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Optimizing Strength and Resistance Training: Best Practices Applied to Sports Disciplines and Performance—2nd Edition

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A special issue of Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (ISSN 2411-5142). This special issue belongs to the section "Athletic Training and Human Performance".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 May 2026 | Viewed by 36247

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Prof. Dr. Luis Manuel Martínez Aranda

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1. Physical and Sports Performance Research Centre, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, 41013 Seville, Spain
2. SEJ-680: Science-Based Training (SBT) Research Group, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, 41013 Seville, Spain
Interests: strength; resistance exercise; isoinertial training; training optimization; physical performance; skeletal muscle; sports injuries; sports medicine
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Dr. Javier Raya-González

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Grupo de Investigación en Deporte y Educación Física para el Desarrollo Personal y Social (GIDEPSO), Department of Specific Didactics, Faculty of Education Sciences and Psychology, University of Córdoba, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
Interests: strength; resistance exercise; isoinertial training; training optimization; physical performance; sports injuries; sports medicine; team sports performance; workload monitoring
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Strength training plays a fundamental role in enhancing the functional and muscular performance of the human body. Physical conditioning, namely the development of the ability to generate force and muscle power in a specific context and moment, as well as neuromuscular and structural adaptations, benefit from optimized strength training. This Special Issue will explore different methodologies, techniques and practices related to strength training, focusing on the optimization of training processes in order to achieve maximum performance, highlighting the need for careful planning for each individual and discipline.

In this regard, the correct application and optimization of strength training benefit not only practitioners of weight training disciplines, but also athletes in individual and team sports. In these contexts, the careful and precise application of methodology and training optimization becomes crucial, with appropriate techniques being employed to maximize benefits and minimize the risk of injuries in athletes.

Therefore, this Special Issue aims to provide a comprehensive and updated overview of the best practices and techniques applied to strength and resistance training, contributing to continuous advancement in sports performance optimization. Additionally, it seeks to provide valuable information for athletes, coaches and physical conditioning professionals. Original research papers and literature reviews are welcome.

Prof. Dr. Luis Manuel Martínez Aranda
Dr. Javier Raya-González
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology is an international peer-reviewed open access quarterly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

skeletal muscle
muscle hypertrophy
resistance exercise
eccentric training
power output
plyometrics
strength adaptations
training volume
sports performance
conditioning

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Related Special Issue

Optimizing Strength and Resistance Training: Best Practices Applied to Sports Disciplines and Performance in Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (10 articles)

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Research

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11 pages, 314 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of a Muay Thai Championship on Neuromuscular Parameters and Their Relationship with Competitive Outcome: A Pilot Study

by Iván Sotelo-Besada, Sergio López-García, Pelayo Diez-Fernández and Brais Ruibal-Lista

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020142 - 31 Mar 2026

Viewed by 502

Abstract

Background: This study aimed to analyze the acute effects of an official Muay Thai championship on neuromuscular performance, assessing changes in upper- and lower-limb power before and after competition, as well as differences according to competitive outcome (winners vs. losers). Methods: Thirty-three amateur Muay Thai athletes (17 men and 16 women) performed a countermovement jump (CMJ) and a reactive push-up test (RPU) immediately before and after their bouts. Neuromuscular performance changes were analyzed using mixed-design ANOVA, and a binary logistic regression was conducted to examine the association between post-competition performance and match outcome. Results: Significant post-competition declines were observed in both CMJ and RPU performance (p < 0.001), indicating acute neuromuscular fatigue. Men exhibited higher performance values than women in both tests, with sex-specific differences in CMJ fatigue magnitude. When analyzed by competitive outcome, losers showed substantially greater performance decrements than winners, particularly in CMJ. Logistic regression revealed that post-competition CMJ performance was a significant predictor of winning, with higher CMJ values associated with greater odds of competitive success. Conclusions: An official Muay Thai bout induces marked acute neuromuscular fatigue affecting both upper and lower limbs, with greater impairments observed in non-winning athletes. The ability to maintain lower-limb explosive power under fatigue appears to be associated with competitive success. Simple neuromuscular assessments such as CMJ and RPU may be useful tools for monitoring fatigue, guiding tactical decisions, and informing post-competition recovery strategies in Muay Thai athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Strength and Resistance Training: Best Practices Applied to Sports Disciplines and Performance—2nd Edition)

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11 pages, 392 KB

Open AccessArticle

Inspiratory Muscle Performance and Its Correlates Among Division I American Football Players

by Luis A. Feigenbaum, Lawrence P. Cahalin, Jeffrey T. Ruiz, Tristen Asken, Meryl I. Cohen, Vincent A. Scavo, Lee D. Kaplan and Julia L. Rapicavoli

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040470 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 791

Abstract

Background: Inspiratory muscle performance plays a crucial role in athletic demands, yet its associations with anthropometric and positional variables in American football remain underexplored. This study examined relationships between inspiratory metrics and key characteristics in Division I collegiate football players. Methods: Eighty-five Division I collegiate football players (mean academic year in school: 2.87; height: 74.3 inches; weight: 108.13 kg; BMI: 30.21) underwent the Test of Incremental Respiratory Endurance (TIRE) to measure maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP), sustained maximal inspiratory pressure (SMIP), and inspiratory duration (ID). Bivariate and multivariate analyses assessed associations with height, weight, BMI, year in school, offense/defense status, and playing position. Results: Inspiratory performance showed limited associations with anthropometric variables, with only a weak correlation between height and ID. (ρ = 0.243, p = 0.024). No significant differences were observed by year in school or position Conclusions: Inspiratory performance appears largely independent of anthropometric and positional factors; future research should explore targeted respiratory training as a hypothesis rather than a confirmed benefit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Strength and Resistance Training: Best Practices Applied to Sports Disciplines and Performance—2nd Edition)

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11 pages, 1447 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Acute Effect of Warm-Up with Cold Water Immersion upon Calf Raise Performance, Muscle Tension, and Oxygen Saturation

by Roland van den Tillaar, Patrick Lunde and Milosz Mielniczek

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030328 - 27 Aug 2025

Viewed by 5234

Abstract

Objectives: This study investigated the acute effects of pre-exercise cold-water immersion (CWI) on performance, muscle oxygen saturation, and mechanical muscle tension during calf raise training. Method: Twenty-four trained individuals (5 females, 19 males) were randomly assigned to either a CWI group (5 min at 10 ± 1 °C) or a non-CWI group (no intervention). Both groups performed three sets of standing calf raises to failure using a standardized protocol. Load lifted, repetitions, and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded. Muscle oxygenation (SmO₂, total hemoglobin) and mechanical muscle properties (frequency and stiffness) were measured before and after each set. Results: The CWI group showed a significantly greater increase in barbell load from set 1 to set 2 compared to the non-CWI group (from 94.5 ± 18.1 kg to 98.0 ± 18.7 kg, p < 0.01). Repetitions decreased and RPE increased across sets in both groups. The non-CWI group exhibited earlier increases in muscle stiffness and frequency, whereas these responses were delayed in the CWI group. Gastrocnemius SmO₂ increased during the protocol in the non-CWI group only. Total hemoglobin change was greater in the CWI group in set 1. Conclusions: These findings suggest that pre-exercise CWI may acutely enhance performance and delay neuromuscular fatigue without negatively affecting perceived effort. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Strength and Resistance Training: Best Practices Applied to Sports Disciplines and Performance—2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 14504 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of a 10-Week Strength Training Program on Physical Performance and Match External Load in Young Elite Female Soccer Players

by Sefika Pelin Bal, Luis Manuel Martínez-Aranda, Peter Krustrup and Javier Raya-González

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030289 - 28 Jul 2025

Viewed by 3697

Abstract

Background: Soccer is a physically demanding sport characterized by frequent high-intensity efforts, which are particularly relevant in women’s competitions. Improving high-speed running and aerobic capacity has been linked to better on-field performance. Strength training has shown promise in enhancing these physical attributes, but its application in young female soccer players remains underexplored. This study aimed to investigate the effects of a 10-week in-season strength training program on physical performance and match running demands in young female soccer players. Methods: Thirty-two U18 Danish female professional soccer players from two comparable teams voluntarily participated in the study. Teams were allocated to either an experimental group, performing twice-weekly strength training (EG, n = 16) or a control group (CG, n = 16). Vertical jump performance and Yo-Yo IR2 performance as an estimation for maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max) were assessed both pre and post intervention. Additionally, players’ match external demands (i.e., total distance, distance covered at speeds above 23 km·h⁻¹, and maximum velocity achieved) were monitored using Global Positioning System devices during four matches before and after the intervention. Results: Significant within-group differences were observed across all variables for the EG (p = 0.001; ES = 1.08 to 1.45, large), without differences in the CG (p > 0.01). Between-group analysis indicated significant differences favoring the EG in all variables (F = 27.40 to 47.17; p = 0.001). Conclusions: The application of a 10-week strength training program led to improvements in physical and match running performance among young female soccer players, underscoring the importance of incorporating strength training programs into female soccer periodization to enhance performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Strength and Resistance Training: Best Practices Applied to Sports Disciplines and Performance—2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 262 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sex Differences in Bench Press Strength and Power: A Velocity-Based Analysis Adjusted for Body Composition

by Olga López-Torres, Raúl Nieto-Acevedo, Amelia Guadalupe-Grau and Valentín Emilio Fernández Elías

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 284; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030284 - 24 Jul 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 6089

Abstract

Background: Resistance training (RT) promotes muscle hypertrophy and strength gains in both men and women. However, sex differences in neuromuscular performance, muscle fiber composition, and the hormonal environment influence strength and power adaptations. While men generally exhibit greater absolute and relative strength, it remains unclear to what extent these differences persist across various load intensities. A better understanding of sex-specific strength and power profiles may help optimize training strategies. The aim of this study was to compare strength and power performance during the bench press exercise in physically active males and females, relative to body mass and fat-free mass (FFM). Methods: Twenty-nine physically active individuals (16 men: 21.3 ± 4.1 years, 13 women: 22.6 ± 4.9 years) performed a one-repetition maximum (1RM) test and an incremental velocity-based assessment at 45%, 55%, 65%, 75%, and 85% of the 1RM using a Smith machine. The barbell velocity was measured via a linear transducer, with the mean propulsive velocity (MPV) recorded for each load. Power-related variables (e.g., peak force [F0], maximal velocity [V0], and maximal power [Pmax]) were analyzed. To account for differences in body composition, data were adjusted for body mass and FFM. Results: Men exhibited significantly greater strength and power than women across most loads when adjusted for both body mass and fat-free mass (FFM) (p < 0.05). These differences were particularly pronounced when normalized to FFM (45–75%1RM; p = 0.001–0.031), with large effect sizes observed (ηp² = 0.185–0.383). Notably, sex differences in mean propulsive velocity (MPV) disappeared at 85%1RM (p = 0.208; ηp² = 0.06), suggesting that maximal neuromuscular recruitment may minimize sex-related disparities at higher intensities. Furthermore, men demonstrated significantly higher values in six of the seven power-related variables, with no significant differences in the %1RM required to achieve an optimal power output. Conclusions: These findings confirm that men exhibit greater strength and power than women, even after adjusting for body composition. However, at high relative loads (≥85%1RM), sex differences in movement velocity appear to diminish, likely due to similar recruitment patterns of high-threshold motor units. These results highlight the importance of sex-specific resistance training programs, particularly in relation to load prescription and the application of velocity-based training methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Strength and Resistance Training: Best Practices Applied to Sports Disciplines and Performance—2nd Edition)

13 pages, 245 KB

Open AccessArticle

Differences in Strength, Muscle Work, and Hamstring/Quadriceps Ratio in Professional and Junior Elite Basketball Players According to Sex

by Raúl Coto Martín, Néstor Pérez Mallada, María Jesús Martínez Beltrán, Lucía Cuéllar Marín, Pablo José Borrás Luján, Oscar Otín Arroyo, María Ana Sáenz-Nuño and Juan Manuel Arribas-Marín

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020204 - 2 Jun 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3560

Abstract

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury is more prevalent in young athletes and women. A deficit of knee flexor strength and a H/Q strength ratio below 0.6 in athletes are risk factors. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to determine if there are differences in the strength of the knee musculature, joint work, and H/Q ratio between professional and junior elite basketball players and sexes, since there are differences in the incidence of ACL injuries between these groups. Methods: Forty-three professional (27 male and 16 female) and 42 junior elite (28 male and 14 female) basketball players were evaluated. Dynamometric knee flexion and extension measurements were performed on both lower limbs at three angular velocities: 30°/s, 120°/s, and 180°/s. Concentric knee flexion and extension strength variables were measured in Newtons, the strength ratio between flexors and extensors in H/Q ratio, and muscle work (product of force times displacement) in Joules. Comparisons of the measured variables were made between categories and sexes. Results: Significant differences (p < 0.05) were found between categories (professional and junior) in all measured strength parameters as well as in joint work. No differences were found between categories in the H/Q ratios. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were found between sexes in most measured strengths and joint work. However, no differences were found in most of the H/Q ratios. Female basketball players have lower values of strength and muscle work than male players, however, in the H/Q ratio data there are no differences between the two groups. The same occurs between junior and professional athletes. Conclusions: The authors conclude that flexor and extensor strength values should be analyzed in isolation and not in terms of the H/Q ratio. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Strength and Resistance Training: Best Practices Applied to Sports Disciplines and Performance—2nd Edition)

17 pages, 528 KB

Open AccessArticle

Determining the Effects of a 6-Week Training Intervention on Reactive Strength: A Single-Case Experimental Design Approach

by Benjamin Southey, Dirk Spits, Damien Austin, Mark Connick and Emma Beckman

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020191 - 26 May 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3477

Abstract

Objectives: Single-case experimental designs (SCEDs) provide a robust way to observe adaptations to training in highly specific populations. Furthermore, they provide unique insights into inter-participant variance in responses to interventions, which traditional randomized control trials cannot obtain. However, there is limited sports science literature that has applied this methodology to assess the effectiveness of training interventions. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the individual and combined changes to reactive strength following a 6-week strength and plyometric training intervention. Methods: A non-concurrent multiple baseline SCED was used, where four participants completed weekly 10/5 repeated jump (RJ), drop jump (DJ), and loaded squat jumps during a 5–7-week baseline phase and a 6-week intervention phase. The intervention consisted of traditional resistance and plyometric training. Results: The results found inter-participant variance in changes to reactive strength, with some individuals having significant improvements whilst others declined. The combined results found that during the intervention, the reactive strength index (RSI) of the RJ significantly decreased (baseline: 2.15 vs. intervention: 2.0) whilst no change in DJ occurred. This led to a significant increase in the reactive quality ratio (RQR) (baseline: 1.02 vs. intervention: 1.08). Conclusions: These findings highlight the importance of considering individual responses to training reactive strength rather than cohort observations alone, and the SCED is a viable methodology to achieve this. Practitioners should consider exercise selection, maximum strength levels and responsiveness of individuals when prescribing plyometric exercise to improve high and low amplitude reactive strength qualities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Strength and Resistance Training: Best Practices Applied to Sports Disciplines and Performance—2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 4754 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of a Low-Volume Kettlebell Strength Program on Vertical Jump and Isometric Strength in Dancers: A Pilot Study

by Yaiza Taboada-Iglesias, Iria Filgueira-Loureiro, Xoana Reguera-López-de-la-Osa and Águeda Gutiérrez-Sánchez

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020130 - 11 Apr 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2815

Abstract

Objectives: The jumping ability and strength of the lower limbs in dancers are fundamental to their artistic performance. Similarly, the correct placement of the various leg positions, such as parallel and dehors, are essential aspects of dance technique. We aimed to analyze the effectiveness of a modified strength program on jumping capacity in parallel and dehors, and to assess whether this type of training improves the isometric strength of dancers. Methods: An experimental research study was conducted with pre- and post-intervention assessments on a group of nine semi-professional dancers (seven women and two men) (X = 20 years and DT = 6.67), with an average weight of 62.12 ± 7.38 kg and a height of 1.67 ± 0.05 m. Body composition, isometric strength in the lower limbs, and vertical jump capacity with feet in parallel and in the dehors position were analyzed. The “Simple and Sinister” kettlebell training protocol was implemented, reducing the number of sessions and the duration of the program while incorporating a progression in load. Results: Significant changes were observed in both the parallel jump and the dehors position; however, body composition and isometric strength, although showing higher values at the end of the intervention for all variables, did not demonstrate significant improvements. Thus, while in the pre-intervention phase, jump capacity was associated with multiple variables, in the post-intervention phase, an inverse association was found only with the percentage of body fat. Conclusions: A 12-week training program with two sessions per week is sufficient to achieve significant changes in the jumping ability of dancers, but not in the isometric strength of the lower limbs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Strength and Resistance Training: Best Practices Applied to Sports Disciplines and Performance—2nd Edition)

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Review

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24 pages, 1178 KB

Open AccessReview

Effects of Advanced Resistance Training Systems on Muscle Hypertrophy and Strength in Recreationally Trained Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Ioannis Tsartsapakis, Aglaia Zafeiroudi and Charilaos Kouthouris

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(1), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11010080 - 16 Feb 2026

Viewed by 9001

Abstract

Background: Advanced resistance training systems are widely used in practice, yet their comparative effectiveness for hypertrophy and maximal strength in recreationally trained adults remains unclear. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated whether advanced methods provide superior adaptations to traditional multiple-set training and whether specific techniques confer distinct advantages for hypertrophy and maximal strength. Methods: A preregistered systematic search identified randomized and non-randomized controlled trials comparing advanced resistance training systems with traditional multiple-set protocols in recreationally trained adults aged 18–45 years. Outcomes included muscle hypertrophy and maximal strength. Random-effects and fixed-effects models with Knapp–Hartung adjustments were applied, and moderator analyses examined method type, volume equivalence and proximity to failure. Results: Twenty-three studies met the inclusion criteria. When all outcomes were pooled, advanced systems produced a small but statistically significant advantage over traditional training (g = 0.159). Strength outcomes showed a moderate, significant benefit for advanced methods (g = 0.351), whereas hypertrophy effects were small and non-significant (g = 0.046). Rest-pause training demonstrated a modest hypertrophic advantage, while velocity-based training and eccentric overload contributed primarily to strength improvements. Drop sets, tempo-controlled training and cluster-type protocols produced adaptations comparable to traditional sets when volume and effort were matched. Across models, τ² estimates were near zero, indicating minimal between-study heterogeneity. Conclusions: Advanced resistance training systems can be used effectively in recreationally trained adults and may offer advantages for maximal strength without compromising hypertrophy. Their hypertrophic superiority is not supported at the aggregate level, and their use should be guided by specific goals, constraints and individual preferences rather than expectations of universally greater muscle growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Strength and Resistance Training: Best Practices Applied to Sports Disciplines and Performance—2nd Edition)

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