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Flotation and Leaching Processes in Metallurgy

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A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701). This special issue belongs to the section "Extractive Metallurgy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2022) | Viewed by 36456

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Dr. Norman Toro

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Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Universidad Arturo Prat, Iquique 1100000, Chile
Interests: leaching; flotation; rheological studies; simulation; deepsea mining
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Flotation and leaching processes are the most used for metal extraction in the mining industry. Froth flotation involves an intense treatment of their tails, affecting how water can be recycled in upstream operations. This is of great relevance, considering that the concentration circuits consume the highest proportion of water resources.

The constant depletion of high-grade minerals on the Earth’s surface has significant consequences, and the industry is forced to:

Increase production levels to compensate for the drop in grades;
Diversify the extraction of other elements and obtain byproducts from the main element to be exploited;
Reduce costs in essential resources such as water and electricity.

It is necessary to develop technological innovations to increase/optimize the recovery of metals of interest through conventional processes; reuse industrial waste to lower production costs; and reduce water consumption to minimize environmental impacts.

The purpose of this Special Issue is to compile works related to the development of novel processes to recover metals through leaching and flotation processes and optimize the use of water through solid–liquid separation stages for its subsequent reuse in extractive metallurgy processes. Research areas may include (but are not limited to) leaching (in general), froth flotation (in general), thickening (in extractive metallurgy processes), ionic liquids, new water sources, and industrial waste reuse.

Dr. Norman Toro
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Leaching
Flotation
Rheology
Mining waste
Alternative water
Thermodynamics
Optimization
Simulation
Tailings
Deepsea mining
Ionic liquids

Published Papers (13 papers)

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24 pages, 3704 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Data-Driven Dynamic Simulations of Gold Extraction Which Incorporate Head Grade Distribution Statistics

by Javier Órdenes, Norman Toro, Aldo Quelopana and Alessandro Navarra

Metals 2022, 12(8), 1372; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12081372 - 18 Aug 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1311

Abstract

The Alhué mining district, Chile, is an example of a high-grade Au-Ag-Zn(-Pb) deposit with mineralized veins that contain variable amounts of copper sulfides, which are detrimental to the cyanidation process. Similar deposits can be found in the central zone of Chile, with polymetallic veins (Au, Ag, Cu, Pb, and Zn) that are related to subvolcanic intrusive events, the development of collapse calderas, and extensive hydrothermal alteration, such as Bronces de Petorca, the Chancón mining district and Cerro Cantillana; areas of the world with similar formations include the western United States and the Henan Province in central China, for example. Mineralogical variation can be managed within the metallurgical process by alternating its operational modes. The decision to switch between modes is governed by current and forecasted stockpile levels feeding into the process, according to a discrete rate simulation (DRS) framework that has now been developed to incorporate head grade data for gold. Customized simulations that incorporate probability distribution models using head grade have now been developed, following a statistical analysis based on data from the Alhué district. This study applies data-driven simulation modeling to represent standardized operational modes and their impact on the operational performance of gold extraction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation and Leaching Processes in Metallurgy)

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16 pages, 3425 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Thionocarbamates in Copper Slag Flotation

by Zoran Štirbanović, Daniela Urošević, Milica Đorđević, Jovica Sokolović, Nemanja Aksić, Novka Živadinović and Sandra Milutinović

Metals 2022, 12(5), 832; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12050832 - 12 May 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2042

Abstract

Thionocarbamates are the group of collectors that are mostly used for flotation of sulphide copper minerals, alone or in combination with xanthates depending on a mineralogical composition of the ore. In this paper, the results of the study of application of thionocarbamates in copper slag flotation are presented. Chemical analysis of smelter slag sample obtained from Flotation plant in Bor, Serbia, showed that it contains 3.56% of copper, of which over 73% is in the sulphide form, as well as 0.58 g/t of gold and 11.30 g/t of silver. XRD analysis identified fayalite and magnetite as main minerals present in the slag and SEM-EDS analysis showed that copper is mainly present in the form of sulphide minerals, thus making it suitable for flotation with thionocarbamates. Two thionocarbamates MX 980 and TC 1000 and one xanthate SIPX, along with their mixtures MX 980 + SIPX and TC 1000 + SIPX, were investigated. The influence of parameters such as collector type and dosage, grinding fineness, pulps’ pH and flotation time, on flotation indicators (recovery, yield and copper grade in concentrate) were determined. Smaller dosages of thionocarbamates (40 g/t) provided concentrates with high copper grades, 22.34% (MX 980) and 18.42% (TC 1000) and lower recovery rates, 83.98% (MX 980) and 87.78% (TC 1000), while the increase of dosages to 200 g/t led to the increase of recovery rates for more than 4% and a significant decrease in copper grades. The increase of grinding fineness from 50% to 70% of grain size < 0.074 mm showed a positive impact on flotation indicators, recovery rate, copper grade and yield, for all investigated collectors and their mixtures, while, with the further increase from 70% to 90%, recovery rates continued to increase while copper grades decreased. The increase of pulps’ pH had a positive influence, especially for MX 980, for which recovery rates increased with the increase of pH from 8 to 10 (12). A flotation kinetics test showed that flotation with TC 1000 was the fastest, i.e., recovery rate after 20 min of flotation was over 91%, while recoveries obtained with other collectors were a few percentage points lower. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation and Leaching Processes in Metallurgy)

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10 pages, 2018 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Study of the Dissolution of LCO in HCl Medium with and without H₂O₂

by D. Sebastián Drajlin, Daniela S. Suarez, Norman Toro, Edelmira D. Gálvez, Eliana G. Pinna and Mario H. Rodriguez

Metals 2022, 12(5), 727; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12050727 - 24 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2122

Abstract

The dissolution of LiCoO₂ (LCO) from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has been widely studied with organic and inorganic acids. Among these acids, HCl is the one that showed the best results when used at concentrations higher than 4 M. However, its higher cost compared with other acids is disadvantageous. Taking this into account, this work aims to perform a comparative study of the effect of different operational variables such as temperature, reaction time, leaching agent concentration (HCl) and reducing agent concentration (H₂O₂) on the dissolution efficiency of LCO for the systems HCl and HCl-H₂O₂ to determine the optimal parameters to achieve a maximum dissolution in minimum time at low temperatures and reagent concentrations. Increasing temperature, time and concentration of the reagents had a positive effect on the dissolution of LCO. When working with HCl 1.8 M, the highest dissolution for LCO, 91.0% was obtained at 348 K for 60 min. Furthermore, a slightly higher oxide dissolution (93.0%) was obtained in a reducing medium at the same temperature in half the time and with a concentration of HCl more than ten times lower. This will allow us to propose an alternative process to the existing ones with economic and ecological advantages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation and Leaching Processes in Metallurgy)

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17 pages, 4315 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Alternative Water Resources in Copper Leaching Processes in Chilean Mining Industry—A Review

by Norman Toro, Edelmira Gálvez, Pedro Robles, Jonathan Castillo, Grecia Villca and Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez

Metals 2022, 12(3), 445; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12030445 - 4 Mar 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3445

Abstract

Due to the significant growth of the world population, the accelerated growth of economic industries in various countries, and improved living conditions, freshwater consumption has increased dramatically and is currently under critical pressure. Its good use and rationing are essential. Even though mining is an industry that consumes much less water than other industries, such as agriculture, surrounding communities are constantly questioned. This occurs mainly because mining deposits are generally found in arid areas where freshwater is scarce, forcing government authorities to regulate water use in mining processes more severely. Faced with this scenario, the mining industry has innovated the use of seawater and wastewater from processes for its production processes. In addition, various projects are under development to construct desalination plants and water impulsion systems of the sea; therefore, it is expected that seawater and/or wastewater in mining will continue to grow in the coming years. Among the main challenges faced in the use of these water resources in mining is: (i) the close relationship that exists between the use of seawater and energy consumption, transferring the problem of water scarcity to a problem of energy cost overruns; (ii) generation of greater integration between the use of water and sustainable energy; and (iii) brine management is economically expensive and technically challenging and, therefore, most desalination plants discharge untreated brine directly into the sea, causing an environmental impact. On the other hand, regarding the use of these water resources in leaching processes, there are very positive results for the dissolution of copper from sulfide minerals, where the wastewater from desalination plants presents better results than seawater due to its higher concentration of chloride ions, allowing it to work at higher redox potential values in order to increase copper dissolution. This manuscript is a bibliographic review in which finally, it is concluded that it is feasible to incorporate wastewater from water desalination plants in heap leaching processes for copper sulfide ores, as long as the cost of transfer from water desalination plants to mining sites can be supported. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation and Leaching Processes in Metallurgy)

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21 pages, 3094 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Discrete Event Simulation for Machine-Learning Enabled Mine Production Control with Application to Gold Processing

by Felipe Peña-Graf, Javier Órdenes, Ryan Wilson and Alessandro Navarra

Metals 2022, 12(2), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12020225 - 25 Jan 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3158

Abstract

Interdisciplinary barriers separating data scientists and geometallurgists have complicated systematic attempts to incorporate machine-learning into mine production management; however, experiences in excavating a vein-hosted gold deposit within the Alhué region of Chile have led to methodological advances, which is the subject of the current paper. These deposits are subject to several challenges, from increasing orebody complexity and decreasing gold grades to the significant geological uncertainty that is intrinsic to these systems. These challenges then translate to mineral processing, which is already dealing with increased environmental and technological constraints. Geological uncertainty causes stockout risks that can be mitigated by the approach that is developed within this paper, which features alternate operational modes and related control strategies. A digital twin framework based on discrete event simulation (DES) and a customized machine-learning (ML) model is proposed to incorporate geological variation into decision-making processes, including the setting of trigger point that induces mode changes. Sample calculations that were based on a simulated processing plant that was subject to mineralogical feed changes demonstrated that the framework is a valuable tool to evaluate and mitigate the potential risks to gold mineral processing performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation and Leaching Processes in Metallurgy)

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17 pages, 1726 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chalcopyrite Leaching with Hydrogen Peroxide and Iodine Species in Acidic Chloride Media at Room Temperature: Technical and Economic Evaluation

by Germán A. Moraga, Nathalie E. Jamett, Pía C. Hernández, Teófilo A. Graber and María E. Taboada

Metals 2021, 11(10), 1567; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11101567 - 30 Sep 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1858

Abstract

In Chile, the hydrometallurgical plants are operating below their capacity due to a depletion of copper oxide ores. To obtain suitable pregnant leach solutions (PLSs) for hydrometallurgical plants, leaching solutions combining iodine-based oxidants and hydrogen peroxide in a chloride–acid medium, at room temperature and pressure were studied. Factorial experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of the different leaching solution reagents (KI, NaIO₃, NaCl, H₂O₂, and H₂SO₄). The results showed that the most influential variable is the H₂O₂ concentration; increasing the PLS concentration from 3 g/L to 15 g/L increased the copper extraction percentage by ~25%. In decreasing order of importance, the factorial experimental results showed that the H₂O₂, H₂SO₄, NaCl, NaIO₃, and KI concentrations affect the copper extraction percentage. The highest copper extraction percentage (i.e., 60.6%) was obtained using a leaching solution containing the highest reagent concentrations. At these conditions, the copper concentration in the PLS was 16.9 g/L. An economic evaluation of the laboratory-scale leaching experiments showed an increase in the unit cost (USD/t Cu) for experiments involving leaching solutions without H₂O₂ because of poor copper concentration in the PLS. As the concentrations of the reagents NaIO₃ and KI, increase, the unit cost increases, because the reagents are relatively expensive and have a limited effect on the copper extraction percentage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation and Leaching Processes in Metallurgy)

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20 pages, 3640 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Dynamics of Rougher Cells on the Basis of Phenomenological Models and Discrete Event Simulation Framework

by Manuel Saldaña, Purísima Neira, Víctor Flores, Carlos Moraga, Pedro Robles and Iván Salazar

Metals 2021, 11(9), 1454; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11091454 - 14 Sep 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2186

Abstract

Due to the increase in the amount of copper sulphide minerals processed through concentration processes and the need to improve the efficiency of these production processes, the development of theoretical models is making an important contribution to generating a better understanding of their dynamics, making it possible to identify the optimal conditions for the recovery of minerals, the impact of the independent variables in the responses, and the sensitivity of the recovery to variations in both the input variables and the operational parameters. This paper proposes a method for modeling, sensitizing, and optimizing the mineral recovery in rougher cells using a discrete event simulation (DES) framework and the fitting of analytical models on the basis of operational data from a concentration pilot plant. A sensitivity analysis was performed for low, medium, and high levels of the operative variables and/or parameters. The outcomes of the modeling indicate that the optimum mineral recovery is reached at medium levels of the flow rate of gas, bubble size, turbulence dissipation rate, surface tension, Reynolds number of bubble, bubble–particle contact angle, superficial gas velocity and gas hold-up in the froth zone. Additionally, the optimal response is reached at maximum levels of particle size and density and at minimum levels of bubble speed, fluid kinematic viscosity and fluid density in the sampled range. Finally, the recovery has an asymptotic behavior over time; however, the optimum recovery depends on an economic analysis, examining the marginalization of the response over time in an operational context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation and Leaching Processes in Metallurgy)

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11 pages, 1696 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Multi-Anionic Sodium Tripolyphosphate to Enhance Dispersion of Concentrated Kaolin Slurries in Seawater

by Williams Leiva, Norman Toro, Pedro Robles, Edelmira Gálvez and Ricardo Ivan Jeldres

Metals 2021, 11(7), 1085; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11071085 - 7 Jul 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2204

Abstract

This research aims to analyze the impact of sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) as a rheological modifier of concentrated kaolin slurries in seawater at pH 8, which is characteristic of copper sulfide processing operations. The dispersion phenomenon was analyzed through chord length measurements using the focused beam reflectance measurement (FBRM) technique, complementing size distributions in unweighted and square-weighted modes. The reduction of the rheological properties was significant, decreasing from 231 Pa in a reagent-free environment to 80 Pa after the application of STPP. A frequency sweep in a linear viscoelastic regime indicated that by applying a characteristic dosage of 0.53 kg/t of STPP, the pulp before yielding increases its phase angle, which increases its liquid-like character. Measurements of the chord length verified the dispersion of particles, which showed an apparent increase in the proportion of fine particles and a reduction of the coarser aggregates when STPP was applied. Measurements of the zeta potential suggested that the high anionic charge of the reagent (pentavalent) increases the electrostatic repulsions between particles, overcoming the effect of cations in seawater. The results are relevant for the mining industry, especially when the deposits have high contents of complex gangues, such as clays, that increase the rheological properties. This increases the energy costs and water consumption needed for pumping the tailings from thickeners to the tailing storages facilities. The strategies that allow for the improvement of the fluidity and deformation of the tailings generate slack in order to maximize water recovery in the thickening stages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation and Leaching Processes in Metallurgy)

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21 pages, 3328 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Decision Support System for Changes in Operation Modes of the Copper Heap Leaching Process

by Manuel Saldaña, Purísima Neira, Víctor Flores, Pedro Robles and Carlos Moraga

Metals 2021, 11(7), 1025; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11071025 - 25 Jun 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1958

Abstract

Chilean mining is one of the main productive industries in the country. It plays a critical role in the development of Chile, so process planning is an essential task in achieving high performance. This task involves considering mineral resources and operating conditions to provide an optimal and realistic copper extraction and processing strategy. Performing planning modes of operation requires a significant effort in information generation, analysis, and design. Once the operating mode plans have been made, it is essential to select the most appropriate one. In this context, an intelligent system that supports the planning and decision-making of the operating mode has the potential to improve the copper industry’s performance. In this work, a knowledge-based decision support system for managing the operating mode of the copper heap leaching process is presented. The domain was modeled using an ontology. The interdependence between the variables was encapsulated using a set of operation rules defined by experts in the domain and the process dynamics was modeled utilizing an inference engine (adjusted with data of the mineral feeding and operation rules coded) used to predict (through phenomenological models) the possible consequences of variations in mineral feeding. The work shows an intelligent approach to integrate and process operational data in mining sites, being a novel way to contribute to the decision-making process in complex environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation and Leaching Processes in Metallurgy)

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12 pages, 2515 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polyacrylic Acid to Improve Flotation Tailings Management: Understanding the Chemical Interactions through Molecular Dynamics

by Gonzalo R. Quezada, Eder Piceros, Pedro Robles, Carlos Moraga, Edelmira Gálvez, Steven Nieto and Ricardo I. Jeldres

Metals 2021, 11(6), 987; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11060987 - 21 Jun 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2492

Abstract

Molecular dynamic simulations of polyacrylic acid polyelectrolyte (PAA) analyzed its interaction with the main minerals that make up characteristic tailings of the mining industry, in this case, quartz, kaolinite, and montmorillonite. The simulations were carried out with the package Gromacs 2020.3. The interaction potentials used were General AMBER Force Field (GAFF) for PAA and CLAYFF-MOH for mineral surfaces. The SPC/E model described water molecules and Lennard-Jones 12-6 parameters adjusted for SPC/E model were used for Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions. The studied systems were carried out at pH 7, obtaining stable adsorption between the PAA and the studied surfaces. Interestingly, the strongest adsorptions were for montmorillonite at both low and high salt concentrations. The effect of salinity differs according to the system, finding that it impairs the absorption of the polymer on montmorillonite surfaces. However, a saline medium favors the interaction with quartz and kaolinite. This is explained because montmorillonite has a lower surface charge density and a greater capacity to adsorb ions. This facilitated the adsorption of PAA. It was possible to identify that the main interaction by which the polymer is adsorbed is through the hydroxyl of the mineral surface and the COO⁻Na⁺ complexes. Molecular dynamics allows us to advance in the understanding of interactions that define the behavior of this promising reagent as an alternative for sustainable treatment of complex tailings in highly saline environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation and Leaching Processes in Metallurgy)

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15 pages, 13079 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Addition of Flocculants and KCl on Sedimentation Rate of Spodumene Tailings

by Kevin Pérez, Carlos Moraga, Nelson Herrera, Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez and Edelmira Gálvez

Metals 2021, 11(6), 986; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11060986 - 21 Jun 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2726

Abstract

Lithium has become an element of great relevance in recent times, because among its various applications is the manufacture of batteries, and it is a vital part of the growing development of new products such as electric vehicles. On the other hand, the geographical distribution of lithium reserves is very heterogeneous. Of the existing minerals, only some of them are important sources of exploitation, such as the salt in South America, while in other countries mineral deposits such as spodumene stand out. The process for obtaining lithium from spodumene consists of concentrating up to 3% lithium by flotation. Because other minerals associated with this mineral are mainly silicates (feldspar, clays, quartz and micas), great problems are generated in the thickening stage. This article seeks to study the effect of the addition of flocculants and KCl on the sedimentation rate, in addition to studying its effects on the turbidity of the supernatant in different types of water. This is done by Batch sedimentation tests with tailings pulps, to later characterize both the pulp and the supernatant by means of the turbidity of the clarified water. Magnafloc-338 flocculant is the most convenient to use with industrial water, since it reaches a high sedimentation rate of 34.2, 37.44, and 45.36 m/h, with doses of 5, 10, and 15 g/t respectively, and a low turbidity rate (31 Formazin Nephelometric Units (FNU)) at low flocculant dosages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation and Leaching Processes in Metallurgy)

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16 pages, 2731 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Fe⁺² and Fe⁺³ in Pretreatment and Leaching on a Mixed Copper Ore in Chloride Media

by María E. Taboada, Pía C. Hernández, Aldo P. Padilla, Nathalie E. Jamett and Teófilo A. Graber

Metals 2021, 11(6), 866; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11060866 - 26 May 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2261

Abstract

A study of the pretreatment stage and subsequent leaching of a mixed copper ore with different chloride solutions containing iron was carried out. The first stage considered pretreatment tests to decide the best conditions. Two levels of each factor were analyzed, 20 and 50 kg/t of NaCl, 17 and 25 kg/t of H₂SO₄, 0 and 25 kg/t of Fe₂₍SO₄)₃·9.2H₂O, 0 and 25 kg/t of Fe₂SO₄·7H₂O, and a curing time of 15 and 30 days. The results showed a significant effect of NaCl and curing time on the extraction, and less effect was found with the variation of acid and iron salts. The second stage included column leaching using a solution with 0.5 g/L of Cu⁺², 80 g/L of Cl⁻, 10 g/L of H₂SO₄, and variable concentrations of ferric and ferrous ions (0 and 2 g/L). The best copper extraction of 80.2% was found considering a pretreatment of 30 days, 25 kg/t of H₂SO₄, 50 kg/t of NaCl, and a leaching solution concentration described previously with 2 g/L of Fe⁺². The results showed the leaching of all copper oxide species and 20% of the copper sulfide species. In addition, there was a reduction in the acid consumption as the resting time increases. Furthermore, to evaluate a possible decrease in time and acid in pretreatment and chloride in leaching, tests including 10 and 25 kg/t of H₂SO₄ and 1, 15, and 30 days of curing and a diminution of the NaCl concentration to 20 g/L (content from seawater) were executed. The results showed a significant effect on curing time below 15 days. Furthermore, the slight influence of the decrease of acid on copper extraction gives cost reduction opportunities. The diminution of chloride concentration (80 to 20 g/L) in leaching solution decreases the extraction from 79% to 66.5%. Finally, the Mellado leaching kinetic model was successfully implemented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation and Leaching Processes in Metallurgy)

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Review

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15 pages, 3057 KiB

Open AccessReview

Gangues and Clays Minerals as Rate-Limiting Factors in Copper Heap Leaching: A Review

by Norman Toro, Yousef Ghorbani, Mehmet Deniz Turan, Pedro Robles and Edelmira Gálvez

Metals 2021, 11(10), 1539; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11101539 - 27 Sep 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4898

Abstract

Heap leaching is a firm extractive metallurgical technology facilitating the economical processing of different kinds of low-grade ores that are otherwise not exploited. Nevertheless, regardless of much development since it was first used, the process advantages are restricted by low recoveries and long extraction times. It is becoming progressively clear that the selection of heap leaching as an appropriate technology to process a specific mineral resource that is both environmentally sound and economically feasible very much relies on having an ample understanding of the essential underlying mechanisms of the processes and how they interrelate with the specific mineralogy of the ore body under concern. This paper provides a critical overview of the role of gangues and clays minerals as rate-limiting factors in copper heap leaching operations. We aim to assess and deliver detailed descriptions and discussions on the relations between different gangues and clays minerals and their impacts on the operational parameters and chemical dynamics in the copper heap leaching processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation and Leaching Processes in Metallurgy)

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