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4 pages, 179 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Assessment of Food Quality and Safety of Cultivated Macroalgae

by Trond Løvdal and Dagbjørn Skipnes

Foods 2022, 11(1), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11010083 - 29 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2422

Abstract

Macroalgae aquaculture is 16 times larger than fish on a mass basis, making macroalgae by far the largest group of aquacultured products [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Food Quality and Safety of Cultivated Macroalgae)

Research

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22 pages, 1546 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Blanching, Freezing, and Fermentation on Physicochemical, Microbial, and Sensory Quality of Sugar Kelp (Saccharina latissima)

by Samuel Akomea-Frempong, Denise I. Skonberg, Mary E. Camire and Jennifer J. Perry

Foods 2021, 10(10), 2258; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10102258 - 23 Sep 2021

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5430

Abstract

Low seaweed consumption in the West is due to lack of availability and consumer familiarity. In this study, the effects of preservation processes on quality aspects of Saccharina latissima products were assessed. First, a blanching (100 °C for 1 or 3 min) treatment [...] Read more.

Low seaweed consumption in the West is due to lack of availability and consumer familiarity. In this study, the effects of preservation processes on quality aspects of Saccharina latissima products were assessed. First, a blanching (100 °C for 1 or 3 min) treatment was used to produce seaweed salad. In a second study, effects of blanching, freezing, and fermentation on kelp quality were assessed and processed kelp was used to produce sauerkraut. Blanching significantly decreased (p ≤ 0.05) the instrumental kelp a* value and firmness. The a* value negatively correlated with overall liking of salads. To prepare sauerkraut, raw, raw/frozen (−20 °C), blanched (100 °C, 1 min), or blanched/frozen kelp were mixed with cabbage, salted, inoculated with starter cultures and fermented. Inconsistent trends in L* values, firmness, and fungi enumeration were observed after fermentation. Consumers evaluated kelp salad (n = 100) and sauerkraut (n = 80) for acceptability. Blanched kelp salad had higher hedonic scores than raw kelp salad. A 100% cabbage sauerkraut control and blanched kelp/cabbage blends were compared; kelp blends were similar to control for appearance, color, and texture but were lower for overall acceptability. Results suggest improved quality and enhanced consumer acceptability of seaweed products with use of minimal processing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Food Quality and Safety of Cultivated Macroalgae)

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13 pages, 2223 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microbial Regulation of Deterioration and Preservation of Salted Kelp under Different Temperature and Salinity Conditions

by Wei Wei, Xin Zhang, Zhaozhi Hou, Xinyu Hu, Yuan Wang, Caizheng Wang, Shujing Yang, Henglin Cui and Lin Zhu

Foods 2021, 10(8), 1723; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10081723 - 26 Jul 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3268

Abstract

High salinity is an effective measure to preserve kelp, but salted kelp can still deteriorate after long-term preservation. In order to clarify the key conditions and microbial behavior of salted kelp preservation, 10% (S10), 20% (S20), and 30% (S30) salt concentrations were evaluated [...] Read more.

High salinity is an effective measure to preserve kelp, but salted kelp can still deteriorate after long-term preservation. In order to clarify the key conditions and microbial behavior of salted kelp preservation, 10% (S10), 20% (S20), and 30% (S30) salt concentrations were evaluated at 25 °C (T25) and 4 °C (T4). After 30 days storage, these salted kelps showed different states including rot (T25S10), softening (T25S20), and undamaged (other samples). By detecting polysaccharide lyase activity and performing high-throughput sequencing of the prokaryotic 16S rRNA sequence and metagenome, we found that deteriorated kelps (T25S10 and T25S20) had significantly higher alginate lyase activity and bacterial relative abundance than other undamaged samples. Dyella, Saccharophagus, Halomonas, Aromatoleum, Ulvibacter, Rhodopirellula, and Microbulbifer were annotated with genes encoding endonuclease-type alginate lyases, while Bacillus and Thiobacillus were annotated as the exonuclease type. Additionally, no alginate lyase activity was detected in undamaged kelps, whose dominant microorganisms were halophilic archaea without alginate lyase-encoding genes. These results indicated that room-temperature storage may promote salted kelp deterioration due to the secretion of bacterial alginate lyase, while ultra-high-salinity and low-temperature storage can inhibit bacterial alginate lyase and promote the growth of halophilic archaea without alginate lyase, thus achieving the preservation of salted kelp. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Food Quality and Safety of Cultivated Macroalgae)

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18 pages, 869 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Saccharina latissima Cultivated in Northern Norway: Reduction of Potentially Toxic Elements during Processing in Relation to Cultivation Depth

by Marthe Jordbrekk Blikra, Xinxin Wang, Philip James and Dagbjørn Skipnes

Foods 2021, 10(6), 1290; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10061290 - 4 Jun 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4988

Abstract

There is an increasing interest in the use of Saccharina latissima (sugar kelp) as food, but the high iodine content in raw sugar kelp limits the daily recommended intake to relatively low levels. Processing strategies for iodine reduction are therefore needed. Boiling may [...] Read more.

There is an increasing interest in the use of Saccharina latissima (sugar kelp) as food, but the high iodine content in raw sugar kelp limits the daily recommended intake to relatively low levels. Processing strategies for iodine reduction are therefore needed. Boiling may reduce the iodine content effectively, but not predictably, since reductions from 38–94% have been reported. Thus, more information on which factors affect the reduction of iodine are needed. In this paper, sugar kelp cultivated at different depths were rinsed and boiled, to assess the effect of cultivation depth on the removal efficacy of potentially toxic elements (PTEs), especially iodine, cadmium, and arsenic, during processing. Raw kelp cultivated at 9 m contained significantly more iodine than kelp cultivated at 1 m, but the difference disappeared after processing. Furthermore, the content of cadmium and arsenic was not significantly affected by cultivation depth. The average reduction during rinsing and boiling was 85% for iodine and 43% for arsenic, but no significant amount of cadmium, lead, or mercury was removed. Cultivation depths determined the relative effect of processing on the iodine content, with a higher reduction for kelp cultivated at 9 m (87%) compared to 1 m (82%). When not taken into consideration, cultivation depth could mask small reductions in iodine content during rinsing or washing. Furthermore, since the final content of PTEs was not dependent on the cultivation depth, the type and extent of processing determines whether cultivation depth should be considered as a factor in cultivation infrastructure design and implementation, or alternatively, in product segmentation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Food Quality and Safety of Cultivated Macroalgae)

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13 pages, 783 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Innovative Ultrasound-Assisted Approaches towards Reduction of Heavy Metals and Iodine in Macroalgal Biomass

by Estefanía Noriega-Fernández, Izumi Sone, Leire Astráin-Redín, Leena Prabhu, Morten Sivertsvik, Ignacio Álvarez and Guillermo Cebrián

Foods 2021, 10(3), 649; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10030649 - 19 Mar 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4165

Abstract

The aim of this work was to evaluate the potential of ultrasound (US), alone or in combination with mild heating and/or EDTA towards reduction of As, Cd, I, and Hg content of Laminaria hyperborea. Concentrations of As, Cd, I, and Hg of 56.29, [...] Read more.

The aim of this work was to evaluate the potential of ultrasound (US), alone or in combination with mild heating and/or EDTA towards reduction of As, Cd, I, and Hg content of Laminaria hyperborea. Concentrations of As, Cd, I, and Hg of 56.29, 0.596, 7340, and <0.01 mg kg⁻¹ of dry weight, respectively, were found in L. hyperborea blades. Treatment with US at 50 °C increased approx. 2-fold the amount of As released, although did not affect significantly the content of Cd or I, as compared to control (no US) samples. Reducing the temperature to 8 °C significantly decreased the effect of US, but heating at 80 °C did not cause a significant effect as compared to treatments at 50 °C. On the other hand, treatment with 0.1 N EDTA at 50 °C enhanced the percentage of Cd released by approximately 7-fold, regardless of sonication. In the present work, the combination of US and EDTA at 50 °C for 5 min led to a significant reduction of the As (32%), Cd (52%) and I (31%) content in L. hyperborea, thus improving the product’s safety for consumers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Food Quality and Safety of Cultivated Macroalgae)

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16 pages, 1838 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Safety and Transfer Study: Transfer of Bromoform Present in Asparagopsis taxiformis to Milk and Urine of Lactating Dairy Cows

by Wouter Muizelaar, Maria Groot, Gert van Duinkerken, Ruud Peters and Jan Dijkstra

Foods 2021, 10(3), 584; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10030584 - 10 Mar 2021

Cited by 85 | Viewed by 17520

Abstract

Enteric methane (CH₄) is the main source of greenhouse gas emissions from ruminants. The red seaweeds Asparagopsis taxiformis (AT) and Asparagopsis armata contain halogenated compounds, including bromoform (CHBr₃), which may strongly decrease enteric CH₄ emissions. Bromoform is known [...] Read more.

Enteric methane (CH₄) is the main source of greenhouse gas emissions from ruminants. The red seaweeds Asparagopsis taxiformis (AT) and Asparagopsis armata contain halogenated compounds, including bromoform (CHBr₃), which may strongly decrease enteric CH₄ emissions. Bromoform is known to have several toxicological effects in rats and mice and is quickly excreted by the animals. This study investigated the transfer of CHBr₃ present in AT to milk, urine, feces, and animal tissue when incorporated in the diet of dairy cows. Twelve lactating Holstein-Friesian dairy cows were randomly assigned to three treatment groups, representing the target dose (low), 2× target dose (medium), and 5× target dose (high). The adaptation period lasted seven days, and subsequently cows were fed AT for 22 days maximally. The transfer of CHBr₃ to the urine at days 1 and 10 (10–148 µg/L) was found with all treatments. On day 1, CHBr₃ was detected in the milk of most cows in the low and medium treatment groups (9.1 and 11 µg/L, respectively), and detected in the milk of one cow in the high treatment group on day 9 (35 µg/L). Bromoform was not detected in milk and urine at day 17, nor at concentrations above the detection limit in feces and collected animal tissues. Two animals (low) were sacrificed, and their rumen wall showed abnormalities. Upon histological examination, signs of inflammation became visible. Animals regularly refused the feed or distinctively selected against AT. In conclusion, within the confines of the present experiment, CHBr₃ does not accumulate in animal tissue, but can be excreted in urine and milk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Food Quality and Safety of Cultivated Macroalgae)

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15 pages, 1588 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Freshness Quality and Shelf Life Evaluation of the Seaweed Ulva rigida through Physical, Chemical, Microbiological, and Sensory Methods

by Fini Sánchez-García, Ignacio Hernández, Víctor M. Palacios and Ana M. Roldán

Foods 2021, 10(1), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10010181 - 18 Jan 2021

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 6268

Abstract

In Europe, the consumption of seaweeds and derived products has increased in recent years, due to the expansion of Asian cuisine and the emergence of many top-level chefs. Often in collaboration with scientists, many have initiated a new gastronomy using algae. However, little [...] Read more.

In Europe, the consumption of seaweeds and derived products has increased in recent years, due to the expansion of Asian cuisine and the emergence of many top-level chefs. Often in collaboration with scientists, many have initiated a new gastronomy using algae. However, little is known about the quality and degree of freshness of seaweeds for direct consumption or fresh use. For this reason, different analytical methods were applied to test sea vegetables and other marine products. These methods included physical (a_w, pH, color, and texture), chemical (total volatile base nitrogen, TVB-N; and trimethylamine, TMA-N) parameters, microbiological count, and sensory evaluation. In this study, freshness quality and shelf life of the green seaweed Ulva rigida (UR) was evaluated during a 12-day period, stored at 4 and 16 °C. The parameters that proved to be most useful for evaluating its freshness were the TVB, TMA, microbiological, and sensory analyses. The physicochemical and microbiological parameters established a shelf life of UR of 6 days for a storage temperature of 16 °C and up to 10 days for a storage temperature of 4 °C. The changes that UR undergoes during its storage from the sensory point of view are more pronounced than those produced from the physicochemical point of view, which can condition its applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Food Quality and Safety of Cultivated Macroalgae)

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Review

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22 pages, 701 KiB

Open AccessReview

Microbiological Food Safety of Seaweeds

by Trond Løvdal, Bjørn Tore Lunestad, Mette Myrmel, Jan Thomas Rosnes and Dagbjørn Skipnes

Foods 2021, 10(11), 2719; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10112719 - 6 Nov 2021

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 7275

Abstract

The use of seaweeds in the human diet has a long history in Asia and has now been increasing also in the western world. Concurrent with this trend, there is a corresponding increase in cultivation and harvesting for commercial production. Edible seaweed is [...] Read more.

The use of seaweeds in the human diet has a long history in Asia and has now been increasing also in the western world. Concurrent with this trend, there is a corresponding increase in cultivation and harvesting for commercial production. Edible seaweed is a heterogenous product category including species within the green, red, and brown macroalgae. Moreover, the species are utilized on their own or in combinatorial food products, eaten fresh or processed by a variety of technologies. The present review summarizes available literature with respect to microbiological food safety and quality of seaweed food products, including processing and other factors controlling these parameters, and emerging trends to improve on the safety, utilization, quality, and storability of seaweeds. The over- or misuse of antimicrobials and the concurrent development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in bacteria is a current worldwide health concern. The role of seaweeds in the development of AMR and the spread of antimicrobial resistance genes is an underexplored field of research and is discussed in that context. Legislation and guidelines relevant to edible seaweed are also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Food Quality and Safety of Cultivated Macroalgae)

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23 pages, 710 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Vitamin C from Seaweed: A Review Assessing Seaweed as Contributor to Daily Intake

by Cecilie Wirenfeldt Nielsen, Turid Rustad and Susan Løvstad Holdt

Foods 2021, 10(1), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10010198 - 19 Jan 2021

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 7364

Abstract

Seaweeds are indiscriminately said to contain significant amounts of vitamin C, but seaweeds are a diverse group, which may limit the ability to generalize. Several studies have been performed on vitamin C in seaweed, and this review covers these findings, and concludes on [...] Read more.

Seaweeds are indiscriminately said to contain significant amounts of vitamin C, but seaweeds are a diverse group, which may limit the ability to generalize. Several studies have been performed on vitamin C in seaweed, and this review covers these findings, and concludes on how much vitamin C is found in seaweeds. A systematic review of vitamin C in 92 seaweed species was conducted followed by analyzing the 132 data entries. The average vitamin C content was 0.773 mg g⁻¹ seaweed in dry weight with a 90th percentile of 2.06 mg g⁻¹ dry weight. The vitamin C content was evaluated based on taxonomical categories of green, brown and red seaweeds (Chlorophyta (phylum), Phaeophyceae (class), and Rhodophyta (phylum)), and no significant differences were found between them. The vitamin C content was compared to other food sources, and this showed that seaweeds can contribute to the daily vitamin C intake, but are not a rich source. Moreover, seasonal variations, analytical methods, and processing impacts were also evaluated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Food Quality and Safety of Cultivated Macroalgae)

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