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Microbiological Risk Assessment in Foods
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Microbiological Risk Assessment in Foods

A special issue of Foods (ISSN 2304-8158). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Microbiology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 November 2021) | Viewed by 26280

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Andrea Serraino

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Guest Editor
Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences – University of Bologna, Italy
Interests: food safety; food microbiology; foodborne pathoges and zoonoses; risk assessment
Prof. Dr. Alessandra De Cesare

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Guest Editor
Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna, Italy
Interests: food safety; food metagenomics; food borne bacterial pathogens; microbiological risk assessment
Dr. Federica Giacometti

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences – University of Bologna, Italy
Interests: foodborne zoonoses; food safety; antimicrobial resistance; microbial risk assessment

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Foodborne illnesses caused by microbiological hazards are a large and growing public health problem all over the word. To reduce the burden of foodborne diseases, appropriate mitigation strategies should be implemented, and their efficacy could be predicted through the application of microbiological risk assessment (MRA).

MRA provides a methodological framework to integrate monitoring and epidemiological data of a specific hazard, dose–response models, as well as consumption data to quantify the potential risk to humans associated with various exposure pathways to that specific hazard. MRA efficaciously supports risk managers in identifying and ranking intervention strategies at the regulatory level. Moreover, MRA helps food business operators to identify foodborne hazards that are reasonably likely to occur in their processes and to develop more effective and fit-for-HACCP plans. Finally, MRA plays an important role in the context of international trade by ensuring that countries establish food safety requirements that are scientifically based and preventing sets of requirements that are not specifically related to food safety.

Quantitative MRA provides the probability of the occurrence of a risk to human health due to a specific hazard/food combination and quantifies the related uncertainties, but several technical difficulties and data gaps may limit the precision necessary for quantitative MRA. It is challenging to collect meaningful data for MRA because datasets are difficult to compare and genomic technologies are providing new insight which must be correctly incorporated—even in already available MRA.

Emerging foodborne pathogens, international trade, human migrations, diversity and innovations in food supply chains, changes to consumer habits, climate changes, and the development of novel foods enhance the need of reliable data for MRA, although the use of mathematical models to predict the fate of microorganisms in food is widespread and more user-friendly for both risk managers and enterprises to assess the ability of selected processes to control foodborne pathogens.

All stages of the food production chain, including feed production, primary production, processing, and by-products management, should be taken into account for a proper MRA, and this integrated approach is highlighted in this Special Issue.

Original manuscripts and reviews regarding the MRA of specific hazard/food combinations or aspects of it (i.e., hazard identification, hazard characterization, exposure assessment, dose–response models, etc.) along the feed, food, and by-products production chain; manuscripts concerning the risks related to a specific production process or mitigation strategy; as well as papers on suitable strategies to collect reliable data to improve MRA and reduce uncertainty are welcome.

Prof. Dr. Andrea Serraino
Prof. Dr. Alessandra De Cesare
Dr. Federica Giacometti
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Foods is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2900 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Microbiological risk assessment
  • Hazard identification
  • Hazard characterization
  • Exposure assessment
  • Dose-response models
  • Risk characterization feed
  • Primary production
  • Food
  • By-products

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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24 pages, 4478 KiB  
Article
Quantitative Methods for the Prioritization of Foods Implicated in the Transmission of Hepatititis E to Humans in Italy
by Ornella Moro, Elisabetta Suffredini, Marco Isopi, Maria Elena Tosti, Pietro Schembri and Gaia Scavia
Foods 2022, 11(1), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11010087 - 29 Dec 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1601
Abstract
Hepatitis E is considered an emerging foodborne disease in Europe. Several types of foods are implicated in the transmission of the hepatitis E virus (HEV) to humans, in particular, pork and wild boar products. We developed a parametric stochastic model to estimate the [...] Read more.
Hepatitis E is considered an emerging foodborne disease in Europe. Several types of foods are implicated in the transmission of the hepatitis E virus (HEV) to humans, in particular, pork and wild boar products. We developed a parametric stochastic model to estimate the risk of foodborne exposure to HEV in the Italian population and to rank the relevance of pork products with and without liver (PL and PNL, respectively), leafy vegetables, shellfish and raw milk in HEV transmission. Original data on HEV prevalence in different foods were obtained from a recent sampling study conducted in Italy at the retail level. Other data were obtained by publicly available sources and published literature. The model output indicated that the consumption of PNL was associated with the highest number of HEV infections in the population. However, the sensitivity analysis showed that slight variations in the consumption of PL led to an increase in the number of HEV infections much higher than PNL, suggesting that PL at an individual level are the top risky food. Uncertainty analysis underlined that further characterization of the pork products preparation and better assessment of consumption data at a regional level is critical information for fine-tuning the most risky implicated food items in Italy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbiological Risk Assessment in Foods)
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15 pages, 4445 KiB  
Communication
Bacillus cereus as a Major Cause of Discarded Pasteurized Human Banked Milk: A Single Human Milk Bank Experience
by Miroslava Jandová, Pavel Měřička, Michaela Fišerová, Aleš Landfeld, Pavla Paterová, Lenka Hobzová, Eva Jarkovská, Marian Kacerovský and Milan Houška
Foods 2021, 10(12), 2955; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10122955 - 1 Dec 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1821
Abstract
A systematic study, performed from 2017–2020 looked at the rate of positive post-pasteurization B. cereus findings, the quantity of B. cereus in pasteurized banked human milk (PBM), and the rate of B. cereus toxicogenic isolates from PBM. During the study period, 6815.71 L [...] Read more.
A systematic study, performed from 2017–2020 looked at the rate of positive post-pasteurization B. cereus findings, the quantity of B. cereus in pasteurized banked human milk (PBM), and the rate of B. cereus toxicogenic isolates from PBM. During the study period, 6815.71 L (30,943 tested bottles) of PBM were tested, with an average amount per year of 1703.93 L (7736 tested bottles). The PBM discard rate per year due to bacterial contamination varied between 8.7–10.0% and contamination with B. cereus was the most frequent reason. The total number of B. cereus positive tests was 2739 and the proportion of its positivity from all positive tests was between 56.7–66.6%. The prevalence of B. cereus positive tests rose significantly in the summer months. The production of enterotoxin was found in 3 of the 20 tested samples (15.0%). The B. cereus CFU-quantities in the PBM were below 10 CFU/mL in 80% of cases (16 of 20 samples tested). The quantitative data can be used in the risk assessment of cold storage of PBM at temperatures above zero and manipulation of PBM prior to its administration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbiological Risk Assessment in Foods)
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13 pages, 5844 KiB  
Article
Emerging Risks in Food: Probiotic Enterococci Pose a Threat to Public Health through the Food Chain
by Wenjiao Xu, Yuwen Fang, Qiao Hu and Kui Zhu
Foods 2021, 10(11), 2846; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10112846 - 18 Nov 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2297
Abstract
Probiotics have been associated with clinical infections, toxicity, and antimicrobial resistance transfer, raising public concerns. Probiotic enterococci are emerging food risks as opportunistic pathogens, yet little attention has been paid to them. Herein, we collected 88 enterococcal isolates from probiotic products used for [...] Read more.
Probiotics have been associated with clinical infections, toxicity, and antimicrobial resistance transfer, raising public concerns. Probiotic enterococci are emerging food risks as opportunistic pathogens, yet little attention has been paid to them. Herein, we collected 88 enterococcal isolates from probiotic products used for humans, companion animals, livestock, and aquaculture. Results showed that all 88 probiotic enterococcal isolates harbored diverse virulence genes, multiple antimicrobial resistance genes, and mobile genetic elements. Notably, 77 isolates were highly resistant to gentamicin. Representative enterococcal isolates exerted toxic activities in both in vitro and in vivo models. Collectively, our findings suggest that probiotic enterococci may be harmful to hosts and pose a potential threat to public health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbiological Risk Assessment in Foods)
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12 pages, 3572 KiB  
Article
Hazard Identification Related to the Presence of Vibrio spp., Biogenic Amines, and Indole-Producing Bacteria in a Non-Filter Feeding Marine Gastropod (Tritia mutabilis) Commercialized on the Italian Market
by Patrizia Serratore, Giorgia Bignami, Fabio Ostanello and Luna Lorito
Foods 2021, 10(11), 2574; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10112574 - 25 Oct 2021
Viewed by 1654
Abstract
Tritia mutabilis is a carrion-feeder edible marine gastropod with an open circulatory system. Therefore, biological, and chemical contaminants associated with the feed can reach all body tissues. The aim of the present study was to investigate the possible association of these characteristics with [...] Read more.
Tritia mutabilis is a carrion-feeder edible marine gastropod with an open circulatory system. Therefore, biological, and chemical contaminants associated with the feed can reach all body tissues. The aim of the present study was to investigate the possible association of these characteristics with some food safety hazards. Vibrio spp. load, and the prevalence of pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus, V. vulnificus, and V. cholerae, were investigated. Moreover, biogenic amines (BAs) and indole-producing bacteria (IPB), markers of seafood decomposition, were quantified for the first time in an edible carrion-feeder. Overall, 49 batches were analyzed (38 from retail, and 11 from primary production). The Vibrio spp. load resulted of 5.64 ± 0.69 log10 CFU g−1 at retail, and 5.27 ± 0.74 at harvest but all batches resulted negative for pathogenic Vibrio. Histamine, putrescine, cadaverine, and tyramine were detected both at harvest and at the retail level. Their sum (BAs Index) showed a mean value of 50.45 and 65.83 mg Kg−1 in batches at harvest and at retail, respectively. IPB were detected at harvest and upon refrigeration for three days (T1–T3). The mean load resulted in 2.52 ± 0.85 log10 MPN g−1 at T0, 3.31 ± 1.23 at T3 in batches immediately refrigerated, and 3.22 ± 1.18 at T3 in batches previously immersed in clean seawater. Our results contribute to identifying food-borne hazards for T. mutabilis that may be related to the retention of biogenic amines and indole-producing bacteria due to carrion feeding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbiological Risk Assessment in Foods)
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14 pages, 686 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Presence and Viability of Mycobacterium bovis in Wild Boar Meat and Meat-Based Preparations
by Maria T. Clausi, Lucia Ciambrone, Mariagrazia Zanoni, Nicola Costanzo, Maria Pacciarini and Francesco Casalinuovo
Foods 2021, 10(10), 2410; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10102410 - 12 Oct 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1894
Abstract
The aim of the present study is to provide information about the ability of Mycobacterium bovis to survive within wild boar (Sus scrofae) meat and meat-based preparations and the duration of this survival, and to consider the preservation of its infectious [...] Read more.
The aim of the present study is to provide information about the ability of Mycobacterium bovis to survive within wild boar (Sus scrofae) meat and meat-based preparations and the duration of this survival, and to consider the preservation of its infectious potential toward humans and animals. Meat samples were artificially contaminated with an M. bovis field strain and then stored at −20 °C, while two sausages batches were contaminated with the same field strain at two different concentrations, 105 CFU/g and 103 CFU/g, before storing them in proper conditions to allow for their ripening. A third sausage batch was contaminated by adding 2 g of wild boar lymph nodal tissue with active tuberculous lesions to the meat mixture. Bacteriological and biomolecular (PCR) methods were used to test the meat and sausage samples every 60 days and every 7–10 days, respectively. M. bovis was detected as still alive and viable on the frozen meat for the last test on the 342nd day, while from the sausage samples, M. bovis was isolated until 23 days after contamination. Our results indicate that M. bovis can stay alive and be viable for 23 days within sausages prepared with contaminated meat from infected wild boars. These products are usually eaten as fresh food after grilling, often cooking at a temperature that does not ensure complete inactivation of the pathogenic microorganisms present, which can pose a risk for humans to develop zoonotic tuberculosis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbiological Risk Assessment in Foods)
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16 pages, 10863 KiB  
Article
A Binary Logistic Regression Model as a Tool to Predict Craft Beer Susceptibility to Microbial Spoilage
by Magaly Rodríguez-Saavedra, Karla Pérez-Revelo, Antonio Valero, M. Victoria Moreno-Arribas and Dolores González de Llano
Foods 2021, 10(8), 1926; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10081926 - 19 Aug 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2845
Abstract
Beer spoilage caused by microorganisms, which is a major concern for brewers, produces undesirable aromas and flavors in the final product and substantial financial losses. To address this problem, brewers need easy-to-apply tools that inform them of beer susceptibility to the microbial spoilage. [...] Read more.
Beer spoilage caused by microorganisms, which is a major concern for brewers, produces undesirable aromas and flavors in the final product and substantial financial losses. To address this problem, brewers need easy-to-apply tools that inform them of beer susceptibility to the microbial spoilage. In this study, a growth/no growth (G/NG) binary logistic regression model to predict this susceptibility was developed. Values of beer physicochemical parameters such as pH, alcohol content (% ABV), bitterness units (IBU), and yeast-fermentable extract (% YFE) obtained from the analysis of twenty commercially available craft beers were used to prepare 22 adjusted beers at different levels of each parameter studied. These preparations were assigned as a first group of samples, while 17 commercially available beers samples as a second group. The results of G/NG from both groups, after artificially inoculating with one wild yeast and different lactic acid bacteria (LAB) previously adapted to grow in a beer-type beverage, were used to design the model. The developed G/NG model correctly classified 276 of 331 analyzed cases and its predictive ability was 100% in external validation. This G/NG model has good sensitivity and goodness of fit (87% and 83.4%, respectively) and provides the potential to predict craft beer susceptibility to microbial spoilage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbiological Risk Assessment in Foods)
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11 pages, 695 KiB  
Communication
FAO/WHO Joint Expert Meeting on Microbiological Risk Assessment (JEMRA): Twenty Years of International Microbiological Risk Assessment
by Jeffrey T. LeJeune, Kang Zhou, Christine Kopko and Haruka Igarashi
Foods 2021, 10(8), 1873; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10081873 - 13 Aug 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4123
Abstract
Since the late 1990s, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and the World Health Organization (WHO) has convened expert meetings and consultations to address the microbiological risk assessment (MRA). These meetings are held to provide scientific advice in response [...] Read more.
Since the late 1990s, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and the World Health Organization (WHO) has convened expert meetings and consultations to address the microbiological risk assessment (MRA). These meetings are held to provide scientific advice in response to requests for from Codex Alimentarius, the international food standard-setting body. Individuals participate in the FAO/WHO joint expert meetings on the microbiological risk assessment (JEMRA) in their personal capacity, as technical experts, yet bring diverse regional and national perspectives that contribute to practical applications, particularly for low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Over 370 experts from around the globe have contributed to the meeting outcomes that have been published in nearly 40 monographs in the FAO/WHO microbial risk assessment (MRA) series, addressing particular food commodities with microbial hazard(s) combinations or a methodological aspect of microbial risk assessment. FAO/WHO MRA series inform Codex decision-making for the development of international standards for safe food and faire trade in food products; are consulted by risk managers such as food safety authorities and food business operators to make science-based decisions; and are used by academics to advance food safety research and educate the next generation of food safety professionals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbiological Risk Assessment in Foods)
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11 pages, 1004 KiB  
Article
Antimicrobial Resistance of Enterococcus sp. Isolated from Sheep and Goat Cheeses
by Jana Výrostková, Ivana Regecová, Eva Dudriková, Slavomír Marcinčák, Mária Vargová, Mariana Kováčová and Jana Maľová
Foods 2021, 10(8), 1844; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10081844 - 10 Aug 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2582
Abstract
This study aimed to calculate the proportion of antibiotic resistance profiles of Enterococcus faecium, E. faecalis, and E. durans isolated from traditional sheep and goat cheeses obtained from a selected border area of Slovakia with Hungary (region Slanské vrchy). A total of [...] Read more.
This study aimed to calculate the proportion of antibiotic resistance profiles of Enterococcus faecium, E. faecalis, and E. durans isolated from traditional sheep and goat cheeses obtained from a selected border area of Slovakia with Hungary (region Slanské vrchy). A total of 110 Enterococcus sp. were isolated from cheese samples, of which 52 strains (E. faecium (12), E. faecalis (28), E. durans (12)) were represented. After isolation and identification by polymerase chain reaction and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry, the enterococci (E. faecium, E. faecalis, and E. durans) were submitted to susceptibility tests against nine antimicrobial agents. In general, strains of E. faecalis were more resistant than E. durans and E. faecium. A high percentage of resistance was noted in E. faecalis to rifampicin (100%), vancomycin (85.7%), teicoplanin (71.4%), erythromycin (71.4%), minocycline (57.1%), nitrofurantoin (57.1%), ciprofloxacin (14.3%), and levofloxacin (14.3%). E. durans showed resistance to rifampicin (100%), teicoplanin (100%), vancomycin (66.7%), erythromycin (66.7%), nitrofurantoin (66.7%), and minocycline (33.3%), and E. faecium showed resistance to vancomycin, teicoplanin, and erythromycin (100%). Multidrug-resistant strains were confirmed in 80% of the 52 strains in this study. Continuous identification of Enterococcus sp. and monitoring of their incidence and emerging antibiotic resistance is important in order to prevent a potential risk to public health caused by the contamination of milk and other dairy products, such as cheeses, made on farm level. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbiological Risk Assessment in Foods)
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Review

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22 pages, 330 KiB  
Review
Challenge Test as Special Tool to Estimate the Dynamic of Listeria monocytogenes and Other Foodborne Pathogens
by Luigi Lanni, Valeria Morena, Adriana Scattareggia Marchese, Gessica Destro, Marcello Ferioli, Paolo Catellani and Valerio Giaccone
Foods 2022, 11(1), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11010032 - 23 Dec 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3523
Abstract
Over 23 million cases of foodborne disease (FBD) occur in Europe each year, with over 4700 deaths. Outbreaks of FBD have a significant impact on our society due to the high economic losses they cause (hospital treatment of affected patients and destruction of [...] Read more.
Over 23 million cases of foodborne disease (FBD) occur in Europe each year, with over 4700 deaths. Outbreaks of FBD have a significant impact on our society due to the high economic losses they cause (hospital treatment of affected patients and destruction of contaminated food). Among its health objectives, the European Union has set itself the goal of reducing the incidence of the main FBDs, approving various regulations that codify requirements in order to produce food that is “safe” for human consumption. Among these rules, Regulation 2005/2073 establishes precise food safety criteria for foods that are judged to be most at risk of causing episodes of FBD. The food business operator (FBO) must know their food better and know how to estimate whether a food can support the growth of food pathogens or if they are able to hinder it during the food’s shelf life. It is becoming crucial for each FBO to schedule specific laboratory tests (challenge tests) to establish the growth potential of individual pathogens and their maximum growth rate. In 2008 the European Union published the guidelines for programming the challenge tests for Listeria monocytogenes in RTE foods. These guidelines were further implemented in 2014 and again in 2019. In June 2019 the UNI EN ISO 20976-1 was published, which contains indications for setting up and carrying out challenge tests for all foodborne pathogens in all foods. In this article, we compare the three official documents to highlight their common aspects and differences, highlighting the advantages and disadvantages that each of them offers for those who have to set up a challenge test for the various foodborne pathogens. Our conclusion is that the challenge test is today the most effective tool to estimate the dynamics and growth potential of pathogenic microorganisms in food, if it is designed and implemented in a scrupulous way. It is important to develop a rational experimental design for each challenge test, and for each food, and this requires professionals who are experts in this specific field of study and who must be properly trained. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbiological Risk Assessment in Foods)
21 pages, 421 KiB  
Review
Assessment of the Impact on Human Health of the Presence of Norovirus in Bivalve Molluscs: What Data Do We Miss?
by Federica Savini, Federica Giacometti, Federico Tomasello, Marta Pollesel, Silvia Piva, Andrea Serraino and Alessandra De Cesare
Foods 2021, 10(10), 2444; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10102444 - 14 Oct 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2362
Abstract
In the latest One Health ECDC EFSA technical report, Norovirus in fish and fishery products have been listed as the agent/food pair causing the highest number of strong-evidence outbreaks in the EU in 2019. This review aims to identify data gaps that must [...] Read more.
In the latest One Health ECDC EFSA technical report, Norovirus in fish and fishery products have been listed as the agent/food pair causing the highest number of strong-evidence outbreaks in the EU in 2019. This review aims to identify data gaps that must be filled in order to increase knowledge on Norovirus in bivalve molluscs, perform a risk assessment and rank the key mitigation strategies for this biological hazard, which is relevant to public health. Virologic determinations are not included in any of the food safety and process hygiene microbiologic criteria reflected in the current European regulations. In addition, the Escherichia coli-based indices of acceptable faecal contamination for primary production, as well as the food safety criteria, do not appear sufficient to indicate the extent of Norovirus contamination. The qualitative risk assessment data collected in this review suggests that bivalve molluscs present a high risk to human health for Norovirus only when consumed raw or when insufficiently cooked. On the contrary, the risk can be considered negligible when they are cooked at a high temperature, while information is still scarce for non-thermal treatments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbiological Risk Assessment in Foods)
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