Kim, Sookyun Wang and Minhee Lee

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020148 - 19 Jan 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3554

Abstract

This study explored and analyzed the potential of the practical use of acid mine drainage-treated sludge (AMDS) as a new soil stabilizer for arsenic (As) and heavy metals. Various analyses, toxicity evaluations, and extraction batch experiments were performed to investigate the characteristics of [...] Read more.

This study explored and analyzed the potential of the practical use of acid mine drainage-treated sludge (AMDS) as a new soil stabilizer for arsenic (As) and heavy metals. Various analyses, toxicity evaluations, and extraction batch experiments were performed to investigate the characteristics of the AMDS as a soil stabilizer and to identify the main mechanisms to fix As and heavy metals on the AMDS in soil. Two types of AMDS, copper metal mine drainage-treated sludge (MMDS) and coal mine drainage-treated sludge (CMDS) and four contaminated soils with different pollution scenarios were used in the experiments. ‘Soil A’ and ‘Soil D’ were mainly contaminated with Cd, Pb and Zn. ‘Soil B’ and ‘Soil C’ were contaminated with As. Results from XRD, XRF, SEM-EDS, TG-DTA, and BET analyses suggested that AMDS is mainly composed of Fe- and Ca- bearing minerals such as CaCO₃, Ca(OH)₂ and amorphous Fe-oxide (hydroxide), which have a large surface area and high adsorption capacity for As and heavy metals. From batch extraction experiments, the Pb stabilization efficiency of both of the AMDSs in soil A, which has a high Pb and Zn content, was higher than 90%. The high heavy metal stabilization efficiency comes directly from the electrostatic attraction between metal cations and the negatively charged AMDS surface and/or from the co-precipitation of metal oxide (hydroxide) and CaCO₃, which occurs comprehensively on the AMDS surface. In the case of Zn, the stabilization efficiency in soil A was somewhat low due to the adsorption competition with Pb, but the Zn stabilization efficiency of the CMDS in soil A was higher than 80% (70% or higher for the MMDS). For soil D, the Zn stabilization efficiency of two AMDSs was higher than 85% because of the lower concentration of other heavy metals in soil D, compared to in soil A. The As stabilization efficiency of the AMDSs in soil contaminated with As (soil B and soil C) was higher than 85%, (mostly > 95%). The overall stabilization efficiency of two AMDSs for heavy metals and As were higher than 75% and 85% (mostly > 90%), respectively, regardless of soil type. We concluded that this high As stabilization efficiency was due to the formation of a new complex by ligand exchange between the Fe- (oxide) hydroxide and the arsenate and also to the cation bridge effect between the AMDS surface and the arsenate as well as the co-precipitation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Protection Challenges in Mine: Retention of Hazardous Substances with Solidification/Stabilization Implementation)

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16 pages, 11387 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effect of Content and Length of Polypropylene Fibers on Strength and Microstructure of Cementitious Tailings-Waste Rock Fill

by Bo Gao, Shuai Cao and Erol Yilmaz

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020142 - 18 Jan 2023

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2489

Abstract

The mechanical strength properties of cemented tailings backfill are very important for the safe and environmentally friendly mining of mineral resources. To check the impact of polypropylene fiber on strength and microstructure of cementitious tailings waste rock fill (CTWRF), diverse fiber lengths (6 [...] Read more.

The mechanical strength properties of cemented tailings backfill are very important for the safe and environmentally friendly mining of mineral resources. To check the impact of polypropylene fiber on strength and microstructure of cementitious tailings waste rock fill (CTWRF), diverse fiber lengths (6 and 12 mm) and dosages (0-control specimen, 0.3, 0.6, and 0.9 wt.%) were considered to prepare fiber-reinforced CTWRF (FRCTWRF) matrices. Experiments such as UCS (uniaxial compressive strength), X-ray CT (computed tomography), and SEM (scanning electron microscopy) were implemented to better characterize the backfills studied. Results showed that UCS performance of FRCTWRF was the highest (0.93 MPa) value at 6 mm fiber long and 0.6 wt.% fiber content. The peak strain of FRCTWRF was the highest (2.88%) at 12 mm fiber long and 0.3 wt.% fiber content. Growing the length of fiber within FRCTWRF can reduce its fracture volume, enhancing the crack resistance of FRCTWRF. Fiber and FRCTWRF are closely linked to each other by the products of cement hydration. The findings of this work will offer the efficient use of FRCTWRF in mining practice, presenting diverse perspectives for mine operators and owners, since this newly formed cementitious fill quickens the strengths required for stope backfilling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Backfilling Materials for Underground Mining, Volume III)

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19 pages, 4773 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Tungsten–Gold Metallogenetic Potential of the Ziyunshan Pluton in Central Hunan, South China: Insights from Element Geochemistry of Granites

by Jiahao Leng, Yulong Lu, Xingqiang Li, Xiangying Zhao and Yang Liu

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020144 - 18 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2789

Abstract

In order to reveal the metallogenic potential of the Indosinian Ziyunshan granite in central Hunan, the temporal, spatial and genetic relationship between the mineralization and the granite is discussed, and the concentrations of ore-forming elements for different granites are measured. The geochemistry of [...] Read more.

In order to reveal the metallogenic potential of the Indosinian Ziyunshan granite in central Hunan, the temporal, spatial and genetic relationship between the mineralization and the granite is discussed, and the concentrations of ore-forming elements for different granites are measured. The geochemistry of the elements, isotope geochemistry and chronology, and the data derived from the analysis on Au-W deposit in the area are compared with the geologic features of the regional metallogenic rock. The results indicate that Ziyunshan granite is an irregular shaped complex of late Indosinian by multi-stage intrusion. Elements such as W, Sn, Cu, Pb, Ag, Sb, Be, Li and Ta are enriched in the granite. The sulfophilic elements including Au, Pb, Zn and Ag are relatively enriched in the main body of the Ziyunshan granite, while the lithophilic elements including W and Sn are relatively enriched in the late phase of the Ziyunshan granite. The zoning of the ore-forming elements could be observed in the granite: Nb and Ta (inside the granite); W, Sn, Mo and Bi (inner contact zone); Pb, Zn and Cu (contact zone); and Au and Sb (outer contact zone). All the deposits in the area are formed after the intrusion of the Ziyunshan granite except the Ni-Ta-Sn ore formed simultaneously with the Ziyunshan granite. The Ziyunshan granite provides necessary heat, active fluid and partial ore-forming materials sources, which may show good metallogenic potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

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