Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology

18 pages, 1632 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of an Eight-Week Plyometric Training Intervention on Neuromuscular Performance, Musculotendinous Stiffness, and Directional Speed in Elite Polish Badminton Athletes

by Mariola Gepfert, Artur Gołaś, Robert Roczniok, Jan Walencik, Kamil Węgrzynowicz and Adam Zając

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030304 - 5 Aug 2025

Abstract

Background: This study aimed to examine the effects of an 8-week plyometric training program on lower-limb explosive strength, jump performance, musculotendinous stiffness, reactive strength index (RSI), and multidirectional speed in elite Polish badminton players. Methods: Twenty-four athletes were randomly assigned to [...] Read more.

Background: This study aimed to examine the effects of an 8-week plyometric training program on lower-limb explosive strength, jump performance, musculotendinous stiffness, reactive strength index (RSI), and multidirectional speed in elite Polish badminton players. Methods: Twenty-four athletes were randomly assigned to either an experimental group (n = 15), which supplemented their regular badminton training with plyometric exercises, or a control group (n = 15), which continued standard technical training. Performance assessments included squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), single-leg jumps, sprint tests (5 m, 10 m), lateral movements, musculotendinous stiffness, and RSI measurements. Results: The experimental group showed statistically significant improvements in jump height, power output, stiffness, and 10 m sprint and lateral slide-step performance (p < 0.05), with large effect sizes. No significant changes were observed in the control group. Single-leg jump improvements suggested potential benefits for addressing lower-limb asymmetries. Conclusions: An 8-week plyometric intervention significantly enhanced lower-limb explosive performance and multidirectional movement capabilities in young badminton players. These findings support the integration of targeted plyometric training into regular training programs to optimize physical performance, improve movement efficiency, and potentially reduce injury risk in high-intensity racket sports. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Performance: Training Strategies to Improve Strength, Speed, Power, and Endurance)

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4 pages, 176 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue “Efficiency in Kinesiology: Innovative Approaches in Enhancing Motor Skills for Athletic Performance, 3rd Edition”

by Vincenzo Sorgente and Diego Minciacchi

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030303 - 5 Aug 2025

Abstract

The third edition of the Special Issue “Efficiency in Kinesiology: Innovative Approaches in Enhancing Motor Skills for Athletic Performance 3 [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Efficiency in Kinesiology: Innovative Approaches in Enhancing Motor Skills for Athletic Performance, 3rd Edition)

15 pages, 958 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can Plantar Pressure Distribution During Gait Be Estimated from Quiet Stance in Healthy Individuals?

by Marta Mirando, Chiara Pavese, Valeria Pingue, Stefania Sozzi and Antonio Nardone

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030301 - 5 Aug 2025

Abstract

Objectives: We assessed the difference between quiet stance and gait in the spatial distribution and intensity of foot plantar pressures and whether it is possible to estimate the distribution during gait from data obtained during stance. Methods: A total of 60 [...] Read more.

Objectives: We assessed the difference between quiet stance and gait in the spatial distribution and intensity of foot plantar pressures and whether it is possible to estimate the distribution during gait from data obtained during stance. Methods: A total of 60 healthy subjects with a mean age of 31.0 ± 9.4 years performed two trials for quiet stance and four trials for gait on a baropodometric walkway with their eyes open. Foot plantar pressures were recorded from 10 areas of the foot sole. Results: During quiet stance, the highest plantar pressure occurred at metatarsal heads (M2 to M4) and the medial (MH) and lateral halves of the heel (LH). During gait, the profile of plantar pressure values was like that during stance, but significantly higher. The differences concentrated at the big toe (T1), M2 to M4, MH, and LH, whilst toes (T2,3,4,5) and midfoot (MF) showed the smallest difference. A significant positive correlation was found between the corresponding areas of foot pressure during gait and stance. Conclusions: During quiet stance and gait, the overall profile of plantar pressure distribution was similar. During quiet stance, the subjects loaded more on the heels, in keeping with the known position of the center of pressure just in front of the ankles. During gait, higher pressures on the metatarsal areas are related to the forward propulsion of the center of mass. The correlation between the corresponding areas of foot pressure during gait and stance suggests that the pressure distribution during gait can partly be estimated from that during stance. This finding might be useful in most clinical settings when a single sensorized platform rather than a complete walkway is available. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Posture, Balance, and Gait: Assessment Techniques and Rehabilitation Strategies)

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11 pages, 614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Race Pace Using Critical Swimming Speed During 10 km Open-Water Swimming Competition

by Yasunori Fujito, Tomomi Fujimoto, Reira Hara, Ryuhei Yoshida and Kazuo Funato

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 302; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030302 - 3 Aug 2025

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Abstract

Background: Estimating race times for open-water swimming based on pool swimming times could be useful for talent identification and training optimisation. We aimed to compare the swimming speeds of the world’s top and other swimmers in the 2023 Aquatics Championship men’s 10 [...] Read more.

Background: Estimating race times for open-water swimming based on pool swimming times could be useful for talent identification and training optimisation. We aimed to compare the swimming speeds of the world’s top and other swimmers in the 2023 Aquatics Championship men’s 10 km OWS race. Methods: Sixty-five swimmers were divided into four groups: G1 (1st–10th positions), G2 (11st–30th positions), G3 (31st–47th positions), and G4 (48th–65th positions). Swimming speed, stroke frequency (SF), and stroke length (SL) for each lap (laps 1–6) were recorded. Critical speed (CS) was calculated from each participant’s personal best times in the 400, 800, and 1500 m freestyle events in the pool. Swimming speed against CS was calculated (%CS). Results: The top performance group (G1) maintained their swimming speed from beginning (lap 1, 1.53 m/s) to end (lap 6, 1.50 m/s), at 92.7 ± 1.9% of CS, characterised by longer SL (1.26 m) and lower SF (72.86 rpm). G3 and G4 were unable to maintain their swimming speed, which decreased from G3: 97.64 ± 1.62% and G4: 96.10 ± 1.96% of CS at lap 1 to G3: 88.39 ± 3.78% and G4: 85.13 ± 5.04% at lap 6. This reduction in swimming speed is consistent with the increased reliance on anaerobic metabolism reported in previous studies under similar conditions. Conclusions: Race pacing for maintaining speeds of 92%CS throughout the race could be an important resilient index in open-water swimming. %CS might be a useful index for estimating the athletic performance level in open-water swimming. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Athletic Training and Human Performance)

17 pages, 5464 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Association Between Stiffness of the Deep Fibres of the Tibialis Anterior Muscle and Seiza Posture Performance After Ankle Fracture Surgery

by Hayato Miyasaka, Bungo Ebihara, Takashi Fukaya, Koichi Iwai, Shigeki Kubota and Hirotaka Mutsuzaki

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030300 - 1 Aug 2025

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Abstract

Background: Seiza, a traditional sitting posture requiring deep ankle plantarflexion and knee flexion, often becomes difficult after ankle fracture surgery because of restricted mobility. Increased stiffness of the tibialis anterior (TA) muscle, particularly in its deep and superficial fibres, may limit [...] Read more.

Background: Seiza, a traditional sitting posture requiring deep ankle plantarflexion and knee flexion, often becomes difficult after ankle fracture surgery because of restricted mobility. Increased stiffness of the tibialis anterior (TA) muscle, particularly in its deep and superficial fibres, may limit plantarflexion and affect functional recovery. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between TA muscle stiffness, assessed using shear wave elastography (SWE), and the ability to assume the seiza posture after ankle fracture surgery. We also sought to determine whether the stiffness in the deep or superficial TA fibres was more strongly correlated with seiza ability. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 38 patients who underwent open reduction and internal fixation for ankle fractures were evaluated 3 months postoperatively. Seiza ability was assessed using the ankle plantarflexion angle and heel–buttock distance. The shear moduli of the superficial and deep TA fibres were measured using SWE. Ankle range of motion, muscle strength, and self-reported seiza pain were also measured. Multiple linear regression was used to identify the predictors of seiza performance. Results: The shear moduli of both deep (β = −0.454, p < 0.001) and superficial (β = −0.339, p = 0.017) TA fibres independently predicted ankle plantarflexion angle during seiza (adjusted R², 0.624). Pain during seiza was significantly associated with reduced plantarflexion, whereas muscle strength was not a significant predictor. Conclusions: TA muscle stiffness, especially in the deep fibres, was significantly associated with limited postoperative seiza performance. Targeted interventions that reduce deep TA stiffness may enhance functional outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Functional Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System)

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14 pages, 1227 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reliability and Inter-Device Agreement Between a Portable Handheld Ultrasound Scanner and a Conventional Ultrasound System for Assessing the Thickness of the Rectus Femoris and Vastus Intermedius

by Carlante Emerson, Hyun K. Kim, Brian A. Irving and Efthymios Papadopoulos

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030299 - 1 Aug 2025

Viewed by 68

Abstract

Background: Ultrasound (U/S) can be used to evaluate skeletal muscle characteristics in clinical and sports settings. Handheld U/S devices have recently emerged as a cheaper and portable alternative to conventional U/S systems. However, further research is warranted on their reliability. We assessed [...] Read more.

Background: Ultrasound (U/S) can be used to evaluate skeletal muscle characteristics in clinical and sports settings. Handheld U/S devices have recently emerged as a cheaper and portable alternative to conventional U/S systems. However, further research is warranted on their reliability. We assessed the reliability and inter-device agreement between a handheld U/S device (Clarius L15 HD₃) and a more conventional U/S system (GE LOGIQ e) for measuring the thickness of the rectus femoris (RF) and vastus intermedius (VI). Methods: Cross-sectional images of the RF and VI muscles were obtained in 20 participants by two assessors, and on two separate occasions by one of those assessors, using the Clarius L15 HD₃ and GE LOGIQ e devices. RF and VI thickness measurements were obtained to determine the intra-rater reliability, inter-rater reliability, and inter-device agreement. Results: All intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were above 0.9 for intra-rater reliability (range: 0.94 to 0.97), inter-rater reliability (ICC: 0.97), and inter-device agreement (ICC: 0.98) when comparing the two devices in assessing RF and VI thickness. For the RF, the Bland–Altman plot revealed a mean difference of 0.06 ± 0.07 cm, with limits of agreement ranging from 0.21 to −0.09, whereas for the VI, the Bland–Altman plot showed a mean difference of 0.07 ± 0.10 cm, with limits of agreement ranging from 0.27 to −0.13. Conclusions: The handheld Clarius L15 HD₃ was reliable and demonstrated high agreement with the more conventional GE LOGIQ e for assessing the thickness of the RF and VI in young, healthy adults. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Kinesiology and Biomechanics)

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21 pages, 1306 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dual Quaternion-Based Forward and Inverse Kinematics for Two-Dimensional Gait Analysis

by Rodolfo Vergara-Hernandez, Juan-Carlos Gonzalez-Islas, Omar-Arturo Dominguez-Ramirez, Esteban Rueda-Soriano and Ricardo Serrano-Chavez

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 298; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030298 - 1 Aug 2025

Viewed by 115

Abstract

Background: Gait kinematics address the analysis of joint angles and segment movements during walking. Although there is work in the literature to solve the problems of forward (FK) and inverse kinematics (IK), there are still problems related to the accuracy of the estimation [...] Read more.

Background: Gait kinematics address the analysis of joint angles and segment movements during walking. Although there is work in the literature to solve the problems of forward (FK) and inverse kinematics (IK), there are still problems related to the accuracy of the estimation of Cartesian and joint variables, singularities, and modeling complexity on gait analysis approaches. Objective: In this work, we propose a framework for two-dimensional gait analysis addressing the singularities in the estimation of the joint variables using quaternion-based kinematic modeling. Methods: To solve the forward and inverse kinematics problems we use the dual quaternions’ composition and Damped Least Square (DLS) Jacobian method, respectively. We assess the performance of the proposed methods with three gait patterns including normal, toe-walking, and heel-walking using the RMSE value in both Cartesian and joint spaces. Results: The main results demonstrate that the forward and inverse kinematics methods are capable of calculating the posture and the joint angles of the three-DoF kinematic chain representing a lower limb. Conclusions: This framework could be extended for modeling the full or partial human body as a kinematic chain with more degrees of freedom and multiple end-effectors. Finally, these methods are useful for both diagnostic disease and performance evaluation in clinical gait analysis environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics and Neuromuscular Control of Gait and Posture—2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 910 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Annual Performance Progression in Swimming Across Competition Levels and Race Distances

by Jesús J. Ruiz-Navarro and Dennis-Peter Born

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 297; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030297 - 31 Jul 2025

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Abstract

Objective: As performance progression provides an essential indicator for talent selection and development, this study aimed to compare annual swimming performance progression between different competitive levels and to establish benchmarks for long-term athlete development. Methods: Annual best times of swimmers who competed up [...] Read more.

Objective: As performance progression provides an essential indicator for talent selection and development, this study aimed to compare annual swimming performance progression between different competitive levels and to establish benchmarks for long-term athlete development. Methods: Annual best times of swimmers who competed up to the age of 21 years and achieved over 450 World Aquatics points were extracted from the database of European Aquatics. A total of 13,310 male and 7798 female pool swimmers of all race distances were grouped into three performance levels. Results: The results showed a continuous decline in annual performance progression throughout the years across all race distances (all p < 0.001) and in both sexes. There were differences between performance level across the age groups for all race distances in male swimmers, but only for the 100–400 m races in females (p < 0.05). Absolute performance showed significant main effects for level and age over all race distances for both sexes (all p < 0.001). Conclusions: Annual performance progression of swimmers consistently decreases across the competitive lifetime in both sexes, regardless of race distance and performance level. The event-specific benchmarks should be used as a framework to set realistic goals for both sexes and swimmers of different competitive levels, as well as to guide swimmers throughout their careers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Approaches in Monitoring Individual Sports)

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14 pages, 1173 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biomechanical Alterations in the Unweight Phase of the Single-Leg Countermovement Jump After ACL Reconstruction

by Roberto Ricupito, Marco Bravi, Fabio Santacaterina, Giandomenico Campardo, Riccardo Guarise, Rosalba Castellucci, Ismail Bouzekraoui Alaoui and Florian Forelli

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030296 - 30 Jul 2025

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Abstract

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLr) often leads to asymmetries between limbs, with variable return-to-performance rates in athletes. The single-leg countermovement jump (SLCMJ) is commonly used to assess postoperative knee function. However, limited research has explored deficits specifically during the unweighting phase of [...] Read more.

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLr) often leads to asymmetries between limbs, with variable return-to-performance rates in athletes. The single-leg countermovement jump (SLCMJ) is commonly used to assess postoperative knee function. However, limited research has explored deficits specifically during the unweighting phase of the jump. Methods: This study assessed 53 recreational athletes (11 females, 42 males) between 6 and 9 months post-ACLr using a dual force plate system (1000 Hz). Each participant performed three maximal-effort SLCMJs per limb. Outcome measures included jump height, negative peak velocity, minimum force, and center of mass (COM) displacement. Paired t-tests and Wilcoxon tests were used to compare the ACLr limb with the contralateral limb. Results: Compared to the healthy limb, the ACLr limb showed significantly lower negative peak velocity (−0.80 ± 0.40 m/s vs. −0.94 ± 0.40 m/s, p < 0.001), higher minimum force (36.75 ± 17.88 kg vs. 32.05 ± 17.25 kg, p < 0.001), and reduced COM displacement (−17.62 ± 6.25 cm vs. −19.73 ± 5.34 cm, p = 0.014). Eccentric phase duration did not differ significantly. Conclusions: Athletes post-ACLr demonstrate altered neuromuscular control during the early SLCMJ phase. These findings highlight the importance of rehabilitation strategies targeting eccentric strength and symmetry restoration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Movement Analysis in Sports and Physical Therapy)

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17 pages, 2144 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Percutaneous Electrolysis, Percutaneous Peripheral Nerve Stimulation, and Eccentric Exercise for Shoulder Pain and Functionality in Supraspinatus Tendinopathy: A Single-Blind Randomized Clinical Trial

by Jorge Góngora-Rodríguez, Manuel Rodríguez-Huguet, Daniel Rodríguez-Almagro, Rocío Martín-Valero, Pablo Góngora-Rodríguez, Carmen Ayala-Martínez and Miguel Ángel Rosety-Rodríguez

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030295 - 30 Jul 2025

Viewed by 487

Abstract

Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of Percutaneous Electrolysis (PE), Percutaneous peripheral Nerve Stimulation (PNS), and Eccentric Exercise (EE) in patients with supraspinatus tendinopathy. Methods: Forty-six participants with supraspinatus tendinopathy were randomly allocated to either an invasive therapy group [...] Read more.

Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of Percutaneous Electrolysis (PE), Percutaneous peripheral Nerve Stimulation (PNS), and Eccentric Exercise (EE) in patients with supraspinatus tendinopathy. Methods: Forty-six participants with supraspinatus tendinopathy were randomly allocated to either an invasive therapy group (four sessions in four weeks of PE+PNS and EE program) or a conventional physical therapy group (ten sessions for 2 weeks). The multimodal physical program included Ultrasound therapy (US), Transcutaneous Electric Nerve Stimulation (TENS) and the same EE program. The Numerical Pain Rating Scale (NPRS), shoulder Range of Motion (ROM), Pressure Pain Threshold (PPT), and disability (DASH and SPADI) were measured at baseline, at the end of treatment, and at 12- and 24-weeks follow-up. Results: The PE+PNS+EE group demonstrated consistently greater and statistically significant improvements across nearly all pain, mobility, and functional outcomes at all follow-up points (post-treatment, 12-weeks, and 24-weeks) compared to the TENS+US+EE group, with generally medium to large effect sizes. Conclusions: This study concludes that the combined PE+PNS+EE intervention offers safe and effective treatment for supraspinatus tendinopathy, demonstrating statistically significant improvements in pain, mobility, and function compared to conventional electrotherapy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Functional Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System)

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10 pages, 621 KiB

Open AccessReview

Optimizing Hip Abductor Strengthening for Lower Extremity Rehabilitation: A Narrative Review on the Role of Monster Walk and Lateral Band Walk

by Ángel González-de-la-Flor

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030294 - 30 Jul 2025

Viewed by 379

Abstract

Introduction: Hip abductor strength is essential for pelvic stability, lower limb alignment, and injury prevention. Weaknesses of the gluteus medius and minimus contribute to various musculoskeletal conditions. Lateral band walks and monster walks are elastic resistance exercises commonly used to target the [...] Read more.

Introduction: Hip abductor strength is essential for pelvic stability, lower limb alignment, and injury prevention. Weaknesses of the gluteus medius and minimus contribute to various musculoskeletal conditions. Lateral band walks and monster walks are elastic resistance exercises commonly used to target the hip abductors and external rotators in functional, weight-bearing tasks. Therefore, the aim was to summarize the current evidence on the biomechanics, muscle activation, and clinical applications of lateral and monster band walks. Methods: This narrative review was conducted following the SANRA guideline. A comprehensive literature search was performed across PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus up to April 2025. Studies on the biomechanics, electromyography, and clinical applications of lateral band walks and monster walks were included, alongside relevant evidence on hip abductor strengthening. Results: A total of 13 studies were included in the review, of which 4 specifically investigated lateral band walk and/or monster walk exercises. Lateral and monster walks elicit moderate to high activation of the gluteus medius and maximus, especially when performed with the band at the ankles or forefeet and in a semi-squat posture. This technique minimizes compensation from the tensor fasciae latae and promotes selective gluteal recruitment. Proper execution requires control of the trunk and pelvis, optimal squat depth, and consistent band tension. Anatomical factors (e.g., femoral torsion), sex differences, and postural variations may influence movement quality and necessitate tailored instruction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports—2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 660 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Relationship Between Game Performance and Physical Demands in Youth Male Basketball Players

by Javier Espasa-Labrador, Carlos Martínez-Rubio, Franc García, Azahara Fort-Vanmeergaehe, Jordi Guarch and Julio Calleja-González

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 293; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030293 - 29 Jul 2025

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Abstract

Background: Understanding the relationship between physical demands and game performance is essential to optimize player development and management in basketball. This study aimed to examine the association between game performance and physical demands in youth male basketball players. Methods: Fifteen players (16.3 ± [...] Read more.

Background: Understanding the relationship between physical demands and game performance is essential to optimize player development and management in basketball. This study aimed to examine the association between game performance and physical demands in youth male basketball players. Methods: Fifteen players (16.3 ± 0.7 years) from a Spanish 4th division team were monitored over seven official games. Game performance variables were extracted from official statistics, including traditional and advanced metrics. Physical demands were monitored using an Electronic Performance Tracking System device, combining a positioning system and inertial sensors. Partial correlations, controlling for minutes played, were calculated to explore associations between physical demands and performance variables, both for the entire team and by playing position. Results: Significant correlations between physical demands and game performance were observed. Points scored correlated strongly with total distance and high-intensity accelerations, while assists correlated with high-intensity decelerations. Inertial metrics, such as player load and the number of jumps, showed large correlations with points, two-point attempts, and the efficiency rating. Positional analysis revealed stronger and more numerous correlations for centers compared to guards and forwards. Inertial sensor-derived metrics exhibited a greater number and strength of correlations than positioning metrics. Conclusions: Game performance and physical demands are intrinsically related, with specific patterns varying by playing position. Inertial sensors provide valuable complementary information to positioning systems for assessing physical demands in basketball. These findings can assist practitioners in tailoring monitoring and training strategies to optimize performance and manage player workload effectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives on Kinesiology and Functional Morphology in Team Sports)

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27 pages, 2593 KiB

Open AccessReview

Mobile Health Interventions for Individuals with Type 2 Diabetes and Overweight or Obesity—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Carlos Gomez-Garcia, Carol A. Maher, Borja Sañudo and Jose Manuel Jurado-Castro

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030292 - 29 Jul 2025

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Abstract

Background: Type 2 diabetes (T2D) and overweight or obesity are strongly associated, with a high prevalence of these concomitant conditions contributing significantly to global healthcare costs. Given this burden, there is an urgent need for effective interventions. Mobile health (mHealth) technologies represent [...] Read more.

Background: Type 2 diabetes (T2D) and overweight or obesity are strongly associated, with a high prevalence of these concomitant conditions contributing significantly to global healthcare costs. Given this burden, there is an urgent need for effective interventions. Mobile health (mHealth) technologies represent a promising strategy to address both conditions simultaneously. Objectives: This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of mHealth-based interventions for the management of adults with T2D and overweight/obesity. Specifically, it assessed the quantitative impact of these interventions on glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), body weight, triglycerides, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels. Methods: A systematic search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases from inception to 9 July 2025. The inclusion criteria focused on randomized controlled trials (RCTs) using mHealth interventions in adults with T2D and overweight/obesity, reporting HbA1c or weight as primary or secondary outcomes. The risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool 2. A total of 13 RCTs met the inclusion criteria. Results: Meta-analysis indicated significant improvements after 6–12 months of intervention in HbA1c (MD −0.23; 95% CI −0.36 to −0.10; p < 0.001; I² = 72%), body weight (MD −2.47 kg; 95% CI −3.69 to −1.24; p < 0.001; I² = 79%), total cholesterol (MD −0.23; 95% CI −0.39 to −0.07; p = 0.004; I² = 0%), and LDL (MD −0.27; 95% CI −0.42 to −0.12; p < 0.001; I² = 0%). Conclusions: mHealth interventions are effective and scalable for managing T2D and obesity, particularly when incorporating wearable technologies to improve adherence. Future research should focus on optimizing personalization, engagement strategies, and long-term implementation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Technology in Exercise Science: From Performance to Health Applications)

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11 pages, 868 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

A Case Study on the Development of a High-Intensity Interval Training Set for a National-Level Middle-Distance Swimmer: The Conception of the Faster-than-Race Pace Test Set

by Konstantinos Papadimitriou, Sousana K. Papadopoulou, Evmorfia Psara and Constantinos Giaginis

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030291 - 29 Jul 2025

Viewed by 228

Abstract

Background: Swimming coaches search for the most efficient training approach and stimuli for swimmers’ improvement. High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is a well-established training approach used by coaches to accelerate swimmers’ improvement. A HIIT variation, which has lately been discussed by many coaches about [...] Read more.

Background: Swimming coaches search for the most efficient training approach and stimuli for swimmers’ improvement. High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is a well-established training approach used by coaches to accelerate swimmers’ improvement. A HIIT variation, which has lately been discussed by many coaches about its possible effectiveness on performance, is Ultra Short Race Pace Training (USRPT). The present case study aimed to examine the effect of a faster-than-race pace test set (FRPtS) on the performance of a middle-distance (MD) swimmer at the freestyle events. Methods: This case study included a 21-year-old national-level MD swimmer with 16 years of swimming experience. The swimmer followed 11 weeks of FRPtS sets in a 17-week training intervention. The FRPtS sets were repeated two to three times per week, the volume ranged from 200 m to 1200 m, and the distances that were used were 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m at a faster pace than the 400 m. Descriptive statistics were implemented, recording the average with standard deviation (number in parentheses), the sum, and the percentages (%). Results: According to the results, the swimmer improved his personal best (PB) and season best (SB) performance in the events of 200 m and 400 m freestyle. Specifically, the improvement from his PB performance was 2.9% (−3.49 s) and 1.0% (−2.55 s), whereas in his SB performance it was 2.9% (−3.53 s) and 4.4% (−11.43 s) for the 200 and 400 m freestyle, respectively. Conclusions: Concluding, FRPtS is assumed to have beneficial effects on the swimming performance of MD events. However, further crossover or parallel studies on different swimming events with more participants and biomarkers must be conducted to clarify the effects of that kind of training on swimming performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Performance: Training Strategies to Improve Strength, Speed, Power, and Endurance)

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12 pages, 396 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Surf’s Up for Postural Stability: A Descriptive Study of Physical Activity, Balance, Flexibility, and Self-Esteem in Healthy Adults

by Guillermo De Castro-Maqueda, Miguel Ángel Rosety-Rodríguez, Macarena Rivero-Vila, Jorge Del Rosario Fernández-Santos and Teppei Abiko

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030290 - 29 Jul 2025

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Abstract

Background: This study examines balance, flexibility and self-esteem among healthy individuals who engage in surfing compared to those who do not surf. Methods: A cross-sectional study design was conducted with 124 participants divided into the following groups: Group 1: Surfers n = 42; [...] Read more.

Background: This study examines balance, flexibility and self-esteem among healthy individuals who engage in surfing compared to those who do not surf. Methods: A cross-sectional study design was conducted with 124 participants divided into the following groups: Group 1: Surfers n = 42; Group 2: individuals performing over 3 h of physical activity per week n = 43; and Group 3: individuals performing fewer than 3 h of physical activity per week n = 39. To assess balance, the Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT) and the Flamenco Test (FBT) were used, the sit-and-reach test (SRT) was used to measure hamstring extensibility, the Rosenberg Scale was used to measure self-esteem, and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) was used to measure physical activity levels. Results: Regarding descriptive characteristics, G1 participants were significant older than those of G2 and G3 (p < 0.05 and p < 0.001, respectively). Moreover, there was a higher proportion of females in G3 than in G1 and G2 (p < 0.05). The results revealed significant differences in balance between the surfers and those engaging in fewer than 3 h of activity per week (p < 0.05). G1 obtained significantly higher results in SEBT-left leg than G2 and G3 (p < 0.001) and higher result in SEBT-right leg and FBT than G3 (p < 0.05) but no significant differences in self-esteem were found. Significant differences in flexibility were observed between males and females (p < 0.001). Conclusions: This result suggests that surfing could have a positive effect on balance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Posture, Balance, and Gait: Assessment Techniques and Rehabilitation Strategies)

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14 pages, 14504 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of a 10-Week Strength Training Program on Physical Performance and Match External Load in Young Elite Female Soccer Players

by Sefika Pelin Bal, Luis Manuel Martínez-Aranda, Peter Krustrup and Javier Raya-González

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030289 - 28 Jul 2025

Viewed by 362

Abstract

Background: Soccer is a physically demanding sport characterized by frequent high-intensity efforts, which are particularly relevant in women’s competitions. Improving high-speed running and aerobic capacity has been linked to better on-field performance. Strength training has shown promise in enhancing these physical attributes, but [...] Read more.

Background: Soccer is a physically demanding sport characterized by frequent high-intensity efforts, which are particularly relevant in women’s competitions. Improving high-speed running and aerobic capacity has been linked to better on-field performance. Strength training has shown promise in enhancing these physical attributes, but its application in young female soccer players remains underexplored. This study aimed to investigate the effects of a 10-week in-season strength training program on physical performance and match running demands in young female soccer players. Methods: Thirty-two U18 Danish female professional soccer players from two comparable teams voluntarily participated in the study. Teams were allocated to either an experimental group, performing twice-weekly strength training (EG, n = 16) or a control group (CG, n = 16). Vertical jump performance and Yo-Yo IR2 performance as an estimation for maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max) were assessed both pre and post intervention. Additionally, players’ match external demands (i.e., total distance, distance covered at speeds above 23 km·h⁻¹, and maximum velocity achieved) were monitored using Global Positioning System devices during four matches before and after the intervention. Results: Significant within-group differences were observed across all variables for the EG (p = 0.001; ES = 1.08 to 1.45, large), without differences in the CG (p > 0.01). Between-group analysis indicated significant differences favoring the EG in all variables (F = 27.40 to 47.17; p = 0.001). Conclusions: The application of a 10-week strength training program led to improvements in physical and match running performance among young female soccer players, underscoring the importance of incorporating strength training programs into female soccer periodization to enhance performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Strength and Resistance Training: Best Practices Applied to Sports Disciplines and Performance—2nd Edition)

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11 pages, 246 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wearable Sensor Assessment of Gait Characteristics in Individuals Awaiting Total Knee Arthroplasty: A Cross-Sectional, Observational Study

by Elina Gianzina, Christos K. Yiannakopoulos, Elias Armenis and Efstathios Chronopoulos

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 288; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030288 - 28 Jul 2025

Viewed by 242

Abstract

Background: Gait impairments are common in individuals with knee osteoarthritis awaiting total knee arthroplasty, affecting their mobility and quality of life. This study aimed to assess and compare biomechanical gait features between individuals awaiting total knee arthroplasty and healthy, non-arthritic controls, focusing on [...] Read more.

Background: Gait impairments are common in individuals with knee osteoarthritis awaiting total knee arthroplasty, affecting their mobility and quality of life. This study aimed to assess and compare biomechanical gait features between individuals awaiting total knee arthroplasty and healthy, non-arthritic controls, focusing on less-explored variables using sensor-based measurements. Methods: A cross-sectional observational study was conducted with 60 participants: 21 individuals awaiting total knee arthroplasty and 39 nonarthritic controls aged 64–85 years. Participants completed a standardized 14 m walk, and 17 biomechanical gait parameters were measured using the BTS G-Walk inertial sensor. Key variables, such as stride duration, cadence, symmetry indices, and pelvic angles, were analyzed for group differences. Results: The pre-total knee arthroplasty group exhibited significantly longer gait cycles and stride durations (p < 0.001), reduced cadence (p < 0.001), and lower gait cycle symmetry index (p < 0.001) than the control group. The pelvic angle symmetry indices for tilt (p = 0.014), rotation (p = 0.002), and obliquity (p < 0.001) were also lower. Additionally, the pre-total knee arthroplasty group had lower propulsion indices for both legs (p < 0.001) and a lower walking quality index on the right leg (p = 0.005). The number of elaborated steps was significantly greater in the pre-total knee arthroplasty group (left, p < 0.001, right: p < 0.001). No significant differences were observed in any other gait parameters. Conclusions: This study revealed significant gait impairment in individuals awaiting total knee arthroplasty. Although direct evidence for prehabilitation is lacking, future research should explore whether targeted approaches, such as strengthening exercises or gait retraining, can improve gait and functional outcomes before surgery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Posture, Balance, and Gait: Assessment Techniques and Rehabilitation Strategies)

13 pages, 1449 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cardiocirculatory and Metabolic Responses to Low- and High-Load Squat Exercise in Young and Middle-Aged Individuals

by Alessandro L. Colosio, Massimo Teso, Alberto Bottari, Luca Ferrari, Gianluca Bochicchio, Jan Boone and Silvia Pogliaghi

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030287 - 25 Jul 2025

Viewed by 377

Abstract

Objectives: The aim of this study was to assess the safety and feasibility of resistance training (RT) in middle-aged and young individuals by examining cardiocirculatory and metabolic responses to squat performed under low and high external loads as per current exercise prescription [...] Read more.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to assess the safety and feasibility of resistance training (RT) in middle-aged and young individuals by examining cardiocirculatory and metabolic responses to squat performed under low and high external loads as per current exercise prescription guidelines. Methods: Eighteen RT-trained individuals (nine middle-aged individuals, including eight women who were equally distributed) performed a cycling incremental test for the determination of their maximal aerobic capacity and three sessions of RT, respectively, to determine their one repetition maximum (1RM) of squat and their physiological responses during different training protocols of squat with equal training loads (3 × 12 at 55% 1RM vs. 5 × 5 at 80% 1RM). Whole-body metabolic (oxygen update and blood lactate) and cardiocirculatory (heart rate and blood pressure) responses and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were compared across age groups and % 1RM to determine the metabolic stimulus and cardiovascular strain imposed by this form of training. Results: Young and middle-aged individuals exhibited similar cardiocirculatory responses to RT, with the only exception being a higher diastolic response in the middle-aged group for both protocols (present also at rest). No difference was found between the two age groups in terms of metabolic response and RPE. 80% 1RM induced a similar cardiocirculatory response and a higher RPE but a lower metabolic response compared to 55% 1RM. Conclusions: While no difference in physiological responses was found between the groups, the lower-load and higher-repetition training scheme demonstrated better time efficiency, metabolic activation, and perceived effort with equivalent cardiocirculatory strain. These findings support the safety of RT and can guide practitioners in the design of training protocols. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sports Medicine and Nutrition)

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16 pages, 1817 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Is Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu a Traumatic Sport? Survey on Italian Athletes’ Rehabilitation and Return to Sport

by Fabio Santacaterina, Christian Tamantini, Giuseppe Camarro, Sandra Miccinilli, Federica Bressi, Loredana Zollo, Silvia Sterzi and Marco Bravi

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030286 - 25 Jul 2025

Viewed by 370

Abstract

Background: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) is a physically demanding sport associated with a notable risk of musculoskeletal injuries. Understanding injury patterns, rehabilitation approaches, and psychological readiness to return to sport (RTS) is essential for prevention and management strategies. This study aimed to investigate injury [...] Read more.

Background: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) is a physically demanding sport associated with a notable risk of musculoskeletal injuries. Understanding injury patterns, rehabilitation approaches, and psychological readiness to return to sport (RTS) is essential for prevention and management strategies. This study aimed to investigate injury characteristics among Italian BJJ athletes, assess their rehabilitation processes and psychological recovery, and identify key risk factors such as belt level, body mass index (BMI), and training load. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted among members of the Italian BJJ community, including amateur and competitive athletes. A total of 360 participants completed a 36-item online questionnaire. Data collected included injury history, rehabilitation strategies, RTS timelines, and responses to the Injury-Psychological Readiness to Return to Sport (I-PRRS) scale. A Random Forest machine learning algorithm was used to identify and rank potential injury risk factors. Results: Of the 360 respondents, 331 (92%) reported at least one injury, predominantly occurring during training sessions. The knee was the most frequently injured joint, and the action “attempting to pass guard” was the most reported mechanism. Most athletes (65%) returned to training within one month. BMI and age emerged as the most significant predictors of injury risk. Psychological readiness scores indicated moderate confidence, with the lowest levels associated with playing without pain. Conclusions: Injuries in BJJ are common, particularly affecting the knee. Psychological readiness, especially confidence in training without pain, plays a critical role in RTS outcomes. Machine learning models may aid in identifying individual risk factors and guiding injury prevention strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Sports-Related Health Issues, 2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 851 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Does Physical Activity Affect the Mental Health of Adults with Intellectual Disability? A Cross-Sectional Study Analyzing the Complex Interplay Between Variables

by Tommaso Piva, Andrea Raisi, Valentina Zerbini, Sabrina Masotti, Erica Menegatti, Alessandro Grande, Giovanni Grazzi, Gianni Mazzoni, Emilio Paolo Visintin, Martino Belvederi Murri and Simona Mandini

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030285 - 24 Jul 2025

Viewed by 248

Abstract

Background: Individuals with intellectual disability face an increased risk of mental health issues compared to the general population. Despite the proven efficacy of physical activity (PA) in improving anxiety and depression in the general population, little is known about this relationship in adults [...] Read more.

Background: Individuals with intellectual disability face an increased risk of mental health issues compared to the general population. Despite the proven efficacy of physical activity (PA) in improving anxiety and depression in the general population, little is known about this relationship in adults with intellectual disability and the factors that influence it. The purpose of the study was to determine whether a correlation exists between PA and perceived levels of anxiety and depression, and assess gender disparities in PA and mental health. Method: People with intellectual disability were recruited from day centers and sports events. The amount of PA was evaluated through the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Perceived mental health was assessed through the Zung Self-Rating Anxiety (ZAS) and Depression Scale (ZDS). Results: In total, 99 adults (34 females, aged 33 ± 12) participated in the study. A gender disparity was found in anxiety levels, while depression, PA, and type of sport participation did not differ between males and females. Multiple regression analysis highlights how the depression score was significantly predicted by gender (β = −3.57, p = 0.015), intellectual disability level (β =−3.08, p < 0.008), and PA (β =−0.10, p= 0.001), while anxiety was influenced by gender (β = −4.48, p = 0.003) and intellectual disability level (β = −3.23, p = 0.007). Conclusions: These findings underscore the relevance of physical activity as a factor associated with lower depressive symptoms in adults with intellectual disability, highlighting its potential role in mental health promotion within this population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Exercise for Health Promotion)

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12 pages, 262 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sex Differences in Bench Press Strength and Power: A Velocity-Based Analysis Adjusted for Body Composition

by Olga López-Torres, Raúl Nieto-Acevedo, Amelia Guadalupe-Grau and Valentín Emilio Fernández Elías

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 284; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030284 - 24 Jul 2025

Viewed by 749

Abstract

Background: Resistance training (RT) promotes muscle hypertrophy and strength gains in both men and women. However, sex differences in neuromuscular performance, muscle fiber composition, and the hormonal environment influence strength and power adaptations. While men generally exhibit greater absolute and relative strength, it [...] Read more.

Background: Resistance training (RT) promotes muscle hypertrophy and strength gains in both men and women. However, sex differences in neuromuscular performance, muscle fiber composition, and the hormonal environment influence strength and power adaptations. While men generally exhibit greater absolute and relative strength, it remains unclear to what extent these differences persist across various load intensities. A better understanding of sex-specific strength and power profiles may help optimize training strategies. The aim of this study was to compare strength and power performance during the bench press exercise in physically active males and females, relative to body mass and fat-free mass (FFM). Methods: Twenty-nine physically active individuals (16 men: 21.3 ± 4.1 years, 13 women: 22.6 ± 4.9 years) performed a one-repetition maximum (1RM) test and an incremental velocity-based assessment at 45%, 55%, 65%, 75%, and 85% of the 1RM using a Smith machine. The barbell velocity was measured via a linear transducer, with the mean propulsive velocity (MPV) recorded for each load. Power-related variables (e.g., peak force [F0], maximal velocity [V0], and maximal power [Pmax]) were analyzed. To account for differences in body composition, data were adjusted for body mass and FFM. Results: Men exhibited significantly greater strength and power than women across most loads when adjusted for both body mass and fat-free mass (FFM) (p < 0.05). These differences were particularly pronounced when normalized to FFM (45–75%1RM; p = 0.001–0.031), with large effect sizes observed (ηp² = 0.185–0.383). Notably, sex differences in mean propulsive velocity (MPV) disappeared at 85%1RM (p = 0.208; ηp² = 0.06), suggesting that maximal neuromuscular recruitment may minimize sex-related disparities at higher intensities. Furthermore, men demonstrated significantly higher values in six of the seven power-related variables, with no significant differences in the %1RM required to achieve an optimal power output. Conclusions: These findings confirm that men exhibit greater strength and power than women, even after adjusting for body composition. However, at high relative loads (≥85%1RM), sex differences in movement velocity appear to diminish, likely due to similar recruitment patterns of high-threshold motor units. These results highlight the importance of sex-specific resistance training programs, particularly in relation to load prescription and the application of velocity-based training methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Strength and Resistance Training: Best Practices Applied to Sports Disciplines and Performance—2nd Edition)

12 pages, 1202 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Overweight to Severe Obesity: Physical Activity and Behavioural Profiles in a Large Clinical Cohort

by Francesca Campoli, Elvira Padua, Lucio Caprioli, Saeid Edriss, Giuseppe Annino, Vincenzo Bonaiuto and Mauro Lombardo

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 283; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030283 - 24 Jul 2025

Viewed by 242

Abstract

Background: Behavioural heterogeneity in obesity is increasingly recognised, but how specific dietary patterns, food preferences and physical activity vary between obesity classes remains poorly characterised. Methods: We analysed behavioural, dietary, and lifestyle data from 1366 adults attending a tertiary obesity clinic in Italy. [...] Read more.

Background: Behavioural heterogeneity in obesity is increasingly recognised, but how specific dietary patterns, food preferences and physical activity vary between obesity classes remains poorly characterised. Methods: We analysed behavioural, dietary, and lifestyle data from 1366 adults attending a tertiary obesity clinic in Italy. Participants were stratified into five obesity classes defined by BMI. Age-adjusted regression models and chi-square tests with Bonferroni correction were used to examine associations between obesity severity and key behavioural outcomes, including food preferences, eating behaviours, physical activity, and self-reported sleep quality. Results: The prevalence of uncontrolled eating, skipping meals, and fast eating significantly increased with obesity severity after adjusting for age (all p < 0.05). Preference for yoghurt and legumes declined with increasing BMI, whereas preferences for meat and dairy remained stable. Age-adjusted sport participation decreased progressively, with significantly lower odds in Obesity I, II, and IIIA compared to the Overweight group. Sleep quality was highest among overweight participants and declined with obesity severity; night-time awakenings were most frequent in Obesity IIIB. Conclusions: Distinct behavioural and lifestyle traits, including lower sport participation, reduced preference for fibre-rich foods, and greater frequency of uncontrolled, fast, and irregular eating, showed overall trends across obesity classes. While these findings suggest the presence of behavioural phenotypes, their interpretation is limited by the cross-sectional design and the use of self-reported, non-validated measures. Future studies should incorporate objective assessments to inform targeted obesity interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Kinanthropometry: Techniques and Applications in Sports and Health)

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17 pages, 1656 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Effect of Normobaric Hypoxia on Performance in Repeated Wingate Tests with Longer Recovery Periods and Neuromuscular Fatigue in Triathletes: Sex Differences

by Víctor Toro-Román, Pol Simón-Sánchez, Víctor Illera-Domínguez, Carla Pérez-Chirinos, Sara González-Millán, Lluís Albesa-Albiol, Sara Ledesma, Vinyet Solé, Oriol Teruel and Bruno Fernández-Valdés

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 282; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030282 - 22 Jul 2025

Viewed by 312

Abstract

Background: Repeated high-intensity intervals under normoxic (NOR) and hypoxic (HYP) conditions is a training strategy used by athletes. Although different protocols have been used, the effect of longer recovery between repetitions is unclear. In addition, information on the effect of repeated high-intensity [...] Read more.

Background: Repeated high-intensity intervals under normoxic (NOR) and hypoxic (HYP) conditions is a training strategy used by athletes. Although different protocols have been used, the effect of longer recovery between repetitions is unclear. In addition, information on the effect of repeated high-intensity intervals on HYP in women is scarce. Aims: To analyse the differences between sexes and between conditions (NOR and HYP) in Repeated Wingate (RW) performance and neuromuscular fatigue in triathletes. Methods: A total of 12 triathletes (men: n = 7, 23.00 ± 4.04 years; women: n = 5, 20.40 ± 3.91) participated in this randomised, blinded, crossover study. In two separate sessions over seven days, participants performed 3 × 30” all out with 7′ of recovery in randomised NOR (fraction of inspired oxygen: ≈20%; ≈300 m altitude) and HYP (fraction of inspired oxygen: ≈15.5%; ≈2500 m altitude) conditions. Before and after RW, vertical jump tests were performed to assess neuromuscular fatigue. Oxygen saturation, power, perceived exertion, muscle soreness and heart rate parameters were assessed. Results: Significant differences were reported between sexes in the parameters of vertical jump, oxygen saturation, RW performance and heart rate (p < 0.05). However, between conditions (NOR and HYP), only differences in oxygen saturation were reported (p < 0.05). No significant differences were reported between conditions (NOR and HYP) in RW performance, neuromuscular fatigue, muscle soreness and perception of exertion. Conclusions: A 3 × 30” RW protocol with 7′ recovery in HYP could have no negative consequences on performance, neuromuscular fatigue and perception of exertion in triathletes compared to NOR, independently of sex. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Training in Hypoxia: Physiological Changes and Performance)

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14 pages, 2150 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Transcriptional Signatures of Aerobic Exercise-Induced Muscle Adaptations in Humans

by Pranav Iyer, Diana M. Asante, Sagar Vyavahare, Lee Tae Jin, Pankaj Ahluwalia, Ravindra Kolhe, Hari Kashyap, Carlos Isales and Sadanand Fulzele

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030281 - 19 Jul 2025

Viewed by 425

Abstract

Background: Aerobic exercise induces a range of complex molecular adaptations in skeletal muscle. However, a complete understanding of the specific transcriptional changes following exercise warrants further research. Methods: This study aimed to identify gene expression patterns following acute aerobic exercise by [...] Read more.

Background: Aerobic exercise induces a range of complex molecular adaptations in skeletal muscle. However, a complete understanding of the specific transcriptional changes following exercise warrants further research. Methods: This study aimed to identify gene expression patterns following acute aerobic exercise by analyzing Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) datasets. We performed a comparative analysis of transcriptional profiles of related genes in two independent studies, focusing on both established and novel genes involved in muscle physiology. Results: Our analysis revealed ten consistently upregulated and eight downregulated genes across both datasets. The upregulated genes were predominantly associated with mitochondrial function and cellular respiration, including MDH1, ATP5MC1, ATP5IB, and ATP5F1A. Conversely, downregulated genes such as YTHDC1, CDK5RAP2, and PALS2 were implicated in vascular structure and cellular organization. Importantly, our findings also revealed novel exercise-responsive genes not previously characterized in this context. Among these, MRPL41 and VEGF were significantly upregulated and are associated with p53-mediated apoptotic signaling and fatty acid metabolism, respectively. Novel downregulated genes included LIMCH1, CMYA5, and FOXJ3, which are putatively involved in cytoskeletal dynamics and muscle fiber type specification. Conclusions: These findings enhance our understanding of the transcriptional landscape of skeletal muscle following acute aerobic exercise and identify novel molecular targets for further investigation in the fields of exercise physiology and metabolic health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Physiology of Training—2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 732 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Preliminary Investigation of the Efficacy of Far-Infrared-Emitting Garments in Enhancing Objective and Subjective Recovery Following Resistance Exercise

by Jonathon R. Lever, Cara Ocobock, Valerie Smith-Hale, Casey J. Metoyer, Alan Huebner, John P. Wagle and Jonathan D. Hauenstein

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 280; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030280 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 402

Abstract

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of far-infrared (FIR) garments in enhancing recovery following resistance exercise in recreationally active individuals. Methods: Ten recreationally active adults (six females, four males; aged 20.7 ± 3.2 years) completed a resistance exercise protocol and were [...] Read more.

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of far-infrared (FIR) garments in enhancing recovery following resistance exercise in recreationally active individuals. Methods: Ten recreationally active adults (six females, four males; aged 20.7 ± 3.2 years) completed a resistance exercise protocol and were randomly selected to wear either FIR (n = 5) or placebo (n = 5) tights post-exercise. The FIR garments incorporated Celliant-based fibers emitting wavelengths in the 2.5–20 µm range. The participants’ recovery was assessed using countermovement jump (CMJ) metrics, including their jump height, takeoff velocity, and modified reactive strength index (mRSI), along with their fatigue biomarkers and subjective recovery perceptions. The CMJ performance was tested immediately post-exercise and at 24 and 48 h. Results: The FIR garments led to significant improvements in neuromuscular recovery, with greater increases in the jump height, takeoff velocity, and mRSI observed at 48 h post-exercise (p < 0.05). Notably, the mRSI showed earlier improvements at 24 h. The fatigue biomarkers did not differ between the groups (p > 0.05), suggesting localized rather than systemic recovery effects. The participants in the FIR group reported faster subjective recovery, with a readiness to resume activity perceived within 48 h, compared to slower recovery in the placebo group. Conclusions: FIR garments may enhance neuromuscular recovery and subjective recovery perceptions following resistance exercise, likely by improving the peripheral blood flow, metabolic clearance, and tissue oxygenation. These findings suggest that FIR garments may be effective in enhancing both neuromuscular and perceived recovery following resistance exercise, supporting their potential use as a post-exercise recovery tool. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Athletic Training and Human Performance)

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12 pages, 2851 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Mechanical Variables in Different Exercises Performed with a Rotational Inertial Device in Professional Soccer Players: A Pilot Study

by Álvaro Murillo-Ortiz, Luis Manuel Martínez-Aranda, Moisés Falces-Prieto, Samuel López-Mariscal, Francisco Javier Iglesias-García and Javier Raya-González

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 279; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030279 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 323

Abstract

Background: Soccer performance is largely dependent on high-intensity, unilateral actions such as sprints, jumps, and changes of direction. These demands can lead to strength and power differences between limbs, highlighting the importance of individualised assessment in professional players. Rotational inertial devices offer a [...] Read more.

Background: Soccer performance is largely dependent on high-intensity, unilateral actions such as sprints, jumps, and changes of direction. These demands can lead to strength and power differences between limbs, highlighting the importance of individualised assessment in professional players. Rotational inertial devices offer a valuable method to evaluate and train these mechanical variables separately for each leg. The aim of this study was twofold: (a) to characterise the mechanical variables derived from several lower-body strength exercises performed on rotational inertial devices, all targeting the same muscle group; and (b) to compare the mechanical variables between the dominant and non-dominant leg for each exercise. Methods: Twenty-six male professional soccer players (age = 26.3 ± 5.1 years; height = 182.3 ± 0.6 cm; weight = 75.9 ± 5.9 kg; body mass index = 22.8 ± 1.1 kg/m²; fat mass percentage = 9.1 ± 0.6%; fat-free mass = 68.8 ± 5.3 kg), all belonging to the same professional Belgian team, voluntarily participated in this study. The players completed a single assessment session consisting of six unilateral exercises (i.e., quadriceps hip, hamstring knee, adductor, quadriceps knee, hamstring hip, and abductor). For each exercise, they performed two sets of eight repetitions with each leg (i.e., dominant and non-dominant) in a randomised order. Results: The quadriceps hip exercise resulted in higher mechanical values compared to the quadriceps knee exercise in both limbs (p < 0.004). Similarly, the hamstring hip exercise produced greater values across all variables and limbs (p < 0.004), except for peak force, where the hamstring knee exercise exhibited higher values (p < 0.004). The adductor exercise showed higher peak force values for the dominant limb (p < 0.004). The between-limb comparison revealed differences only in the abductor exercise (p < 0.004). Conclusions: These findings suggest the necessity of prioritising movement selection based on targeted outcomes, although it should be considered that the differences between limb differences are very limited. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports-Specific Conditioning: Techniques and Applications)

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19 pages, 3292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Demographic, Epidemiological and Functional Profile Models of Greek CrossFit Athletes in Relation to Shoulder Injuries: A Prospective Study

by Akrivi Bakaraki, George Tsirogiannis, Charalampos Matzaroglou, Konstantinos Fousekis, Sofia A. Xergia and Elias Tsepis

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 278; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030278 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 351

Abstract

Objectives: Shoulder injury prevalence appears to be the highest among all injuries in CrossFit (CF) athletes. Nevertheless, there is no evidence deriving from prospective studies to explain this phenomenon. The purpose of this study was to document shoulder injury incidence in CF [...] Read more.

Objectives: Shoulder injury prevalence appears to be the highest among all injuries in CrossFit (CF) athletes. Nevertheless, there is no evidence deriving from prospective studies to explain this phenomenon. The purpose of this study was to document shoulder injury incidence in CF participants over a 12-month period and prospectively investigate the risk factors associated with their demographic, epidemiological, and functional characteristics. Methods: The sample comprised 109 CF athletes in various levels. Participants’ data were collected during the baseline assessment, using a specially designed questionnaire, as well as active range of motion, muscle strength, muscle endurance, and sport-specific tests. Non-parametric statistical tests and inferential statistics were employed, and in addition, linear and regression models were created. Logistic regression models incorporating the study’s continuous predictors to classify injury occurrence in CF athletes were developed and evaluated using the Area Under the ROC Curve (AUC) as the performance metric. Results: A shoulder injury incidence rate of 0.79 per 1000 training hours was recorded. Olympic weightlifting (45%) and gymnastics (35%) exercises were associated with shoulder injury occurrence. The most frequent injury concerned rotator cuff tendons (45%), including lesions and tendinopathies, exhibiting various severity levels. None of the examined variables individually showed a statistically significant correlation with shoulder injuries. Conclusions: This is the first study that has investigated prospectively shoulder injuries in CrossFit, creating a realistic profile of these athletes. Despite the broad spectrum of collected data, the traditional statistical approach failed to identify shoulder injury predictors. This indicates the necessity to explore this topic using more sophisticated techniques, such as advanced machine learning approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Basis of Applied Kinesiology, Innovations and Clinical Applications in Musculoskeletal Health)

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12 pages, 2988 KiB

Open AccessReview

Effects of Photomodulation Therapy for Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Yung-An Tsou, Nai-Jen Chang and Wen-Dien Chang

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 277; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030277 - 17 Jul 2025

Viewed by 632

Abstract

Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of photomodulation therapy (PMT) on delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Methods: Controlled studies investigating PMT for DOMS were identified through systematic searches of PubMed and EMBASE databases. Selected articles were reviewed for the effects of [...] Read more.

Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of photomodulation therapy (PMT) on delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Methods: Controlled studies investigating PMT for DOMS were identified through systematic searches of PubMed and EMBASE databases. Selected articles were reviewed for the effects of PMT, and the outcome data were extracted according to specific assessments and time points for meta-analysis. Results: A total of 14 studies met the inclusion criteria, all of which evaluated the effects of PMT following the induction of DOMS. The wavelength of PMT ranged from 660 to 950 nm and was applied to one to six points on the affected muscles. Four studies provided sufficient data for quantitative synthesis, comparing PMT with the placebo in terms of visual analog scale (VAS) scores and muscle strength at 24, 48, 72, and 96 h after the induction of DOMS. The results demonstrated a statistically significant reduction in VAS scores at 72 h (pooled SMD = −0.55) and 96 h (pooled SMD = −0.56), indicating a moderate effect. Muscle strength showed significant improvement at 24 h (pooled SMD = 0.97) and 48 h (pooled SMD = 0.99), reflecting a large effect size. Conclusions: These findings suggested that PMT may be an effective intervention for managing DOMS, with potential effects on reducing pain, enhancing muscle strength, and decreasing biochemical markers of muscle damage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muscle Stress and Damage in Sport and Exercise)

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22 pages, 1837 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anthropometric Measurements for Predicting Low Appendicular Lean Mass Index for the Diagnosis of Sarcopenia: A Machine Learning Model

by Ana M. González-Martin, Edgar Samid Limón-Villegas, Zyanya Reyes-Castillo, Francisco Esparza-Ros, Luis Alexis Hernández-Palma, Minerva Saraí Santillán-Rivera, Carlos Abraham Herrera-Amante, César Octavio Ramos-García and Nicoletta Righini

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 276; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030276 - 17 Jul 2025

Viewed by 541

Abstract

Background: Sarcopenia is a progressive muscle disease that compromises mobility and quality of life in older adults. Although dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is the standard for assessing Appendicular Lean Mass Index (ALMI), it is costly and often inaccessible. This study aims to [...] Read more.

Background: Sarcopenia is a progressive muscle disease that compromises mobility and quality of life in older adults. Although dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is the standard for assessing Appendicular Lean Mass Index (ALMI), it is costly and often inaccessible. This study aims to develop machine learning models using anthropometric measurements to predict low ALMI for the diagnosis of sarcopenia. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted on 183 Mexican adults (67.2% women and 32.8% men, ≥60 years old). ALMI was measured using DXA, and anthropometric data were collected following the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) protocols. Predictive models were developed using Logistic Regression (LR), Decision Trees (DTs), Random Forests (RFs), Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), and LASSO regression. The dataset was split into training (70%) and testing (30%) sets. Model performance was evaluated using classification performance metrics and the area under the ROC curve (AUC). Results: ALMI indicated strong correlations with BMI, corrected calf girth, and arm relaxed girth. Among models, DT achieved the best performance in females (AUC = 0.84), and ANN indicated the highest AUC in males (0.92). Regarding the prediction of low ALMI, specificity values were highest in DT for females (100%), while RF performed best in males (92%). The key predictive variables varied depending on sex, with BMI and calf girth being the most relevant for females and arm girth for males. Conclusions: Anthropometry combined with machine learning provides an accurate, low-cost approach for identifying low ALMI in older adults. This method could facilitate sarcopenia screening in clinical settings with limited access to advanced diagnostic tools. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Kinanthropometry: Techniques and Applications in Sports and Health)

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17 pages, 547 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Are There Differences in Motor Coordination Among Spanish Primary School Students?

by Ricardo Fernández-Vázquez, Martín Barcala-Furelos, Javier Cachón-Zagalaz, Víctor Arufe-Giráldez, Marcos Mecías-Calvo and Rubén Navarro-Patón

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 275; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030275 - 17 Jul 2025

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Abstract

Background: Motor coordination is a fundamental skill in childhood. Factors such as age, sex, and regular sports practice influence its development. However, there is little research that jointly analyzes the impact of these factors on the motor skills and abilities of primary school [...] Read more.

Background: Motor coordination is a fundamental skill in childhood. Factors such as age, sex, and regular sports practice influence its development. However, there is little research that jointly analyzes the impact of these factors on the motor skills and abilities of primary school children. The objective of this study was to analyze what happens to different motor skills and abilities (i.e., locomotor coordination (LC); visuomotor coordination (VC); foot object control coordination (FOCC); hand object control coordination (HOCC); global motor coordination (GMC)) in relation to regular and regulated sports practice (yes vs. no), sex (boys vs. girls), and age (6 to 11 years) in a sample of 663 primary schoolchildren (8.59 ± 1.65 years; 48.26% boys) from Galicia (Spain). Methods: The 3JS test was used to analyze motor coordination. To determine differences between the 3JS variables, a multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was performed based on age, sex, and sports practice, including a BMI category (normal weight, overweight, or obese) as a covariate to avoid potential confounding factors. Results: Statistically significant differences were observed based on age [LC (p < 0.001); VC (p < 0.001); FOCC (p < 0.001); HOCC (p < 0.001); CMG (p < 0.001)], sex [i.e., VC (p < 0.001); FOCC (p < 0.001); HOCC (p < 0.001); CMG (p < 0.001)], and sports practice [i.e., LC (p < 0.001); VC (p = 0.008); HOCC (p < 0.001); CMG (p < 0.001)], after the application of the 3JS battery. Conclusions: Locomotor coordination in Primary Education is modulated by the interaction between age, sex, and sports practice. All of these variables increase with age, with higher scores in boys than in girls, and higher scores in children who participate in sports than in those who do not. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tailoring Physical Activity for the Health and Development of Children and Adolescents)

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J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol., Volume 10, Issue 3 (September 2025) – 72 articles

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