Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing

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27 pages, 3757 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Analysis of Layer Orientation Effects in Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) with PETG: Comparative Evaluation of Two 3D Printers

by Leonardo Hernandez Alvarez, Celenia Salinas, Jorge Limon-Romero, Yolanda Baez-Lopez, Julian Israel Aguilar Duque, Diego Tlapa and Armando Pérez-Sánchez

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2026, 10(2), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp10020064 - 14 Feb 2026

Viewed by 697

Abstract

3D printing using fused filament fabrication (FFF) has emerged as a key manufacturing tool due to its versatility, efficiency, and ability to produce complex geometries. However, ensuring consistent mechanical performance remains challenging, as reported properties often depend not only on process parameters but [...] Read more.

3D printing using fused filament fabrication (FFF) has emerged as a key manufacturing tool due to its versatility, efficiency, and ability to produce complex geometries. However, ensuring consistent mechanical performance remains challenging, as reported properties often depend not only on process parameters but also on system-level characteristics of the printing platform. This study evaluates the tensile performance of PETG specimens fabricated using two open-frame FFF printers, treating the extrusion system architecture as an explicit experimental variable under controlled conditions: a Bowden-driven Ender 3 Pro and a direct-drive Insol Printer 4. ASTM D638 Type I specimens were printed at three raster orientations (0°, 45°, and 90°), with two replicates per condition (n = 2), using identical material, slicing parameters, and testing procedures. Build orientation dominated the tensile response, with 0° specimens exhibiting the highest strength and 90° the lowest. Beyond this established trend, a consistent printer-dependent difference was observed. At 0° orientation, the Insol Printer 4 reached a maximum ultimate tensile strength of 36.99 MPa, compared to 35.06 MPa for the Ender 3 Pro, representing an increase of approximately 5.5%. Similar trends were observed at 45°, while differences at 90° were less pronounced. Although the limited sample size restricts statistical generalization, these results provide controlled quantitative evidence that extrusion system architecture can influence PETG tensile performance alongside build orientation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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18 pages, 5645 KB

Open AccessArticle

Unraveling the Mechanism of Energy Utilization Efficiency Regulating Melt Pool Dimensions and Tensile Properties of 316L Stainless Steel in Laser Directed Energy Deposition

by Wen Liu, Bin Zeng, Weiren Xiong and Songrong Luo

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2026, 10(2), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp10020061 - 11 Feb 2026

Viewed by 491

Abstract

Energy density is a common but often inadequate parameter for predicting properties in laser additive manufacturing, as it fails to capture complex energy absorption dynamics. This study introduces energy utilization efficiency as a governing factor for melt pool characteristics in laser directed energy [...] Read more.

Energy density is a common but often inadequate parameter for predicting properties in laser additive manufacturing, as it fails to capture complex energy absorption dynamics. This study introduces energy utilization efficiency as a governing factor for melt pool characteristics in laser directed energy deposition (LDED) of 316L stainless steel. We demonstrate that at a constant energy density, energy utilization efficiency varies significantly with process parameters, ranging from conditions that cause lack-of-fusion to those that promote porosity. Experimentally, increasing energy utilization efficiency under constant energy density (90 J/mm) led to a five-fold increase in melt pool depth and a doubling of its area. This shift in energy utilization efficiency directly influenced tensile properties, with samples at moderate energy utilization efficiency achieving optimal yield strength (~428 MPa), ultimate tensile strength (~583 MPa), and elongation (~51.6%). Quantitative strengthening analysis revealed that dislocation strengthening contributed approximately 60% of the total yield strength, but its contribution decreased with excessive energy utilization efficiency due to grain coarsening. To overcome the limitations of energy density, we propose normalized enthalpy as a predictive design parameter. It shows a strong linear correlation with melt pool width, depth, and area, effectively integrating both process inputs and material thermal response. This work provides a fundamental insight into energy–material interactions and offers a physics-enhanced predictive tool that complements conventional energy density metrics for optimizing the LDED process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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16 pages, 6563 KB

Open AccessArticle

Additive Manufacturing of 6061 Aluminum by Filament Based Material Extrusion (MEX): Process Development and Mechanical Characterization

by Sihan Zhang, Hassan Soltani, Kameswara Pavan Kumar Ajjarapu, Shokoufeh Ghasemimotlagh, Harish Irrinki, Sundar Atre and Kunal Kate

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(12), 396; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9120396 - 1 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1604

Abstract

This work examines how feedstock composition and process settings influence the performance of Al-6061 parts made through material extrusion (MEX). A feedstock with 57 vol% (78 wt%) solids loading was selected based on torque rheometry, showing stable flow and shear-thinning behavior with a [...] Read more.

This work examines how feedstock composition and process settings influence the performance of Al-6061 parts made through material extrusion (MEX). A feedstock with 57 vol% (78 wt%) solids loading was selected based on torque rheometry, showing stable flow and shear-thinning behavior with a measured viscosity of 710.9 ± 3.2 Pa·s. Filaments produced from this material had a consistent diameter of 1.74 ± 0.0064 mm and were used to print specimens at extrusion multipliers of 0.9, 0.95, and 1.0. Debinding and sintering procedures, guided by thermal analysis, resulted in a peak density over 97% of the theoretical value. Among the conditions tested, the 0.95 extrusion multiplier produced the most favorable mechanical properties, with an ultimate tensile strength of 153.5 ± 3 MPa, a yield strength of 68.2 ± 11.7 MPa, and elongation reaching 28 ± 3%, which aligns with values reported for annealed Al-6061. Fractographic analysis showed a ductile fracture mode, confirming good interlayer adhesion and consistent sintering. These results show that MEX is a reliable method for fabricating Al-6061 parts with complex geometries and stable mechanical performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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29 pages, 5981 KB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of Annealing Temperature of Thin-Walled Samples from Al-Mn-Mg-Ti-Zr Alloys for Mechanical Properties Restoration of Defective Parts After SLM

by Nikita Nikitin, Roman Khmyrov, Pavel A. Podrabinnik, Nestor Washington Solis Pinargote, Anton Smirnov, Idarmachev Idarmach, Tatiana V. Tarasova and Sergey N. Grigoriev

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(11), 371; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9110371 - 12 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1186

Abstract

The aim of this work is to investigate the effect of annealing (at temperatures ranging from 260 °C to 530 °C) of thin-walled Al-Mn-Mg-Ti-Zr samples manufactured by selective laser melting (SLM) on their tensile mechanical properties, hardness, and surface roughness. The results of [...] Read more.

The aim of this work is to investigate the effect of annealing (at temperatures ranging from 260 °C to 530 °C) of thin-walled Al-Mn-Mg-Ti-Zr samples manufactured by selective laser melting (SLM) on their tensile mechanical properties, hardness, and surface roughness. The results of this study may contribute to the development of post-processing modes for thin-walled products made of corrosion-resistant aluminum alloys with increased strength, manufactured using SLM technology. Hierarchical clustering methods allowed us to identify three groups of thin-walled samples with different strain-hardening mechanisms depending on the annealing temperature. The greatest hardening is achieved in the first group of samples annealed at 530 °C. Metallographic analysis showed that at this heat treatment temperature, there are practically no micropores (macrodefects) and microcracks. X-ray phase analysis showed the precipitation of Ti and Zr, as well as the formation of an intermetallic phase with a composition of Mg8Al16. At lower heat treatment temperatures, from 260 °C to 500 °C, the observed hardening is statistically significantly lower than at 530 °C. This phenomenon, combined with the formation of intermetallic phases and the precipitation of titanium/zirconium, contributes to the hardening of thin-walled Al-Mn-Mg-Ti-Zr alloy samples manufactured by SLM. The main results of this study show that the optimal strain hardening of thin-walled Al-Mn-Mg-Ti-Zr alloy samples manufactured by SLM is achieved by heat treatment at 530 °C for 1 h. The strengthening mechanism has two characteristics: (1) dispersion strengthening due to the formation of precipitates and (2) reduction in macrodefects at high temperatures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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11 pages, 962 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Universal Method for the Evaluation of In Situ Process Monitoring Systems in the Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process

by Peter Nils Johannes Lindecke, Juan Miguel Diaz del Castillo and Hussein Tarhini

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(11), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9110359 - 1 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2573

Abstract

In situ process monitoring systems (IPMSs) are rapidly gaining importance in quality assurance of laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) parts, yet standardized methods for their objective evaluation are lacking. This study introduces a novel, system-independent assessment method for IPMSs based on a specially [...] Read more.

In situ process monitoring systems (IPMSs) are rapidly gaining importance in quality assurance of laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) parts, yet standardized methods for their objective evaluation are lacking. This study introduces a novel, system-independent assessment method for IPMSs based on a specially designed Energy Step Cube (ESC) test specimen. The ESC enables systematic variation in volumetric energy density (VED) by adjusting laser scan speed, without disclosing complete process parameters. Two industrially relevant IPMSs—PrintRite3D by Divergent and Trumpf’s integrated system—were evaluated using the ESC approach with AlSi10Mg as the test material. System performance was assessed based on sensitivity to VED changes and correlation with actual porosity, determined by metallographic analysis. Results revealed significant differences in sensitivity and effective observation windows between the systems. PrintRite3D demonstrated higher sensitivity to small VED changes, while the Trumpf system showed a broader stable observation range. The study highlights the challenges in establishing relationships between IPMS signals and resulting part properties, currently restricting their standalone use for quality assurance. This work establishes a foundation for standardized IPMS evaluation in additive manufacturing, offering valuable insights for technology advancement and enabling objective comparisons between various IPMSs, thereby promoting innovation in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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22 pages, 5066 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization and Evaluation of Mechanical Properties in Lattice Structures Fabricated by Stereolithography

by Mauricio Leonel Paz González, Jorge Limon-Romero, Yolanda Baez-Lopez, Diego Tlapa Mendoza, Juan Antonio Ruiz Ochoa, Juan Antonio Paz González and Armando Perez-Sanchez

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(11), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9110354 - 29 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2127

Abstract

Additive manufacturing via stereolithography (SLA) enables the fabrication of highly customized lattice structures, yet the interplay between geometry and graded density in defining mechanical behavior remains underexplored. This research investigates the mechanical behavior and failure mechanisms of cylindrical lattice structures considering uniform, linear, [...] Read more.

Additive manufacturing via stereolithography (SLA) enables the fabrication of highly customized lattice structures, yet the interplay between geometry and graded density in defining mechanical behavior remains underexplored. This research investigates the mechanical behavior and failure mechanisms of cylindrical lattice structures considering uniform, linear, and quadratic density variations. Various configurations, including IsoTruss, face-centered cubic (FCC)-type cells, Kelvin structures, and Tet oct vertex centroid, were examined under a complete factorial design that allowed a thorough exploration of the interactions between lattice geometry and density variation. A 3D printer working with SLA was used to fabricate the models. For the analysis, a universal testing machine, following ASTM D638-22 Type I and ASTM D1621-16 standards, was used for tension and compression tests. For microstructural analysis and surface inspection, a scanning electron microscope and a digital microscope were used, respectively. Results indicate that the IsoTruss configuration with linear density excelled remarkably, achieving an impressive energy absorption of approximately 15 MJ/m³ before a 44% strain, in addition to presenting the most outstanding mechanical properties, with a modulus of elasticity of 613.97 MPa, a yield stress of 22.646 MPa, and a maximum stress of 49.193 MPa. On the other hand, the FCC configuration exhibited the lowest properties, indicating lower stiffness and mechanical strength in compression, with an average modulus of elasticity of 156.42 MPa, a yield stress of 5.991 MPa, and the lowest maximum stress of 14.476 MPa. The failure modes, which vary significantly among configurations, demonstrate the substantial influence of the lattice structure and density distribution on structural integrity, ranging from localized bending in IsoTruss to spalling in FCC and shear patterns in Kelvin. This study emphasizes the importance of selecting fabrication parameters and structural design accurately. This not only optimizes the mechanical properties of additively manufactured parts but also provides essential insights for the development of new advanced materials. Overall, the study demonstrates that both lattice geometry and density distribution play a crucial role in determining the structural integrity of additively manufactured materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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14 pages, 4515 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fracture Characteristics of 3D-Printed Polymer Parts: Role of Manufacturing Process

by Mohammad Reza Khosravani, Payam Soltani, Majid R. Ayatollahi and Tamara Reinicke

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(10), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9100339 - 16 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1851

Abstract

Using traditional methods to fabricate geometrically complicated items was challenging, but Additive Manufacturing (AM) has made it possible. Although AM (3D printing) was first developed to produce prototypes, in recent years it has also been utilized for the fabrication of end-use products. As [...] Read more.

Using traditional methods to fabricate geometrically complicated items was challenging, but Additive Manufacturing (AM) has made it possible. Although AM (3D printing) was first developed to produce prototypes, in recent years it has also been utilized for the fabrication of end-use products. As a result, the mechanical strength of AMed parts has gained considerable significance. Three-dimensional printing has proved its capabilities in the fabrication of customizable parts with complex geometries. In the current study, the effects of manufacturing parameters on the mechanical strength and the fracture behavior of 3D-printed components have been investigated. To this aim, we fabricated specimens using Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol (PETG) and the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) process. Particularly, the dumbbell-shaped and Single Edge Notched Bend (SENB) specimens were fabricated and examined to determine their tensile and fracture behaviors. Particularly, the notches in SENB specimens were introduced by two different techniques to investigate the influence of the manufacturing process on the mechanical performance of 3D-printed PETG parts. Moreover, finite element simulations were conducted to investigate the fracture behavior of the parts. The results indicate that the fracture loads of 3D-printed and milled parts are 599.1 N and 417.2 N, respectively. In addition, experiments confirm brittle fracture with no plastic deformation in all specimens with 3D-printed and milled notches. The outcomes of this study can be used for the future designs of FDM 3D-printed parts with a better structural performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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19 pages, 5245 KB

Open AccessArticle

Variable-Orifice-Size Nozzle for 3D Printing

by Jan Bém, Jiří Suder, Aki Mikkola, Tomáš Kot, Jan Maslowski, Ján Babjak and Milan Mihola

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(9), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9090308 - 9 Sep 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2433

Abstract

This paper presents the general framework of the problem and the basis for the proposed idea, which lies in the design of a new extrusion nozzle for fused-deposition 3D printing, featuring a variable orifice that enables adaptive extrusion control to improve printing properties [...] Read more.

This paper presents the general framework of the problem and the basis for the proposed idea, which lies in the design of a new extrusion nozzle for fused-deposition 3D printing, featuring a variable orifice that enables adaptive extrusion control to improve printing properties such as material efficiency, printing speed, and localized control of mechanical properties. The working principle is controlled compression, via a linear actuator, of a silicone sleeve installed inside a metal jacket. Constrained by the metal jacket, the diameter of the silicone sleeve’s through-hole decreases with increasing compression. Three experiments were carried out to verify the functionality of the new nozzle design. The first two explored how the size of the nozzle orifice changes with movement of the linear actuator and the resulting silicone sleeve compression and decompression. In the third experiment, three sample parts were printed to demonstrate how the variable-orifice-size nozzle extruded PLA. The orifice diameter was set to

1.4

mm for the first condition,

0.7

mm for the second condition, and, in the third experiment, the first two conditions were combined. The orifice diameter was set to

1.4

mm for the first half of the object and then abruptly reduced to

0.7

mm for the second half. The prototype variable-orifice-size nozzle system demonstrated the potential of adaptive extrusion control for improved material efficiencies, faster printing times, and localized control of mechanical properties. However, it also revealed hysteresis of the silicone sleeve, a problem that must be addressed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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22 pages, 3810 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

From Digital Design to Edible Art: The Role of Additive Manufacturing in Shaping the Future of Food

by János Simon and László Gogolák

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(7), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9070217 - 27 Jun 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2890

Abstract

Three-dimensional food printing (3DFP), a specialized application of additive manufacturing (AM), employs a layer-by-layer deposition process guided by digital image files to fabricate edible structures. Utilizing heavily modified 3D printers and Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software technology allows for the precise creation of customized [...] Read more.

Three-dimensional food printing (3DFP), a specialized application of additive manufacturing (AM), employs a layer-by-layer deposition process guided by digital image files to fabricate edible structures. Utilizing heavily modified 3D printers and Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software technology allows for the precise creation of customized food items tailored to individual aesthetic preferences and nutritional requirements. Three-dimensional food printing holds significant potential in revolutionizing the food industry by enabling the production of personalized meals, enhancing the sensory dining experience, and addressing specific dietary constraints. Despite these promising applications, 3DFP remains one of the most intricate and technically demanding areas within AM, particularly in the context of modern gastronomy. Challenges such as the rheological behaviour of food materials, print stability, and the integration of cooking functions must be addressed to fully realize its capabilities. This article explores the possibilities of applying classical modified 3D printers in the food industry. The behaviour of certain recipes is also tested. Two test case scenarios are covered. The first scenario is the work and formation of a homogenized meat mass. The second scenario involves finding a chocolate recipe that is suitable for printing relatively detailed chocolate decorative elements. The current advancements, technical challenges, and future opportunities of 3DFP in the field of engineering, culinary innovation and nutritional science are also explored. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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24 pages, 3719 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Self-Produced PLA Filament for Sustainable 3D Printing: Mechanical Properties and Energy Consumption Compared to Commercial Alternatives

by Luca Fontana, Paolo Minetola, Mankirat Singh Khandpur and Alberto Giubilini

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(6), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9060172 - 24 May 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5352

Abstract

This study investigates the feasibility of self-producing polylactic acid (PLA) filament for use in 3D printing. The filament was fabricated using a desktop single-screw extruder and evaluated against commercially available PLA in terms of mechanical properties and energy consumption. Specimens were printed at [...] Read more.

This study investigates the feasibility of self-producing polylactic acid (PLA) filament for use in 3D printing. The filament was fabricated using a desktop single-screw extruder and evaluated against commercially available PLA in terms of mechanical properties and energy consumption. Specimens were printed at two layer heights (0.2 mm and 0.3 mm) and four infill densities (25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%). The self-produced filament exhibited lower diameter precision (1.67 ± 0.21 mm), which resulted in mass variability up to three orders of magnitude higher than that of the commercial filament. Thermal analysis confirmed that the extrusion and printing process did not significantly alter the thermal properties of PLA. Mechanical testing revealed that a layer height 0.3 mm consistently yielded higher stiffness and tensile strength in all samples. When normalized by mass, the specimens printed with commercial filament demonstrated approximately double the ultimate tensile strength compared to those that used self-produced filament. The energy consumption analysis indicated that a 0.3 mm layer height improved printing efficiency, cutting specific energy consumption by approximately 50% and increasing the material deposition rate proportionally. However, the total energy required to print with self-produced filament was nearly three times higher than that for commercial filament, primarily due to material waste that stems from inconsistencies in the diameter of the filament. These findings are significant in evaluating the practicality of self-produced PLA filament, particularly in terms of mechanical performance and energy efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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13 pages, 3544 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Properties and Accuracy of Additively Manufactured Silicone Soft Tissue Materials

by Pei Xin Chen, John M. Aarts and Joanne Jung Eun Choi

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(4), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9040113 - 28 Mar 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1237

Abstract

The objective of this study was to measure and compare the mechanical properties of conventional and three additively manufactured soft tissue silicone materials, while evaluating the precision of additively manufactured (AMed) materials through different printing angles. Three additively manufactured soft tissue silicone materials [...] Read more.

The objective of this study was to measure and compare the mechanical properties of conventional and three additively manufactured soft tissue silicone materials, while evaluating the precision of additively manufactured (AMed) materials through different printing angles. Three additively manufactured soft tissue silicone materials were used, in addition to one conventional self-curing injectable silicone material as a control. AMed materials were divided into three groups with three build angles. Mechanical testing was conducted for tensile and compressive strength by a universal testing machine and Shore A hardness by a durometer. Accuracy analysis of additively manufactured materials (n = 20/group) was performed following superimposition and root mean square (RMS) calculation. Statistical differences between the groups were assessed with a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s post hoc test at a significance level of p < 0.05. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis was performed for fracture surface analyses. The tensile strength of all additively manufactured silicone soft tissue materials was significantly lower (p < 0.0001) than that of the control material. All additively manufactured soft tissue material groups had significantly higher compressive strengths (p < 0.0001) and Shore A hardness values. Accuracy analysis showed no significant difference between the groups when compared at the same printing angle (0°, 45°, and 90°); however, within each material group, printing at 45° had higher RMS values than specimens printed at an angle of 0° and 90°. The conventional soft tissue material (control) had a significantly higher tensile strength than all the AMed soft tissue materials, whereas the opposite trend was found for flexural strength and shore hardness. When selecting an AMed material for soft tissue casts used during implant restoration fabrication, it is recommended to print the soft tissues at either 0° or 90°. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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13 pages, 36645 KB

Open AccessArticle

Melt Electrowritten Biodegradable Mesh Implants with Auxetic Designs for Pelvic Organ Prolapse Repair

by Nuno Miguel Ferreira, Evangelia Antoniadi, Ana Telma Silva, António Silva, Marco Parente, António Fernandes and Elisabete Silva

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(4), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9040111 - 28 Mar 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2411

Abstract

Pelvic organ prolapse (POP) is a common condition among women, characterized by the descent of pelvic organs through the vaginal canal. Although traditional synthetic meshes are widely utilized, they are associated with complications such as erosion, infection, and tissue rejection. This study explores [...] Read more.

Pelvic organ prolapse (POP) is a common condition among women, characterized by the descent of pelvic organs through the vaginal canal. Although traditional synthetic meshes are widely utilized, they are associated with complications such as erosion, infection, and tissue rejection. This study explores the design and fabrication of biodegradable auxetic implants using polycaprolactone and melt electrowriting technology, with the goal of developing implants that closely replicate the mechanical behavior of vaginal tissue while minimizing implant-related complications. Four distinct auxetic mesh geometries—re-entrant Evans, Lozenge grid, square grid, and three-star honeycomb—were fabricated with a 160

μ

m diameter and mechanically evaluated through uniaxial tensile testing. The results indicate that the square grid and three-star honeycomb geometries exhibit hyperelastic-like behavior, closely mimicking the stress–strain response of vaginal tissue. The re-entrant Evans geometry has been observed to exhibit excessive stiffness for applications related to POP, primarily due to material overlap. This geometry demonstrates stiffness that is approximately five times greater than that of the square grid or the three-star honeycomb configurations, which contributes to an increase in local rigidity. The unique auxetic properties of these structures prevent the bundling effect observed in synthetic meshes, promoting improved load distribution and minimizing the risk of tissue compression. Additionally, increasing the extrusion diameter has been identified as a promising strategy for further refining the biomechanical properties of these meshes. These findings lay a solid foundation for the development of next-generation biodegradable implants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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26 pages, 13505 KB

Open AccessArticle

In Situ Active Contour-Based Segmentation and Dimensional Analysis of Part Features in Additive Manufacturing

by Tushar Saini and Panos S. Shiakolas

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(3), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9030102 - 19 Mar 2025

Viewed by 1447

Abstract

The evaluation of the geometric conformity of in-layer features in Additive Manufacturing (AM) remains a challenge due to low contrast between the features and the background, textural variations, imaging artifacts, and lighting conditions. This research presents a novel in situ vision-based framework for [...] Read more.

The evaluation of the geometric conformity of in-layer features in Additive Manufacturing (AM) remains a challenge due to low contrast between the features and the background, textural variations, imaging artifacts, and lighting conditions. This research presents a novel in situ vision-based framework for AM to identify in real-time in-layer features and estimate their shape and printed dimensions and then compare them with the as-processed layer features to evaluate geometrical differences. The framework employs a composite approach to segment features by combining simple thresholding for external features with the Chan–Vese (C–V) active contour model to identify low-contrast internal features. The effect of varying C–V parameters on the segmentation output is also evaluated. The framework was evaluated on a 20.000 mm × 20.000 mm multilayer part with internal features (two circles and a rectangle) printed using Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). The segmentation performance of the composite method was compared with traditional methods with the results showing the composite method scoring higher in most metrics, including a maximum Jaccard index of 78.34%, effectively segmenting high- and low-contrast features. The improved segmentation enabled the identification of feature geometric differences ranging from 1 to 10 pixels (0.025 mm to 0.250 mm) after printing each layer in situ and in real time. This performance verifies the ability of the framework to detect differences at the pixel level on the evaluation platform. The results demonstrate the potential of the framework to segment features under different contrast and texture conditions, ensure geometric conformity and make decisions on any differences in feature geometry and shape. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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Review

Jump to: Research

38 pages, 3935 KB

Open AccessReview

Three-Dimensional (3D) Printing Scaffold-Based Drug Delivery for Tissue Regeneration

by Maryam Aftab, Sania Ikram, Muneeb Ullah, Abdul Wahab and Muhammad Naeem

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2026, 10(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp10010009 - 26 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1687

Abstract

Tissue regeneration is essential for wound healing, organ function restoration, and overall patient recovery. Its success significantly impacts medical procedures in fields like internal medicine and orthopedics, enhancing patient quality of life. Recent advances in regenerative medicine, particularly the combination of advanced drug [...] Read more.

Tissue regeneration is essential for wound healing, organ function restoration, and overall patient recovery. Its success significantly impacts medical procedures in fields like internal medicine and orthopedics, enhancing patient quality of life. Recent advances in regenerative medicine, particularly the combination of advanced drug delivery systems (DDS) and bioengineering, have enabled customized methods to improve tissue regeneration outcomes. However, conventional tissue engineering techniques have drawbacks, often using static scaffolds that lack the dynamic properties of real tissues, leading to subpar healing outcomes. The use of 3D printing and other advanced scaffolding techniques allows for the creation of bio functional scaffolds that deliver bioactive molecules at precise locations and times. The optimal integration of biological systems with enhanced material properties for personalized treatment options remains unclear. There is a need for more research into the complex interactions between cellular biology, drug delivery, and material technology to improve tissue regeneration. Despite progress in developing bioactive scaffolds and localized drug delivery methods, the interactions among different scaffold materials, bioactive agents, and cellular behaviors within the regenerative ecosystem are not fully understood. While there is extensive research on 3D-printed scaffolds in tissue engineering, there is a lack of studies integrating bio printing with in vivo biological reactions in real time. Limited research on the dynamic integration of patient-specific parameters in regeneration methods highlights the need for customized approaches that consider individual physiological differences and the complex biological environment at injury sites. Additionally, challenges arise when translating laboratory results into effective therapeutic applications, underscoring the necessity for interdisciplinary collaboration and innovative design approaches that align advanced material properties with biological needs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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33 pages, 6567 KB

Open AccessReview

Artificial Intelligence in Biomedical 3D Printing: Mapping the Evidence

by Maria Tănase, Cristina Veres and Dan-Alexandru Szabo

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(12), 407; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9120407 - 11 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1942

Abstract

This study provides an integrated synthesis of Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications in Biomedical 3D Printing, mapping the conceptual and structural evolution of this rapidly emerging field. The bibliometric analysis, based on 229 publications indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection (2018–2025) and [...] Read more.

This study provides an integrated synthesis of Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications in Biomedical 3D Printing, mapping the conceptual and structural evolution of this rapidly emerging field. The bibliometric analysis, based on 229 publications indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection (2018–2025) and visualised in CiteSpace, identifies three interconnected research domains: AI-driven design and process optimisation, data-assisted bioprinting for tissue engineering, and the development of smart and adaptive materials enabling 4D functionalities. The results highlight a clear progression from algorithmic control of additive manufacturing parameters toward predictive modelling, deep learning, and autonomous fabrication systems. Leading contributors include China, India, and the USA, while journals such as Applied Sciences, Polymers, and Advanced Materials act as major dissemination platforms. Emerging clusters around “4D printing”, “deep learning”, and “shape memory polymers” indicate a shift toward intelligent, sustainable, and personalised biomanufacturing. In addition, a qualitative synthesis of the most influential papers complements the bibliometric mapping, providing interpretative depth on the scientific core driving this interdisciplinary evolution. Overall, the study reveals the consolidation of a multidisciplinary research ecosystem in which computational intelligence and biomedical engineering converge to advance the next generation of adaptive medical fabrication technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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32 pages, 3888 KB

Open AccessReview

AI-Driven Innovations in 3D Printing: Optimization, Automation, and Intelligent Control

by Fatih Altun, Abdulcelil Bayar, Abdulhammed K. Hamzat, Ramazan Asmatulu, Zaara Ali and Eylem Asmatulu

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(10), 329; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9100329 - 7 Oct 2025

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 11540

Abstract

By greatly increasing automation, accuracy, and flexibility at every step of the additive manufacturing process, from design and production to quality assurance, artificial intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing the 3D printing industry. The integration of AI algorithms into 3D printing systems enables real-time optimization [...] Read more.

By greatly increasing automation, accuracy, and flexibility at every step of the additive manufacturing process, from design and production to quality assurance, artificial intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing the 3D printing industry. The integration of AI algorithms into 3D printing systems enables real-time optimization of print parameters, accurate prediction of material behavior, and early defect detection using computer vision and sensor data. Machine learning (ML) techniques further streamline the design-to-production pipeline by generating complex geometries, automating slicing processes, and enabling adaptive, self-correcting control during printing—functions that align directly with the principles of Industry 4.0/5.0, where cyber-physical integration, autonomous decision-making, and human–machine collaboration drive intelligent manufacturing systems. Along with improving operational effectiveness and product uniformity, this potent combination of AI and 3D printing also propels the creation of intelligent manufacturing systems that are capable of self-learning. This confluence has the potential to completely transform sectors including consumer products, healthcare, construction, and aerospace as it develops. This comprehensive review explores how AI enhances the capabilities of 3D printing, with a focus on process optimization, defect detection, and intelligent control mechanisms. Moreover, unresolved challenges are highlighted—including data scarcity, limited generalizability across printers and materials, certification barriers in safety-critical domains, computational costs, and the need for explainable AI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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28 pages, 6036 KB

Open AccessReview

Green Composites in Additive Manufacturing: A Combined Review and Bibliometric Exploration

by Maria Tănase and Cristina Veres

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(9), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9090301 - 1 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2268

Abstract

This review provides a comprehensive analysis of recent developments in the additive manufacturing of green composites, with a particular focus on their mechanical behavior. A bibliometric analysis of 482 research articles indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection and published between 2015 [...] Read more.

This review provides a comprehensive analysis of recent developments in the additive manufacturing of green composites, with a particular focus on their mechanical behavior. A bibliometric analysis of 482 research articles indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection and published between 2015 and 2025 reveals a sharp increase in publications, with dominant contributions from countries such as China, India, and the United States, as well as strong collaboration networks centered on materials science and polymer engineering. Thematic clustering highlights a growing emphasis on natural fiber reinforcement, biodegradable matrices, and performance optimization. Despite these advances, few studies have combined bibliometric analysis with a technical evaluation of mechanical performance, leaving a gap in understanding the relationship between research trends and material or process optimization. Building on these insights, the review synthesizes current knowledge on material composition, print parameters, infill design, and post-processing, identifying their combined effects on tensile strength, stiffness, and durability. The study concludes that multi-variable optimization—encompassing fiber-matrix compatibility, print architecture, and thermal control—is essential to achieving eco-efficient and high-performance green composites in additive manufacturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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28 pages, 1673 KB

Open AccessReview

Advancement of 3D Bioprinting Towards 4D Bioprinting for Sustained Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering from Biopolymers

by Maryam Aftab, Sania Ikram, Muneeb Ullah, Shahid Ullah Khan, Abdul Wahab and Muhammad Naeem

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(8), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9080285 - 21 Aug 2025

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4996

Abstract

The transition from three-dimensional (3D) to four-dimensional (4D)-bioprinting marks a significant advancement in tissue engineering and drug delivery. 4D-bioprinting offers the potential to more accurately mimic the adaptive qualities of living tissues due to its dynamic flexibility. Structures created with 4D-bioprinting can change [...] Read more.

The transition from three-dimensional (3D) to four-dimensional (4D)-bioprinting marks a significant advancement in tissue engineering and drug delivery. 4D-bioprinting offers the potential to more accurately mimic the adaptive qualities of living tissues due to its dynamic flexibility. Structures created with 4D-bioprinting can change shape in response to internal and external stimuli. This article reviews the background, key concepts, techniques, and applications of 4D-bioprinting, focusing on its role in tissue scaffolding and drug delivery. We discuss the limitations of traditional 3D-bioprinting in providing customized and sustained medication release. Shape memory polymers and hydrogels are examples of new responsive materials enabled by 4D-bioprinting that can enhance drug administration. Additionally, we provide a thorough analysis of various biopolymers used in drug delivery systems, including cellulose, collagen, alginate, and chitosan. The use of biopolymers in 4D-printing significantly increases material responsiveness, allowing them to react to stimuli such as temperature, light, and humidity. This capability enables complex designs with programmable shape and function changes. The expansion and contraction of hydrogels in response to temperature changes offer a practical method for controlled drug release. 4D-bioprinting has the potential to address significant challenges in tissue regeneration and medication administration, spurring ongoing research in this technology. By providing precise control over cell positioning and biomaterial integration, traditional 3D-bioprinting has evolved into 4D-bioprinting, enhancing the development of tissue constructs. 4D-bioprinting represents a paradigm shift in tissue engineering and biomaterials, offering enhanced possibilities for creating responsive, adaptive structures that address clinical needs. Researchers can leverage the unique properties of biopolymers within the 4D-printing framework to develop innovative approaches for tissue regeneration and drug delivery, leading to advanced treatments in regenerative medicine. One potential future application is in vivo tissue regeneration using bioprinted structures that can enhance the body’s natural healing capabilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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38 pages, 4194 KB

Open AccessReview

Recent Trends and Future Directions in 3D Printing of Biocompatible Polymers

by Maryam Aftab, Sania Ikram, Muneeb Ullah, Niyamat Khan, Muhammad Naeem, Muhammad Amir Khan, Rakhmonov Bakhrombek Bakhtiyor o’g’li, Kamalova Sayyorakhon Salokhiddin Qizi, Oribjonov Otabek Erkinjon Ugli, Bekkulova Mokhigul Abdurasulovna and Oribjonova Khadisakhon Abdumutallib Qizi

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(4), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9040129 - 14 Apr 2025

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 8626

Abstract

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting using biocompatible polymers has emerged as a revolutionary technique in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. These biopolymers mimic the extracellular matrix (ECM) and enhance cellular behavior. The current review presents recent advancements in additive manufacturing processes including Stereolithography (SLA), Fused [...] Read more.

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting using biocompatible polymers has emerged as a revolutionary technique in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. These biopolymers mimic the extracellular matrix (ECM) and enhance cellular behavior. The current review presents recent advancements in additive manufacturing processes including Stereolithography (SLA), Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), and inkjet printing. It also explores the fundamentals of 3D printing and the properties of biocompatible polymers for 3D bioprinting. By mixing biopolymers, enhancing rheological characteristics, and adding bioactive components, further advancements have been made for organ transplantation, drug development, and tissue engineering. As research progresses, the potential for 3D bioprinting to fundamentally transform the healthcare system is becoming obvious and clear. However, the therapeutic potential of printed structures is hindered by issues such as material anisotropy, poor mechanical properties, and the need for more biocompatible and biodegradable architectures. Future research should concentrate on optimizing the 3D bioprinting process using sophisticated computational techniques, systematically examining the characteristics of biopolymers, customizing bioinks for different cell types, and exploring sustainable materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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