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10th Anniversary of Biomedicines—Ophthalmology Disorders

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A special issue of Biomedicines (ISSN 2227-9059). This special issue belongs to the section "Gene and Cell Therapy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2023) | Viewed by 17414

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Prof. Dr. Gabriele Thumann

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1. Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospitals of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
2. Experimental Ophthalmology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
Interests: retinal neurodegeneration; gene therapy; cell therapy; ATMP; retina culture; 3R; AMD; diabetic retinopathy; biomaterials; ocular prostheses

Dr. Martina Kropp

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Dear Colleagues,

The year 2023 marks the 10th anniversary of Biomedicines, a peer-reviewed open access journal in the biomedical field. So far, Biomedicines has published more than 2700 papers from more than 17,000 authors. We appreciate each author, reviewer, and academic editor whose support has brought us to where we are today.

To celebrate this significant milestone, we aim to publish a Special Issue entitled “10th Anniversary of Biomedicines— Gene Therapy in Ophthalmology Disorders”. More than 200 million people worldwide are suffering from severe vision loss including blindness (sensory organ deficits), which ranks in the Global Burden of Disease Study second after back pain among causes of years lived with disability. For about 30% of patients suffering from neurodegenerative diseases, treatment options are limited. This includes inherited and frequent noncommunicable diseases such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD) or glaucoma. Gene therapy opens up new avenues in the treatment of these disorders. The eye is particularly interesting for gene therapy due to its accessibility, small size and immune privilege, however, the high complexity of the organ, especially the neuroretina, is a challenge for the development of efficient approaches. This is also exacerbated due to most of the diseases affecting vision being multifactorial and associated with a genetic component. Nevertheless, multiple studies are ongoing to analyze approaches to treating monogenetic inherited diseases, such as retinitis pigmentosa, and complex diseases such as AMD, encompassing viral and nonviral treatments, ex and in vivo approaches. We invite the submission of both original articles that report preclinical and clinical studies and reviews, in order to provide an overview on the current state of the art.

Prof. Dr. Gabriele Thumann
Dr. Martina Kropp
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Biomedicines is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

ophthalmology
personalized medicine
neurodegeneration
monogenetic diseases
complex diseases
gene therapy
cell-based therapy
advanced therapy medicinal products

Related Special Issue

Biomedicines: 10th Anniversary in Biomedicines (46 articles)

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 1364 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potential Causal Association between C-Reactive Protein Levels in Age-Related Macular Degeneration: A Two-Sample Mendelian Randomization Study

by Byung Woo Yoon, Young Lee and Je Hyun Seo

Biomedicines 2024, 12(4), 807; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines12040807 - 05 Apr 2024

Viewed by 427

Abstract

Researchers have proposed a possible correlation between age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and inflammation or C-reactive protein (CRP) levels. We investigated the potential causal relationship between CRP levels and AMD. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with CRP exposure were selected as the instrumental variables (IVs) with significance (p < 5 × 10⁻⁸) from the genome-wide association study (GWAS) meta-analysis data of Biobank Japan and the UK Biobank. GWAS data for AMD were obtained from 11 International AMD Genomics Consortium studies. An evaluation of causal estimates, utilizing the inverse-variance-weighted (IVW), weighted-median, MR-Egger, MR-Pleiotropy-Residual-Sum, and Outlier tests, was conducted in a two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) study. We observed significant causal associations between CRP levels and AMD (odds ratio [OR] = 1.13, 95% CI = [1.02–1.24], and p = 0.014 in IVW; OR = 1.18, 95% CI = [1.00–1.38], and p = 0.044 in weight median; OR = 1.31, 95% CI = [1.13–1.52], and p < 0.001 in MR–Egger). The causal relationship between CRP and AMD warrants further research to address the significance of inflammation as a risk factor for AMD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Biomedicines—Ophthalmology Disorders)

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19 pages, 2481 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unveiling Differential Responses of Granulocytes to Distinct Immunostimulants with Implications in Autoimmune Uveitis

by Roxane L. Degroote, Adrian Schmalen, Stefanie M. Hauck and Cornelia A. Deeg

Biomedicines 2024, 12(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines12010019 - 20 Dec 2023

Viewed by 720

Abstract

The perception of circulating granulocytes as cells with a predetermined immune response mainly triggered by pathogens is evolving, recognizing their functional heterogeneity and adaptability, particularly within the neutrophil subset. The involvement of these cells in the pathophysiology of autoimmune uveitis has become increasingly clear, yet their exact role remains elusive. We used an equine model for autoimmune-mediated recurrent pan-uveitis to investigate early responses of granulocytes in different inflammatory environments. For this purpose, we performed differential proteomics on granulocytes from healthy and diseased horses stimulated with IL8, LPS, or PMA. Compared to healthy horses, granulocytes from the recurrent uveitis model significantly changed the cellular abundance of 384 proteins, with a considerable number of specific changes for each stimulant. To gain more insight into the functional impact of these stimulant-specific proteome changes in ERU pathogenesis, we used Ingenuity Pathway Analysis for pathway enrichment. This resulted in specific reaction patterns for each stimulant, with IL8 predominantly promoting Class I MHC-mediated antigen processing and presentation, LPS enhancing processes in phospholipid biosynthesis, and PMA, clearly inducing neutrophil degranulation. These findings shed light on the remarkably differentiated responses of neutrophils, offering valuable insights into their functional heterogeneity in a T-cell-driven disease. Raw data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD013648. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Biomedicines—Ophthalmology Disorders)

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11 pages, 4260 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Frequency and Pattern of Worldwide Ocular Gene Therapy Clinical Trials up to 2022

by Hossein Ameri, Niranjana Kesavamoorthy and Dara N. Bruce

Biomedicines 2023, 11(12), 3124; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11123124 - 23 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1010

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to describe worldwide gene therapy clinical trials aimed at treating ophthalmic disorders. Information regarding all worldwide clinical trials was collected through 15 different sources, including ClinicalTrials.gov. There were 159 gene therapy clinical trials on ophthalmic diseases up until 2022. Phase 1/2 trials had the highest frequency (50—32%), followed by phase 2 (33—21%); 107 trials (67%) were conducted in a single country, and 50 trials (31%) were multinational. Overall, the USA was the site of 113 (71%) single or multinational trials. Of the trials, 153 (96%) targeted retina and optic nerve disorders, 3 (2%) glaucoma, 2 (1%) uveitis, and 1 (1%) cornea; 104 trials (65%) employed gene augmentation using viral vectors, and the remaining employed other methods such as inhibitory RNA (18—11%) and cell-based gene therapy using encapsulated cell technology (18—11%). For gene augmentation trials, adeno-associated virus was used for transgene delivery in 87% of cases. The most common conditions targeted by gene augmentation included inherited retinal (74%) and age-related macular degeneration (wet, 14%; dry, 7%). Overall, a large number of gene therapy clinical trials have been conducted in the eye, and so far, one has led to regulatory approval. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Biomedicines—Ophthalmology Disorders)

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10 pages, 2702 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dupilumab-Associated Blepharoconjunctivitis: Clinical and Morphological Aspects

by Federica Serino, Valeria Dattilo, Michela Cennamo, Anna Maria Roszkowska, Massimo Gola, Manfredi Magliulo, Elisabetta Magnaterra and Rita Mencucci

Biomedicines 2023, 11(12), 3104; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11123104 - 21 Nov 2023

Viewed by 842

Abstract

Purpose: To describe the clinical and morphologic changes in the ocular surface microstructure of patients affected with moderate-to-severe Atopic Dermatitis (AD) before and during Dupilumab treatment. Methods: This is a monocentric observational study on thirty-three patients affected with AD before and during Dupilumab treatment. All patients underwent a slit-lamp examination: complete clinical assessment, Break Up Time test (BUT), Schirmer test, and corneal staining grading (Oxford scale) were performed. Meibomian Glands Dysfunction (MGD) evaluation (Meibography), Non-invasive Keratograph Break Up Time test (NIKBUT), Tear Meniscus Height (TMH), and ocular Redness Score (RS) have been investigated using an OCULUS Keratograph. In vivo images of the conjunctiva, cornea, and meibomian glands have been acquired by confocal microscopy. Results: Sixty-six eyes were included in our study: twenty-two eyes of 11 naive patients with indication for treatment but not in therapy yet (Group 1) and forty-four eyes of 22 patients treated with Dupilumab for at least 4 months (subcutaneous administration of 300 mg every 2 weeks) (Group 2). Either patients treated with Dupilumab or naive patients with moderate-to-severe forms of AD had a tear film instability (TBUT and NIKBUT reduced), whereas the quantity of the tear film was overall normal (Schirmer test and TMH), without statistically significant differences between the two groups. When Meibography was performed with the Keratograph, the difference between Group 1 and Group 2 was statistically significant in terms of Meiboscore (p = 0.0043 and p = 0.0242, respectively), as well as the difference in terms of mean RS. These results paired well with the confocal microscopy results in which we found a decrease in the goblet cell population in the conjunctival epithelium in the treated group (5.2 cells/mm), along with inflammatory cells that were more concentrated around the adenoid lumina of the meibomian glands. Conclusions: In recent years, the use of Dupilumab has been increasing, but mild-to-severe conjunctivitis is a common side effect. Our major results demonstrate a loss of meibomian glands at the Keratograph examination: we can assume a reduced meibum secretion and an evaporative dry eye with MGD. We suggest that the inflammation of the ocular surface may involve not only the cornea and the conjunctiva, but also the meibomian glands, and Dupilumab may play a role. However, the frequency of clear conjunctivitis is not as common as reported in the literature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Biomedicines—Ophthalmology Disorders)

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14 pages, 3991 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anti-Scg3 Gene Therapy to Treat Choroidal Neovascularization in Mice

by Chengchi Huang, Liyang Ji, Avinash Kaur, Hong Tian, Prabuddha Waduge, Keith A. Webster and Wei Li

Biomedicines 2023, 11(7), 1910; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11071910 - 06 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1271

Abstract

Neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD) with choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is a leading cause of blindness in the elderly in developed countries. The disease is currently treated with anti-angiogenic biologics, including aflibercept, against vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) but with limited efficacy, treatment resistance and requirement for frequent intravitreal injections. Although anti-VEGF gene therapy may provide sustained therapy that obviates multiple injections, the efficacy and side effects related to VEGF pathway targeting remain, and alternative strategies to block angiogenesis independently of VEGF are needed. We recently reported that secretogranin III (Scg3) induces only pathological angiogenesis through VEGF-independent pathways, and Scg3-neutralizing antibodies selectively inhibit pathological but not physiological angiogenesis in mouse proliferative retinopathy models. Anti-Scg3 antibodies synergize dose-dependently with VEGF inhibitors in a CNV model. Here, we report that an adeno-associated virus-8 (AAV8) vector expressing anti-Scg3 Fab ameliorated CNV with an efficacy similar to that of AAV-aflibercept in a mouse model. This study is the first to test an anti-angiogenic gene therapy protocol that selectively targets pathological angiogenesis via a VEGF-independent mechanism. The findings support further safety/efficacy studies of anti-Scg3 gene therapy as monotherapy or combined with anti-VEGF to treat nAMD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Biomedicines—Ophthalmology Disorders)

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19 pages, 3256 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Activation Induces Differentiation in Human Limbal Epithelial Stem Cells Cultured Ex Vivo

by Jovana Bisevac, Kirankumar Katta, Goran Petrovski, Morten Carstens Moe and Agate Noer

Biomedicines 2023, 11(7), 1829; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11071829 - 26 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1139

Abstract

Human limbal epithelial stem cells (hLESCs) continuously replenish lost or damaged human corneal epithelial cells. The percentage of stem/progenitor cells in autologous ex vivo expanded tissue is essential for the long-term success of transplantation in patients with limbal epithelial stem cell deficiency. However, the molecular processes governing the stemness and differentiation state of hLESCs remain uncertain. Therefore, we sought to explore the impact of canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling activation on hLESCs by treating ex vivo expanded hLESC cultures with GSK-3 inhibitor LY2090314. Real-time qRT-PCR and microarray data reveal the downregulation of stemness (TP63), progenitor (SOX9), quiescence (CEBPD), and proliferation (MKI67, PCNA) genes and the upregulation of genes for differentiation (CX43, KRT3) in treated- compared to non-treated samples. The pathway activation was shown by AXIN2 upregulation and enhanced levels of accumulated β-catenin. Immunocytochemistry and Western blot confirmed the findings for most of the above-mentioned markers. The Wnt/β-catenin signaling profile demonstrated an upregulation of WNT1, WNT3, WNT5A, WNT6, and WNT11 gene expression and a downregulation for WNT7A and DKK1 in the treated samples. No significant differences were found for WNT2, WNT16B, WIF1, and DKK2 gene expression. Overall, our results demonstrate that activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in ex vivo expanded hLESCs governs the cells towards differentiation and reduces proliferation and stem cell maintenance capability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Biomedicines—Ophthalmology Disorders)

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20 pages, 2806 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gene Therapy with Voretigene Neparvovec Improves Vision and Partially Restores Electrophysiological Function in Pre-School Children with Leber Congenital Amaurosis

by Maximilian J. Gerhardt, Claudia S. Priglinger, Günther Rudolph, Karsten Hufendiek, Carsten Framme, Herbert Jägle, Daniel J. Salchow, Andreas Anschütz, Stylianos Michalakis and Siegfried G. Priglinger

Biomedicines 2023, 11(1), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11010103 - 30 Dec 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2575

Abstract

Leber congenital amaurosis caused by mutations in the RPE65 gene belongs to the most severe early-onset hereditary childhood retinopathies naturally progressing to legal blindness. The novel gene therapy voretigene neparvovec is the first approved causative treatment option for this devastating eye disease and is specifically designed to treat RPE65-mediated retinal dystrophies. Herein, we present a follow-up of the youngest treated patients in Germany so far, including four pre-school children who received treatment with voretigene neparvovec at a single treatment center between January 2020 and May 2022. All patients underwent pars plana vitrectomy with circumferential peeling of the internal limiting membrane at the injection site and subretinal injection of voretigene neparvovec. Pre- and postoperative diagnostics included imaging (spectral domain optical coherence tomography, fundus autofluorescence, fundus wide-angle imaging), electrophysiologic examination (ERG), retinal light sensitivity measurements (FST) and visual acuity testing. Behavioral changes were assessed using a questionnaire and by observing the children’s vision-guided behavior in different levels of illumination. All children showed marked increase in vision-guided behavior shortly after therapy, as well as marked increase in visual acuity in the postoperative course up to full visual acuity in one child. Two eyes showed partial electrophysiological recovery of an ERG that was undetectable before treatment—a finding that has not been described in humans before. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Biomedicines—Ophthalmology Disorders)

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24 pages, 3687 KiB

Open AccessArticle

GMP-Grade Manufacturing and Quality Control of a Non-Virally Engineered Advanced Therapy Medicinal Product for Personalized Treatment of Age-Related Macular Degeneration

by Martina Kropp, Nina Harmening, Thais Bascuas, Sandra Johnen, Eline De Clerck, Verónica Fernández, Mattia Ronchetti, Ruggero Cadossi, Cristina Zanini, Daniel Scherman, Zoltán Ivics, Corinne Marie, Zsuzsanna Izsvák and Gabriele Thumann

Biomedicines 2022, 10(11), 2777; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10112777 - 01 Nov 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2616

Abstract

The introduction of new therapeutics requires validation of Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)-grade manufacturing including suitable quality controls. This is challenging for Advanced Therapy Medicinal Products (ATMP) with personalized batches. We have developed a person-alized, cell-based gene therapy to treat age-related macular degeneration and established a vali-dation strategy of the GMP-grade manufacture for the ATMP; manufacturing and quality control were challenging due to a low cell number, batch-to-batch variability and short production duration. Instead of patient iris pigment epithelial cells, human donor tissue was used to produce the transfected cell product (“tIPE”). We implemented an extended validation of 104 tIPE productions. Procedure, operators and devices have been validated and qualified by determining cell number, viability, extracellular DNA, sterility, duration, temperature and volume. Transfected autologous cells were transplanted to rabbits verifying feasibility of the treatment. A container has been engineered to ensure a safe transport from the production to the surgery site. Criteria for successful validation and qualification were based on tIPE’s Critical Quality Attributes and Process Parameters, its manufacture and release criteria. The validated process and qualified operators are essential to bring the ATMP into clinic and offer a general strategy for the transfer to other manufacture centers and personalized ATMPs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Biomedicines—Ophthalmology Disorders)

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Review

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22 pages, 972 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Developments in Gene Therapy for Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration: A Review

by Lucia Finocchio, Marco Zeppieri, Andrea Gabai, Giacomo Toneatto, Leopoldo Spadea and Carlo Salati

Biomedicines 2023, 11(12), 3221; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11123221 - 05 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1272

Abstract

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a complex and multifactorial disease and a leading cause of irreversible blindness in the elderly population. The anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) therapy has revolutionized the management and prognosis of neovascular AMD (nAMD) and is currently the standard of care for this disease. However, patients are required to receive repeated injections, imposing substantial social and economic burdens. The implementation of gene therapy methods to achieve sustained delivery of various therapeutic proteins holds the promise of a single treatment that could ameliorate the treatment challenges associated with chronic intravitreal therapy, and potentially improve visual outcomes. Several early-phase trials are currently underway, evaluating the safety and efficacy of gene therapy for nAMD; however, areas of controversy persist, including the therapeutic target, route of administration, and potential safety issues. In this review, we assess the evolution of gene therapy for nAMD and summarize several preclinical and early-stage clinical trials, exploring challenges and future directions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Biomedicines—Ophthalmology Disorders)

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17 pages, 1014 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Evolvement of OCT and OCT-A in Identifying Multiple Sclerosis Biomarkers

by Vlad Constantin Donica, Anisia Iuliana Alexa, Irina Andreea Pavel, Ciprian Danielescu, Manuela Andreea Ciapă, Alexandra Lori Donica and Camelia Margareta Bogdănici

Biomedicines 2023, 11(11), 3031; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11113031 - 11 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1069

Abstract

The prevalence of multiple sclerosis (MS) has been increasing among young people in developing countries over the last years. With the continuous development of new technology, the diagnosis and follow-up of these patients has received new parameters that physicians may use in their practice. This paper reviews the main biomarkers identified through Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography (OCT-A) involved in the development and progression of MS and investigates the role it may have in detecting changes to the central nervous system (CNS). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Biomedicines—Ophthalmology Disorders)

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19 pages, 1747 KiB

Open AccessReview

Biology, Pathobiology and Gene Therapy of CNG Channel-Related Retinopathies

by Maximilian J. Gerhardt, Siegfried G. Priglinger, Martin Biel and Stylianos Michalakis

Biomedicines 2023, 11(2), 269; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11020269 - 19 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2012

Abstract

The visual process begins with the absorption of photons by photopigments of cone and rod photoreceptors in the retina. In this process, the signal is first amplified by a cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)-based signaling cascade and then converted into an electrical signal by cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) channels. CNG channels are purely ligand-gated channels whose activity can be controlled by cGMP, which induces a depolarizing Na⁺/Ca²⁺ current upon binding to the channel. Structurally, CNG channels belong to the superfamily of pore-loop cation channels and share structural similarities with hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide (HCN) and voltage-gated potassium (KCN) channels. Cone and rod photoreceptors express distinct CNG channels encoded by homologous genes. Mutations in the genes encoding the rod CNG channel (CNGA1 and CNGB1) result in retinitis-pigmentosa-type blindness. Mutations in the genes encoding the cone CNG channel (CNGA3 and CNGB3) lead to achromatopsia. Here, we review the molecular properties of CNG channels and describe their physiological and pathophysiological roles in the retina. Moreover, we summarize recent activities in the field of gene therapy aimed at developing the first gene therapies for CNG channelopathies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Biomedicines—Ophthalmology Disorders)

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16 pages, 2317 KiB

Open AccessReview

In Vivo and Ex Vivo Gene Electrotransfer in Ophthalmological Disorders

by Roberta Fusco, Giacomo Perazzolo Gallo, Elio Di Bernardo, Valeria D’Alessio, Mattia Ronchetti, Matteo Cadossi and Ruggero Cadossi

Biomedicines 2022, 10(8), 1889; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10081889 - 04 Aug 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1343

Abstract

The aim of this document is to present an overview of gene electrotransfer in ophthalmological disorders. In order to ensure an adequate variety of the assessed studies, several electronic databases were considered and studies published between January 1998 and December 2021 were analysed. Three investigators carried out data extraction and analysis, focusing on both technical (i.e., electrical protocol, type of electrode, plasmid) and medical (i.e., type of study, threated disease) aspects and highlighting the main differences in terms of results obtained. Moreover, the IGEA experience in the project “Transposon-based, targeted ex vivo gene therapy to treat age-related macular degeneration” (TargetAMD) was reported in the results section. No clinical trial was found on international literature and on ClinicalTrials.gov. Twelve preclinical studies were found including in vivo and ex-vivo applications. The studied showed that electrotransfer could be very efficient for plasmid DNA transfection. Many attempts such as modification of the electric field, buffers and electrodes have been made and the optimization of electric field setting seems to be very important. Using this technique, gene replacement can be designed in cases of retinal inheritance or corneal disease and a wide range of human eye diseases could, in the future, benefitfrom these gene therapy technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Biomedicines—Ophthalmology Disorders)

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