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Optimizing Performance: Training Strategies to Improve Strength, Speed, Power, and Endurance

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A special issue of Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (ISSN 2411-5142). This special issue belongs to the section "Athletic Training and Human Performance".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 October 2025 | Viewed by 4945

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Dr. Athanasios Tsoukos

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Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 17237 Athens, Greece
Interests: strength training; neuromuscular; talent selection; resistance training; speed and sprint performance
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

I have the pleasure of inviting researchers to contribute to this Special Issue of JFMK, which aims to explore diverse training strategies for enhancing athletic performance. Specific focus will be given to improving athletes’ strength, speed, power, and endurance. We seek to promote innovative work and effective methodologies to optimize athletic capabilities. Additionally, we are interested in exploring new devices and sensors that assist coaches in improving these qualities.

We welcome submissions exploring, but not limited to, the following topics:

Effective training methods for developing muscular strength and power;
Innovative approaches for improving running speed and sprint performance;
The integration of resistance training, plyometrics, and other modalities for athletic performance enhancement;
Endurance training and methods to improve aerobic fitness for overall performance optimization;
Advancements in exercise physiology, biomechanics, and sports science related to performance optimization.

Dr. Athanasios Tsoukos
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology is an international peer-reviewed open access quarterly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

muscular strength
muscular power
resistance training
free weights
weight machines
bodyweight exercises
plyometric training
Olympic weightlifting
complex training
endurance training

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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15 pages, 1472 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determinants of 50 m Front Crawl Performance in Adolescent Non-Elite Female Swimmers: A Longitudinal Study

by Mariusz Kuberski, Agnieszka Musial, Michalina Błażkiewicz and Jacek Wąsik

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 274; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030274 - 17 Jul 2025

Viewed by 296

Abstract

Objectives: The aim of this study was to indicate which variables are the most important determinants of swimming results in the 50 m front crawl among non-elite pre-pubertal female swimmers. Methods: The study group consisted of 14 female swimmers (at the time of the research commencement—biological age: 10.52 ± 0.37 years; body mass: 34.99 ± 2.77 kg; height: 146.00 ± 3.05 cm). The study was conducted over three years. The swimmers performed capacity training recommended by the British Swimming Federation. Every 6 months, in the participants the following parameters were measured: percentage of body fat; anthropometric measurements; aerobic and anaerobic capacity; and respiratory parameters: vital capacity—VC, forced expiratory volume—FEV1, and forced vital capacity—FVC. Additionally, a 50 m front crawl swim test was performed. Results: After adjusting for multicollinearity, the most influential determinants of swimming performance were anthropometric measures: shoulder width was the most influential predictor, with a regression coefficient of −0.66, followed by foot length (with a beta of −0.15) and chest depth (with a beta of 0.008). The remaining anthropometric and physical predictors did not contribute to the prediction of 50 m freestyle performance. Conclusions: These research results suggest to coaches and trainers that sports performance in sprint distances in pre-pubertal girls is not determined by aerobic and anaerobic capacity or body fat but is based on the somatic build of the swimmer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Performance: Training Strategies to Improve Strength, Speed, Power, and Endurance)

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12 pages, 606 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High-Intensity Interval Training Improves Cardiovascular Fitness and Induces Left-Ventricular Hypertrophy During Off-Season

by Tomas Venckunas, Birute Gumauskiene, Pornpimol Muanjai, Joan Aureli Cadefau and Sigitas Kamandulis

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 271; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030271 - 16 Jul 2025

Viewed by 435

Abstract

Background: Well-designed endurance training leads to improved cardiovascular fitness and sports performance in prolonged exercise tasks, with the adaptations depending on multiple factors, including the training modality and the population in question. It is still disputable how the type of training affects myocardial remodeling, and the information on myocardial remodeling by high-intensity interval training (HIIT) is particularly scarce. Methods: The current study investigated changes in cardiac structure after volume-progressive HIIT in running mode. As part of their conditioning program, amateur athletes (mean ± SD age of 18.2 ± 1.0 years) exclusively conducted HIIT in a volume-progressive fashion over 7 weeks (a total of 21 sessions). Peak oxygen uptake as well as 200 m and 2000 m running performance were measured, and transthoracic two-dimensional echocardiography was conducted before and after the intervention. Results: Training improved running performance, increased the peak oxygen uptake and left atrium diameter (from 32.0 ± 2.5 to 33.5 ± 2.3 mm; p = 0.01), and induced ~11% thickening of the left-ventricular posterior wall (7.5 ± 0.7 to 8.2 ± 0.4 mm; p = 0.01) and interventricular septum (7.6 ± 0.7 to 8.6 ± 0.9 mm; p = 0.02), but not the dilation of left-ventricular, right-ventricular, or right atrium chambers. Conclusions: HIIT of just 127 km of running per 8.5 h during 7 weeks was sufficient to improve aerobic capacity and running performance, and induce left-ventricular wall hypertrophy and left atrium dilation, in young healthy athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Performance: Training Strategies to Improve Strength, Speed, Power, and Endurance)

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14 pages, 1973 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Short-Duration Ischemic Preconditioning on Horizontal and Vertical Jump Performance in Male and Female Track and Field Jumpers

by Varvara Nektaria Gkari, Athanasios Tsoukos, Nikolaos Aspradakis and Gregory C. Bogdanis

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030265 - 14 Jul 2025

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Abstract

Background: Ischemic preconditioning (IPC) is a non-invasive, time-efficient strategy that has been shown to acutely enhance athletic performance. The present study examined the effects of 5 min of IPC on vertical and horizontal jump performance. A secondary aim was to explore the associations between outcomes of the 5-Hop (5-H) test and drop jump performance, in order to provide further evidence supporting the validity of the 5-H test for assessing reactive strength characteristics in trained jumpers. Methods: Twelve trained track and field jumpers (nine males, three females, age: 23.2 ± 2.9 years; height: 1.76 ± 0.07 m; body mass: 71.5 ± 8.0 kg) completed two conditions: an IPC condition applied to one leg and a control condition applied to the contralateral leg. In the first week, one leg was assigned to IPC and the other to the control condition, while in the second week, the conditions for each leg were reversed. Vertical single-leg performance was evaluated by drop jump (DJ) height, ground contact time, and reactive strength index (RSI). Horizontal jump performance was assessed by a five-hop (5-H) test during which total distance (TD), total time (TT), and reactive hopping index (RHI) were obtained. Results: Compared to the control condition, IPC enhanced DJ height (+ 3.6%) and RSI (+ 7.8%) (p < 0.05, g = 0.16 and 0.32, respectively) and reduced contact time (−4.4% p < 0.05, g = 0.41). Also, IPC resulted in significant improvements in TD (+ 4.1%) and RHI (+ 3.9%) during the 5-H test (p < 0.05, g = 0.32 and 0.42, respectively), while TT remained unchanged. Conclusions: A single cycle of IPC acutely improved vertical and horizontal jump performance and reactive strength indices in trained jumpers. These findings support the use of IPC as a practical, time-efficient method to enhance neuromuscular performance in explosive tasks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Performance: Training Strategies to Improve Strength, Speed, Power, and Endurance)

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16 pages, 1185 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Iliotibial Band Behavior Assessed Through Tensor Fasciae Latae Electromyographic Activity with Different Foot Orthoses in Recreational Runners According to Foot Type: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Ruben Sanchez-Gomez, Álvaro Gómez Carrión, Ismael Ortuño Soriano, Paola Sanz Wozniak, Ignacio Zaragoza García, Fatma Ben Waer, Cristina Iona Alexe and Dan Iulian Alexe

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030237 - 23 Jun 2025

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Abstract

Background: Iliotibial band syndrome (ITBS) through the tensor fascia latae (TFL) is a well-known pathology among runners whose etiology is not completely clear, nor is the effectiveness of plantar insoles for different types of feet known well enough for them to be considered a possible approach for this issue. Objective: to understand how foot type and foot orthotics may influence the electromyographic (EMG) activity of the TFL. Methods: A total of 41 healthy recreational runners (mean age 32.66 ± 3.51) were recruited for the present cross-sectional study, categorizing them as neutral (NEUg = 15), supinators (SUPg = 15), and pronators (PROg = 11) according to the foot postural index, over a period of 11 months. The EMG of the TFL was measured using a surface electromyograph device while they ran on a treadmill at a constant speed of 9 km/h for 3 min, randomly using supinating (SUP), pronating (PRO), or heel lift (TAL) insoles of 5 mm each one, compared to the baseline condition (SIN). The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was performed to check the reproducibility of the tests, pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni adjustment were made, and to test the differences between measurements, the Friedman test was performed. Results: The Shapiro–Wilk test indicated a normal distribution of the sample (p > 0.05). Almost all obtained results showed a “perfect reproducibility” close to one; a significant statistical increase was observed in the mean EMG values from NEUg (87.58 ± 4.81 mV) to SUPg (97.17 ± 4.3 mV) (p < 0.05) during SIN+ basal condition. Additionally, there was a statistical reduction from SIN (87.58 ± 4.81 mV) vs. PRO (74.69 ± 3.77 mV) (p < 0.001) in NEUg and from SIN (97.17 ± 4.3 mV) vs. PRO (90.96 ± 4 mV) (p < 0.001) in SUPg. Conclusions: The SUPg exhibited increased activation of TFL fibers compared to the NEUg, likely due to the biomechanical demands associated with a supinated foot type. In contrast, the use of PRO appeared to promote relaxation of the TFL fibers by inducing internal rotation of the lower limb. Based on these preliminary results from a cross-sectional study in a healthy population, it is recommended to assess foot type when addressing ITBS and to consider the use of PRO as a complementary therapeutic strategy alongside conventional treatments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Performance: Training Strategies to Improve Strength, Speed, Power, and Endurance)

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14 pages, 2603 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pulsed Electromagnetic Field (PEMF) Stimulation Increases Muscle Activity During Exercise in Sedentary People

by Aurelio Trofè, Alessandro Piras, Luca Breviglieri, Alessandra Laffi, Andrea Meoni and Milena Raffi

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020232 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 970

Abstract

Objectives: A pulsed electromagnetic field (PEMF) induces electric currents in biological tissue, enhancing muscle energy expenditure during heavy constant-load exercises. In this paper, we investigate the PEMF effect on muscular activation in male sedentary people. Methods: The surface electromyographic (EMG) activity of the right leg’s vastus medialis (RVM) and biceps femoris (RBF) muscles was recorded and analyzed. The root mean square values were normalized to the peak amplitude observed during maximal voluntary contraction. Measurements were taken at baseline (stationary seated position), during warm-up (unloaded cycling), and throughout 15 min of constant-load exercise performed at moderate intensity. Subjects performed two experimental conditions, when PEMF was turned ON versus OFF. Results: No significant difference was found during the baseline. The analysis during warm-up showed significant differences between conditions (ON vs. OFF) for both muscles (RVM p = 0.019; RBF p < 0.001). The analysis during constant-load exercise showed significant differences between conditions (ON vs. OFF) for RVM only (p = 0.002). Conclusions: This study provides evidence that PEMF stimulation acutely enhances muscle activation, primarily in the vastus medialis, with a comparatively smaller effect on the biceps femoris during moderate-intensity cycling in sedentary young men. The observed increase in EMG activity suggests that PEMF may facilitate neuromuscular excitability and muscle recruitment, potentially through mechanisms related to calcium signaling and enhanced muscle perfusion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Performance: Training Strategies to Improve Strength, Speed, Power, and Endurance)

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28 pages, 1852 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of a 5-Day Back Squat Overreaching Protocol on Strength Performance, Perceived Recovery and Wellness Responses: A Pilot Trial

by Lee Bell, Alan Ruddock, Jordan Boriel, Tom Maden-Wilkinson, Steve W. Thompson, Kieran J. Wright, Kieran Burke and David Rogerson

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020227 - 13 Jun 2025

Viewed by 1297

Abstract

Background: The aim of this study was to characterise the performance, perceptual, and wellness responses to a barbell back squat overreaching training protocol. Methods: Eight trained male participants (age = 24.6 ± 2.8 years; relative to body mass back squat one repetition maximum (1-RM) = 1.9 ± 0.4; training experience = 7.0 ± 3.2 years) participated in a 5-day squat OR protocol (SqOR), followed by a 14-day taper. SqOR consisted of five sets of barbell back squats using 80% of daily adjusted 1-RM. A 40% velocity loss threshold was used to determine the set end point. For performance, isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) peak force (PF), and countermovement jump (CMJ) PF and jump height; for perceptual, perceived recovery scale (PRS); and for wellness, Hooper Wellness Index (HWI), were recorded at baseline, each day of SqOR, and at select intervals during the taper (POST 1 d, 2 d, 7 d, and 14 d). Follow-up back squat 1-RM testing was conducted at POST 7 d and POST 14 d to determine strength-performance changes relative to baseline. Results: Back squat 1-RM increased by 4.8% at POST 7 d and 5.2% at POST 14 d. IMTP PF increased by 10.3% at POST 7 d and 11.4% at POST 14 d relative to the baseline. CMJ PF and jump height decreased during SqOR but returned to baseline by POST 7 d. PRS and HWI worsened during SqOR, with the greatest impairment occurring on day 3 (PRS = −41.5%; HWI = 34.4%), and did not return to baseline until POST 14 d and POST 2 d, respectively. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that a short-term period of planned OR improves muscular strength performance, but the duration of the taper influences when peak strength improvements are observed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Performance: Training Strategies to Improve Strength, Speed, Power, and Endurance)

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11 pages, 868 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

A Case Study on the Development of a High-Intensity Interval Training Set for a National-Level Middle-Distance Swimmer: The Conception of the Faster-than-Race Pace Test Set

by Konstantinos Papadimitriou, Sousana K. Papadopoulou, Evmorfia Psara and Constantinos Giaginis

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030291 - 29 Jul 2025

Abstract

Background: Swimming coaches search for the most efficient training approach and stimuli for swimmers’ improvement. High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is a well-established training approach used by coaches to accelerate swimmers’ improvement. A HIIT variation, which has lately been discussed by many coaches about its possible effectiveness on performance, is Ultra Short Race Pace Training (USRPT). The present case study aimed to examine the effect of a faster-than-race pace test set (FRPtS) on the performance of a middle-distance (MD) swimmer at the freestyle events. Methods: This case study included a 21-year-old national-level MD swimmer with 16 years of swimming experience. The swimmer followed 11 weeks of FRPtS sets in a 17-week training intervention. The FRPtS sets were repeated two to three times per week, the volume ranged from 200 m to 1200 m, and the distances that were used were 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m at a faster pace than the 400 m. Descriptive statistics were implemented, recording the average with standard deviation (number in parentheses), the sum, and the percentages (%). Results: According to the results, the swimmer improved his personal best (PB) and season best (SB) performance in the events of 200 m and 400 m freestyle. Specifically, the improvement from his PB performance was 2.9% (−3.49 s) and 1.0% (−2.55 s), whereas in his SB performance it was 2.9% (−3.53 s) and 4.4% (−11.43 s) for the 200 and 400 m freestyle, respectively. Conclusions: Concluding, FRPtS is assumed to have beneficial effects on the swimming performance of MD events. However, further crossover or parallel studies on different swimming events with more participants and biomarkers must be conducted to clarify the effects of that kind of training on swimming performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Performance: Training Strategies to Improve Strength, Speed, Power, and Endurance)

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