Sustainable Cultivation of Dragon Fruit: Integrated Nutrient and Pest Management Strategies for Enhanced Productivity and Environmental Stewardship

Abstract

Dragon fruit (Hylocereus spp.), an increasingly popular tropical fruit, has attracted global interest because of its distinct appearance, nutritional value, and health advantages. As cultivation has spread from its native Central and South American regions to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, there is an increasing demand for sustainable production approaches to address environmental, economic, and social issues. This study provides current knowledge on three different types of dragon fruits—H. megalanthus, H. undatus, and H. costaricencis—and their biology, agronomic requirements, and worldwide production trends, highlighting the critical need for management solutions. Conventional practices, which frequently rely on chemical fertilizers and pesticides, are compared with new sustainable approaches such as organic amendments, high tunnel systems, and agroforestry. This review examines regional challenges like climate variability, pest and disease issues, and pollination limits and explores innovative solutions to boost production and resilience. Socioeconomic factors, including market trends, farmer education, and policy frameworks, are recognized as key influences on the adoption of sustainable practices. This article highlights important research gaps, including the need for genetic improvement, digital agriculture tools, and strong certification mechanisms. This review integrates diverse views and provides actionable ideas for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners seeking to increase productivity, environmental stewardship, and long-term sustainability in dragon fruit agriculture.

1. Introduction

Dragon fruit, also known as Hylocereus spp., is a compelling tropical fruit that has grown in popularity worldwide because of its distinctive appearance, nutritional profile, and potential health advantages [1]. This exotic fruit comes from the Cactaceae family and is distinguished by its vivid, scaly surface, which can range in color from pink to red or yellow, depending on the species [2]. When the fruit is split open, it displays an equally beautiful interior: white or bright pink flesh sprinkled with countless small black seeds. Dragon fruit has a texture similar to that of kiwifruit or watermelon, and its flavor profile includes delicate sweetness [3]. Dragon fruit has become a popular ingredient because of its attractive appearance and excellent taste. This fruit is frequently used in a variety of culinary applications, including fresh fruit salads, smoothies, and desserts, owing to its visual attractiveness and pleasant taste [4].

The genus Hylocereus is a member of the tribe Hylocereeae (Britton and Rose) Buxbaum, which is a subfamily of the Cactaceae [5]. The 15 pitaya species that make up this genus [6] are found throughout the northern parts of South America, the West Indies, and the tropical and subtropical portions of Central America. Most popular Hylocereea sp. is classified into five major species, which are distinguished mostly by their fruit features. H. undatus has white pulped fruits and pink skin; H. polyrhizus has red pulped fruits and pink skin; H. costaricencis has violet–red pulp and pink skin; H. guatemalensis has red pulp and reddish-orange skin; and H. megalanthus has white pulp and yellow skin. The fruit pulp of all pitaya species is composed of edible black seeds and has a pleasant taste. It is high in nutrients such as soluble sugars; proteins; and minerals such as potassium, magnesium, and calcium, as well as other bioactive components.

1.1. Importance of Dragon Fruit in Global Agriculture

The increase in consumer demand for dragon fruit is due to its nutritional and medicinal profile. Native to South and Central America, it has successfully expanded into all six continents, specifically in tropical and subtropical regions across Africa, Australia, and Asia, where it plays diverse roles in agricultural systems [7]. Indonesia, Taiwan, Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Bangladesh, the Bahamas, Bermuda, Colombia, Israel, the Philippines, Myanmar, Nicaragua, northern Australia, Okinawa (Japan), Hawaii, and the West Indies are among the countries that develop and produce these species for commercial purposes [8]. Also, small-scale cultivation of Hylocereus species and hybrids is practiced in the USA, the Caribbean region, Australia, Brazil, Israel, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, China, India, Mexico, and many other nations [9,10,11]. The functional and nutritional profiles are highly important in the agricultural sector. The antioxidant activity and health-promoting qualities of dragon fruit are attributed to its high content of dietary fiber, vitamin C, polyphenols, carotenoids, and betalains [12]. These characteristics have sparked interest in the worldwide market and established dragon fruit as a functional food in places where consumers are concerned about their health.

1.2. Rising Demand, Production Trends, and Global Market

Dragon fruit has evolved from a Mesoamerican subsistence crop controlled by Maya tribes for centuries to a major global commodity [13]. The growing consumer demand has led to a sharp increase in dragon fruit production worldwide. During the 1980s, systematic breeding in Israel and Taiwan used drought resistance and CAM photosynthesis to create cultivars suitable for marginal lands, with Taiwan’s reintroduction of white-fleshed cultivars in 1983 increasing the industry to 1200 acres by 2013 [14,15]. By 2016, Vietnam’s industry had grown to over 50,000 hectares and was exporting millions, with the highest percentage going to China and to the US, using nocturnal lighting to encourage off-season flowering [16]. From 2010 to 2020, production expanded throughout South America, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia, and Ecuador took advantage of equatorial climates and beneficial soil fungi [17]. Commercial production has also spread throughout Latin America (Colombia, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Mexico, and Peru) and Southeast Asia (Thailand, Malaysia, and Philippines), propelled by export prospects, organic certification programs, and the creation of value-added products. Global GAP certification and traceability systems command premium prices, and market dynamics favor certified sustainable production more and more [18]. Costa Rica maximized pollination ecology [10,19]. Over the past ten years, Brazil has become a leader in research on improving the genetics of dragon fruit and optimizing its production. Embrapa Cerrados has led a comprehensive breeding program that has produced commercially registered cultivars that thrive in tropical savanna environments [15]. Peru (Lima, Piura, and Lambayeque) used pitaya into Amazonian agroforestry, reflecting the ability of dragon fruit to thrive in different environmental conditions and to increase smallholder resilience, while Nepal’s 2013 commercialization produced benefit–cost ratios of 1:87 [13,20]. Dragon fruit is cultivated on over 3000 hectares across India, with Gujarat leading production at 34%, and its farming rapidly expanding to several other states and regions, while a multi-criteria analysis in Turkey found 9245.7 ha of ideal sites [21,22]. The industry has progressed due to factors such as pandemic-driven demand from 2020 to 2025; e-commerce growth; climate resilience recognition; and innovations in betalain extraction, genome assemblies, mutation breeding (LD₅₀ = 302 Gy), machine learning disease detection, and accelerated micrografting. However, price barriers, inconsistent postharvest quality, inadequate cold chains, low consumer awareness, and short agronomic datasets continue to be obstacles [23,24,25].

Global production data from 2017 to 2018 indicate that Vietnam remains the world’s leading producer, cultivating more than 55,000 hectares and producing over 1 million metric tons of fruit each year. With yields between 22 and 35 metric tons per hectare, Vietnam benefits from highly favorable growing conditions and efficient large-scale operations [26,27]. China ranks second, with 40,000 hectares under cultivation and a total output of about 700,000 metric tons. Although its productivity (around 17.5 metric tons per hectare) is slightly below Vietnam’s, China still demonstrates strong production efficiency [28]. Indonesia, with around 8500 hectares, produces more than 200,000 metric tons and achieves a high yield of 23.6 metric tons per hectare [28]. Thailand operates on a smaller scale, cultivating nearly 3500 hectares and producing 26,000 metric tons, with one of the lowest productivity rates among major producers—around 7.5 metric tons per hectare [28]. Taiwan’s industry is also compact, covering about 2500 hectares and generating 49,000 metric tons annually, but it remains competitive thanks to its efficient yield of 19.7 metric tons per hectare [28]. Malaysia and the Philippines maintain modest production areas—680 and 485 hectares, respectively. Malaysia produces about 7820 metric tons, averaging 11.5 metric tons per hectare, while the Philippines yields 6062 metric tons, with productivity ranging between 10 and 15 metric tons per hectare. Cambodia and India contribute smaller volumes of 4840 and 4200 metric tons, respectively. Cambodia’s yield stands at 11 metric tons per hectare, and India’s ranges from 8 to 10.5 metric tons per hectare, indicating room for improvement through better management and farming practices [28]. However, difficulties such as high production costs, inflated market pricing, and limited accessibility remain, limiting broader usage and research focus. These reasons lead to the very limited scientific study of dragon fruit, despite its growing economic and agricultural importance around the world. As dragon fruits have the ability to thrive in arid environments and degraded soils, dragon fruit is particularly helpful in areas experiencing agricultural challenges caused by climate change [29]. Nevertheless, the intensification of production systems has led to challenges regarding long-term sustainability and resource efficiency.

1.3. Need for Sustainable Cultivation Practices

The rise of dragon fruit farming highlights the urgent need for sustainable management practices. Soil health and ecosystem stability are at risk in many producing regions because of the unsustainable use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers combined with inadequate irrigation [30]. Crops are ideally suited for sustainable intensification through integrated nutrient management (INM) and integrated pest management (IPM) because of their resilience to low-input circumstances. Over time, these methods can preserve yield stability, lower environmental contamination, and increase soil fertility and holistic management of pest and diseases. Increasing water-use efficiency, decreasing pest pressure, and increasing microclimatic conditions are further advantages of using protected growing systems, including high tunnels [31,32].

1.4. Objectives and Scope of the Review

This review will examine the current status, challenges, and prospective developments in the sustainable cultivation of dragon fruit Hylocereus sp. The major goal is to consolidate existing information about agricultural practices, nutrition management, pest and disease control, and socioeconomic issues that influence the transition to sustainability. It investigates the cost–benefit dynamics of implementing sustainable practices, the importance of farmer education and cooperative organizations, and the ecological effects of cultivation on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Furthermore, the assessment identifies significant research needs, such as the need for genetic improvement, region-specific crop modeling, and the integration of digital tools such as artificial intelligence and deep learning. It also assesses the role of policy frameworks and certification programs in promoting sustainable practices. To compile this comprehensive overview, we searched major academic databases—Google Scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, and ResearchGate—and reviewed publications from 1995 to 2025, ultimately selecting 150 rigorously vetted research articles from an initial pool of 216. Our search focused on peer-reviewed studies of dragon fruit cultivation that included solid data on actual farm outcomes, and we deliberately excluded studies that only discussed nutrition content, pharmaceutical uses, or purely ornamental growing. The keywords most frequently used were dragon fruit, pitaya, and pithaya. This review provides researchers, policymakers, and practitioners with insights into enhancing productivity, resilience, and environmental stewardship in dragon fruit production through case studies and global initiatives.

2. Botanical and Agronomic Overview

Dragon fruit, often called pitahaya, is a striking and unusual fruit that comes from a type of climbing cactus in the Cactaceae family. The plant is distinguished by its long, three-sided green stems (cladodes), which are waxy, fleshy, and covered in small spines. These features enable the plant to climb and offer protection [33]. As it grows, the plant develops aerial roots that allow it to cling to trees and absorb moisture from the air [34]. Another notable feature is its massive white flowers, which bloom at night, smell sweet, and close by morning (Figure 1). These flowers attract nocturnal pollinators such as bats and hawk moths and are common across all three main species of dragon fruit: H. undatus, H. costaricensis, and H. megalanthus [35].

The dragon fruit is shaped like a teardrop and wrapped in leathery skin with colorful scales; it is either in bright pink, red, or yellow color, depending on the species [36]. Inside, the flesh can be white, red, or pink, and it is soft, juicy, and filled with tiny black seeds. H. undatus has white flesh and pink skin, H. costaricensis offers both red skin and red flesh, and H. megalanthus features yellow skin with white flesh. Each has its own flavor profile, sweetness, and appearance, which makes some more popular on the market than others (Table 1).

Dragon fruit grows best in warm, sunny climates (18–38 °C); well-drained soil; and annual rainfall of 600–1300 mm [37,38], though it can adapt to different conditions. They are sensitive to frost and may be damaged below 12 °C, so frost-free areas are ideal [39]. Some pitaya types, such as H. undatus and H. costaricensis, grow faster and tolerate more heat, whereas H. megalanthus is slower and slightly more delicate. With adequate sunlight, appropriate soil conditions, and managed watering, these plants can produce fruit for as long as 30 years [40]. All these practical growth details are compared in Table 1 to help growers choose the right type for their climate and needs.

Table 1. Comparison of the three main dragon fruit species.

Feature	H. undatus (White-Fleshed Dragon Fruit)	H. costaricensis (Red-Fleshed Dragon Fruit)	H. megalanthus (Yellow Dragon Fruit)	References
Fruit Appearance	Pink/Red Skin, white flesh	Red skin, red flesh	Yellow skin, white flesh	[23,41,42,43]
Flavor	Mild, slightly sweet	Rich, sweet flavor	Very sweet aromatic	[41,42,43]
Climate	Tropical and subtropical; warm and humid	Warm and humid	Warmer regions with low humidity	[44,45]
Temperature Range	18–35 °C	20–38 °C	21–32 °C	[44,45]
Soil Conditions	Well-drained, sandy-loamy	Fertile, well-drained	Sandy, slightly acidic	[43,45,46]
Water Requirements	Moderate	Moderate to high	Low to moderate	[45,46]
Nutrient Requirements	Balanced NPK	High in organic matter	High nitrogen, high potassium	[46,47]
Pest and Disease Issues	Mealybugs, fruit rot	Anthracnose, stem rot	Nematodes, stem blight	[48,49,50]
Pollination	Cross/self-pollinated (insects)	Mostly cross-pollinated	Hand pollination	[51,52]

Table 1. Comparison of the three main dragon fruit species.

Feature	H. undatus (White-Fleshed Dragon Fruit)	H. costaricensis (Red-Fleshed Dragon Fruit)	H. megalanthus (Yellow Dragon Fruit)	References
Fruit Appearance	Pink/Red Skin, white flesh	Red skin, red flesh	Yellow skin, white flesh	[23,41,42,43]
Flavor	Mild, slightly sweet	Rich, sweet flavor	Very sweet aromatic	[41,42,43]
Climate	Tropical and subtropical; warm and humid	Warm and humid	Warmer regions with low humidity	[44,45]
Temperature Range	18–35 °C	20–38 °C	21–32 °C	[44,45]
Soil Conditions	Well-drained, sandy-loamy	Fertile, well-drained	Sandy, slightly acidic	[43,45,46]
Water Requirements	Moderate	Moderate to high	Low to moderate	[45,46]
Nutrient Requirements	Balanced NPK	High in organic matter	High nitrogen, high potassium	[46,47]
Pest and Disease Issues	Mealybugs, fruit rot	Anthracnose, stem rot	Nematodes, stem blight	[48,49,50]
Pollination	Cross/self-pollinated (insects)	Mostly cross-pollinated	Hand pollination	[51,52]

3. Current Cultivation Practices

Dragon fruit has emerged as a commercial crop only within the past 15 years, with global production in Vietnam expanding from approximately 15,000 hectares in 2010 to over 60,000 hectares by 2020 and continuing growth through 2025, which explains the limited research literature currently available in agricultural science [10,17,18]. In North American and European markets, dragon fruit typically retails for USD 4–8 per fruit, a price point that effectively restricts consumption to more affluent consumer segments. This market segmentation significantly limits both consumer awareness of the fruit’s nutritional and health benefits and the economic incentives that typically drive agricultural research investment [17]. Farmers choose traditional or sustainable methods based on their resources, climate, and market access. Understanding current farming practices, regional differences, and challenges is essential for improving production and sustainability [21].

3.1. Conventional vs. Sustainable Practices

Traditionally, dragon fruit is cultivated via conventional agricultural methods, especially in countries where it was first introduced or expanded commercially [21,39]. In these systems, farmers typically rely on synthetic fertilizers, chemical pesticides, and manual irrigation to ensure high yields. Dragon fruit plants are typically supported by concrete or wooden posts organized in rows and guided to climb using plastic or wire support systems. Fertilizer is often applied without calibration to soil nutrient levels, which may result in excessive fertilization and potential environmental effects [21,53]. Pest management in conventional systems is mostly based on chemical pesticides and fungicides, which are successful in the short term but pose long-term risks to beneficial insects, soil, and human health [54]. Furthermore, conventional systems frequently lack crop rotation or soil conservation techniques, rendering them less resistant to environmental stressors over time.

Owing to concerns about environmental deterioration, soil fertility, and the presence of pesticide residues, there has been a notable shift towards more sustainable dragon fruit production. This trend is driven by increasing consumer demand for organic and environmentally friendly produce, as well as increasing farmers’ understanding of the long-term benefits to soil health and biodiversity [55]. Sustainable farming approaches emphasize reducing external inputs, boosting natural ecosystem functions, and increasing water and nutrient efficiency. These include organic compost, green manure, vermicompost, and natural pest repellents such as neem or garlic sprays. Instead of chemical pesticides, farmers frequently utilize mulching, hand weeding, or cover crops to control weed pressure [56].

One of the most remarkable advances in sustainable dragon fruit production is the utilization of high tunnel systems. High tunnels, sometimes known as hoop houses, provide a semi-controlled environment that protects plants from adverse weather, regulates temperature and humidity, and lowers evaporation. These structures are used to decrease soil moisture, control the incidence of diseases, and extend the growing season, particularly in temperate or subtropical climates that experience frost or heavy rainfall [37]. When combined with drip irrigation systems, high tunnels improve water use efficiency and reduce the risk of fungal infections, which are frequent in open-field farming during the wet season [31]. Furthermore, integrating intercropping and agroforestry methods improves land usage and enhances biodiversity, resulting in a more resilient farming system [56].

3.2. Global Cultivation Hotspots

Dragon fruit-growing hotspots have evolved worldwide, each with their own set of practices tailored to the local climate and economic conditions. Vietnam is the world’s leading producer and exporter. Over 700,000 tons are produced annually from 50,000 to 60,000 hectares, with nearly USD 600 million exported and 80–85% of that amount going mostly to China (91.2% of export value), the US, and developing markets in Europe and Asia [16,57]. Dragon fruit has become a key economic commodity in Vietnam because of the country’s excellent environment, export-oriented policies, and low labor costs, particularly in Binh Thuan Province [58]. In 2021, China had the greatest area for growing pitaya, surpassing Vietnam [56]. Thailand, Malaysia, and the Philippines all also have significant production, with both smallholder and large-scale commercial farms serving domestic and regional markets [58,59]. Countries in the Americas, including Colombia, Ecuador, Nicaragua, and Mexico, have increased cultivation to capitalize on both export markets and domestic demand. These countries are also looking into organic certification and value-added products such as juices and dried snacks [60,61]. Dragon fruit is successfully grown in arid regions of Palestine via innovative drip irrigation and fertigation methods, which are frequently used in greenhouses [34]. Dragon fruit is gaining popularity in Australia, especially in Queensland and the Northern Territory, where sustainable and organic practices are promoted [61]. In the United States, commercial cultivation is concentrated in southern California, Florida, and Hawaii. Growers often use high tunnels and trellis systems, and they cater to specialty markets such as organic stores and direct-to-consumer sales [31,62]. Although extensive research on dragon fruit from Puerto Rico is scarce, the Caribbean region signifies a crucial frontier for cultivation expansion, especially in the context of climate change necessitating heat- and drought-resistant crops [59].

3.3. Productivity Challenges in Different Regions

Although dragon fruit cultivation is expanding worldwide, it faces distinct regional challenges that impact both production and profitability. Temperature, salinity, light intensity, and water availability significantly influence the growth, physiology, flowering, and ultimately yield of dragon fruit and promote healthy vegetative growth, but excessive temperatures or water stress can impair photosynthesis and stem development. Salinity controls nutrient intake and, if too high, can impair flowering and fruit set, whereas light intensity affects photosynthetic efficiency and flowering patterns, which ultimately determine yield. These environmental factors work together to impact the plant’s physiology, flowering behavior, and overall productivity, making their control critical for effective dragon fruit cultivation [63,64,65,66,67]. Climatic changes, such as high humidity, poor drainage, or drought, can cause diseases such as stem rot and anthracnose, requiring expensive irrigation and disease management strategies. Furthermore, pollination failure is prevalent in places without natural pollinators. As a flower that opens at night, dragon fruit relies mainly on nocturnal pollinators such as nectar-feeding bats (which are attracted by the flower’s strong scent and nectar), hawkmoths, and nocturnal bees (though their effectiveness varies by region and flower morphology) [68]. Absence of these forces farmers to rely on labor-intensive hand pollination, which can lower fruit quality and market value [35]. Pest and disease is also a major issue. Common pests include mealybugs (Drosicha spp.), aphids (Aphis gossypii), and fruit flies (Bactrocera spp.), while prevalent diseases include stem rot caused by Neoscytalidium dimidiatum, anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, and bacterial soft rot caused by Erwinia spp. Their control is further compounded by a lack of access to sustainable alternatives and inadequate farmer training, which frequently leads to chemical misuse and long-term soil deterioration [69,70]. These problems are exacerbated by the sensitivity of the dragon fruit plant to soil conditions and the need for meticulous fertilizer management to ensure long-term production.

These problems are connected to the three major dragon fruit species H. undatus, H. costaricensis, and H. megalanthus, which shows that each variety’s agronomic and nutritional qualities determine its suitability for different locations (

Table 2. Comparison of the agronomic and nutritional characteristics of the three major dragon fruit species.

Feature	H. undatus (White-Fleshed Dragon Fruit)	H. costaricensis (Red-Fleshed Dragon Fruit)	H. megalanthus (Yellow Dragon Fruit)	Key References
Time to Grow (from planting to fruiting)	12–18 months	12–18 months	18–24 months	[72,73,74]
Where It Grows	Widely in Asia, Central America, Australia	Central & South America, Asia, Australia	South America, Subtropical/Tropical areas	[73,74,75,76]
Fruit Quality	White flesh, mildly sweet, crunchy seeds	Deep red flesh, sweeter, earthy flavor	Yellow skin, white flesh, very sweet, small seeds	[72,73,74,76]
Nutritional Value per 100 g	~50 kcal, Vitamin C, fiber, antioxidants	~60 kcal, Vitamin C, betalains, fiber	~60 kcal, Vitamin C, fiber, carotenoids	[73,74,76,77,78]
Health Benefits	Antioxidant, digestive health, immune support	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, heart health	Antioxidant, immune support, gut health	[73,74,76,77,78]

). While all three species require comparable development periods, their tolerances to climate and soil differ, as do their fruit qualities and nutritional profiles [34]. Postharvest difficulties, such as inadequate cold storage and transport, result in large losses and lower profitability, particularly in developing countries. Addressing these interconnected challenges would require a comprehensive approach that incorporates improved infrastructure, education for farmers, and focused investment in supply chains and cooperatives to support consistent fruit quality and reliable market access [71].

4. Nutrient Management in Dragon Fruit

Effective nutrient control is critical for healthy dragon fruit growth and fruit yield. Each developmental stage of dragon fruit such as the vegetative, flowering and fruiting, and postharvest stages requires a unique combination of essential nutrients. N is essential for early vegetative growth, P promotes root and flower development, and K is critical for fruit quality and yield, particularly during the flowering and fruiting stages. Ca and Mg improve fruit quality and plant health, whereas the micronutrients Fe and Zn prevent deficiencies that can limit growth [79]. The fertilization schedules and nutrient ratios must change as the plant grows, with organic additives such as compost and manure providing long-term alternatives to chemical fertilizers and increasing the appeal of organic gardening due to its environmental and health benefits.

These nutritional requirements and management tactics are inextricably tied to the agronomic requirements of the three primary dragon fruit species (

Table 3. Soil nutrient management for different dragon fruit species [79,80].

Feature	H. undatus (White-Fleshed Dragon Fruit)	H. costaricensis (Red-Fleshed Dragon Fruit)	H. megalanthus (Yellow Dragon Fruit)
Soil pH	6.0–7.0	6.0–7.0	5.5–6.5
Organic Matter	High (>2%)	High (>2%)	>1.5%
Nitrogen (N)	300–500 g/plant/year	300–700 g/plant/year	250–450 g/plant/year
Phosphorus (P)	150–350 g/plant/year	150–400 g/plant/year	150–300 g/plant/year
Potassium (K)	300–650 g/plant/year	300–650 g/plant/year	300–650 g/plant/year
Calcium (Ca)	1000–2000 ppm	1000–2000 ppm	1000–2000 ppm
Magnesium (Mg)	50–100 ppm	50–100 ppm	50–100 ppm
Sulfur (S)	20–40 ppm	20–40 ppm	20–40 ppm
Micronutrients (Zn, Fe, Mn, B, Cu)	25–100 ppm, 60–120 ppm, 25–200 ppm, 5–16 ppm, 5–16 ppm	25–100 ppm, 60–120 ppm, 25–200 ppm, 5–16 ppm, 5–16 ppm	25–100 ppm, 60–120 ppm, 25–200 ppm, 5–16 ppm (critical), 5–16 ppm
Fertilization Frequency	Every 2–3 months	Every 2–3 months	Every 2–4 months
Best Organic Amendments	Compost, chicken manure	Compost, cow manure	Well-rotted manure, green manure

). Each species, H. undatus, H. costaricensis, or H. megalanthus, has a unique preference for soil pH, organic matter, and micronutrient levels, as well as an ideal fertilization frequency and organic amendments. Understanding and customizing nutrient management for these species-specific needs not only promotes robust plant development and high fruit quality but also increases the health benefits and market value of the fruit.

4.1. Soil Fertility and Design Strategies

Dragon fruit thrives in well-drained, slightly acidic soils high in organic matter. Soil fertility is essential for healthy growth since the shallow root system of plants is sensitive to compaction, salt, and nutrient imbalances. It is also possible to cultivate dragon fruit naturally without the use of chemical pesticides or fertilizers. Farmyard manure and chicken manure are frequently utilized to increase nutrient requirements in organic farming systems. They slowly release nutrients, improving soil health and supporting plant growth. Due to perceived health benefits and environmental sustainability, organic dragon fruit has seen a rise in market popularity and consumer demand. Compost, manure, and charcoal are recommended as additives in areas with weak or rocky soils to increase the soil structure, moisture retention, and nutrient availability [81]. A typical amendment technique involves the incorporation of 10–15 kg of organic compost or farmyard manure per plant at initial planting, coupled with a single superphosphate for phosphorus. Chemical fertilizers are applied only after the plant establishment, which usually occurs 2–3 months after planting. The specific fertilizer program should be adapted to local soil conditions, with regular soil and tissue testing to guide changes [82]. Maintaining soil fertility across a plant’s 15–20 year lifecycle is challenging. The overapplication of N can result in excessive vegetative growth at the expense of fruiting, whereas uneven fertilization depletes soil health and productivity over time. Thus, a balanced approach that combines organic amendments without the use of synthetic fertilizers is frequently the most beneficial approach.

4.2. Organic Versus Synthetic Fertilization

The dispute over organic vs. synthetic fertilizers revolves around sustainability, crop health, and long-term soil productivity. Organic fertilizers, including compost, manure, and biochar, improve soil structure, increase nutrient retention, and promote beneficial microbial activity [81]. These advantages translate into increased plant immunity, lower disease incidence, and greater resistance to environmental stresses. Synthetic fertilizers, by contrast, provide readily accessible nutrients that can be carefully adjusted to meet the specific needs of crops, especially in soils identified as nutrient-deficient. However, excessive reliance on chemical inputs can harm soil health, increasing the risk of nutrient runoff and disturbing the soil microbial ecosystems [81]. Research increasingly supports integrated nutrient management, which combines organic and synthetic sources to maximize both immediate productivity and long-term sustainability. For example, using organic matter as a base and supplementing tailored chemical fertilizers throughout critical growth stages has been proven to improve plant health while preserving soil health [83].

4.3. Role of Biofertilizers and Compost

Biofertilizers and compost are becoming popular as sustainable nutrient sources for dragon fruit growth. Compost enhances soil aeration, water retention, and nitrogen cycling, resulting in an ideal environment for root growth [81]. When coupled with compost, biochar amplifies these effects by increasing the cation exchange capacity of the soil and promoting beneficial bacteria. Biofertilizers, such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria and phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms, can increase nutrient availability while decreasing the requirement for synthetic inputs. These biological amendments contribute to the maintenance of a healthy soil ecosystem, the suppression of soil-borne diseases, and the enhancement of the plant’s natural defenses [81].

4.4. Case Studies on Nutrient Optimization

Several studies around the world have demonstrated the value of targeted nutrient management in increasing dragon fruit yield. South America, particularly Brazil and adjacent nations, has shown that site-specific boron management, driven by extensive soil and tissue analysis, improves fruit set and quality, particularly in white-fleshed cultivars. The strategic application of both soil and foliar applied boron compounds has resulted in increased yields and fewer physiological diseases [81]. Fertilizer trials in India on rocky, low-fertility soils have indicated that combining farmyard manure, single superphosphate, and the introduction of chemical fertilizers gradually resulted in vigorous plants and high fruit yields. Notably, the best results were obtained with split treatments timed to crucial growth stages, indicating the importance of both timing and dosage in nutrient control. Similarly, Australian growers discovered that balanced fertilization, particularly during flowering and fruiting, resulted in larger, sweeter fruits and increased resilience to pests and diseases. The regular monitoring and adjustment of nutrient inputs adapted to plant development and environmental circumstances are recognized as critical variables in obtaining these positive results [84].

5. Pest and Disease Management

5.1. Major Pests and Their Life Cycles

Dragon fruit is a crop that can be affected by various insect pests. These pests, each with distinct life cycles, impact the crop at different stages and require specific management strategies depending on when and how they appear. Common pests include thrips, mealybugs, aphids, ants, leaf-footed bugs, beetles, and fruit flies [84,85].

In regions such as South Florida, thrips are a persistent problem due to their rapid reproduction, completing up to ten generations annually. Females lay their eggs in flower tissues or young fruits, where the larvae feed before dropping to the soil to pupate. Their feeding behavior leaves behind scars, dark fecal deposits, and oviposition wounds, making the fruit unattractive and unsellable. In outbreak years, thrips can cause 20–80% of fruits to become unmarketable [85]. Although small, mealybugs and aphids inflict substantial damage by sucking plant sap, which weakens the plant and disrupts its growth. The honeydew they excrete encourages the growth of sooty molds, which cover the stems and fruit surfaces, further reducing photosynthesis and fruit quality (University of California Integrated Pest Management [85,86]). The sugary residue attracts ants, which defend aphids and mealybugs from predators and worsen infestations [86,87]. Leaf-footed bugs, another troublesome pest, follow an approximately 50-day life cycle from egg to adult. They pierce both stems and fruit via their needle-like mouthparts, causing direct damage and creating wounds that serve as entry points for fungal and bacterial infections [88]. Similarly, fruit flies, especially the Oriental fruit fly (Bactrocera dorsalis), lay eggs under the fruit’s skin. The emerging larvae burrow into the fruit flesh, causing internal rot, a major concern for postharvest quality and market rejection [87]. Secondary pests such as beetles, snails, and birds can also damage fruit, particularly if orchards are poorly maintained or if fruit is left on the plant too long [88]. The diversity of pests and their varying life cycles make dragon fruit pest management a year-round concern.

5.2. Key Diseases Affecting Dragon Fruit

Dragon fruit production worldwide faces substantial problems from a wide range of pathogens, including fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes. Anthracnose, stem and fruit rot, cankers, and postharvest degradation are all caused by fungal infections, with Colletotrichum, Fusarium, Bipolaris, and Neoscytalidium being most prevalent and harmful. These infections flourish in warm, damp settings and can spread quickly through water, tools, or infected plant material, causing sores, rot, and blemishes that frequently affect pre- and postharvest quality. Bacterial diseases, albeit less prevalent, can cause rapid tissue collapse, as demonstrated with Enterobacter cloacae and Paenibacillus polymyxa, whereas viral threats such as Cactus virus X (CVX) cause mosaic symptoms and reduced growth in various Hylocereus sp. Hylocereus species. Nematode infections, particularly those caused by root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), are a growing issue, causing root galls, stunted plants, and increased susceptibility to other diseases.

Table 4. Fungal, bacterial, and nematode viral pathogens and their associated diseases in H. undatus.

Pathogen Type	Major Pathogens (Genus/Species)	Countries/Regions	Main Symptoms/ Impact	Key References
Fungal	Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger, Aureobasidium pullulans, Bipolaris cactivora, Botryosphaeria dothidea, Colletotrichum spp. (C. aenigma, C. gloeosporioides, C. siamense, C. truncatum), Diaporthe phaseolorum, Fusarium oxysporum, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Neoscytalidium dimidiatum, Nigrospora sphaerica, Phytophthora nicotianae, Sclerotium rolfsii	Brazil, China, India, Israel, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, Taiwan, Thailand, US	Lesions, rot, cankers, fruit spots, stem dieback, wilting, soft decay, vascular browning, sunken cankers, black or reddish-brown spots, mycelial mats, rapid fruit decay.	[85,89,90,91,92]
Bacterial	Dickeya dadantii, Enterobacter cloacae, Paenibacillus polymyxa	China, Malaysia	Soft rot, rapid tissue breakdown, water-soaked/mushy lesions, foul odor, yellow–brown stem discoloration, stem collapse within 24–48 h.	[89,93]
Viral	Cactus virus X (CVX), Dragon fruit virus X	US, Taiwan, Korea, China, Malaysia, Philippines	Chlorotic spots, mosaic patterns, red–brown margins, distorted spines, stunted growth, yellow mosaic, leaf distortion.	[94]
Nematode	Meloidogyne enterolobii, Helicotylenchus dihystera	US, Taiwan, China	Root galls, root discoloration, stunted growth, yellowing, reduced fruit yield, mild stunting.	[93,95,96]

,

Table 5. Fungal, bacterial, and nematode viral pathogens and their associated diseases in H. megalanthus.

Pathogen Type	Major Pathogens (Genus/ Species)	Countries/Regions	Main Symptoms/ Impact	Key References
Fungal	Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Alternaria alternata	Brazil, China, Thailand, Malaysia	Anthracnose: dark, sunken spots with pinkish-orange spores; severe fruit rot. Postharvest rot: dark, sunken fruit lesions, rapid decay.	[89,97,98,99]
Bacterial	Enterobacter cloacae	Malaysia	Bacterial soft rot: water-soaked, mushy lesions; foul odor; rapid collapse of fruit and stems.	[89]
Viral	Cactus virus X (CVX)	US, Taiwan, Korea, China, Malaysia	Chlorotic spots, mosaic patterns, red–brown margins, distorted spines, stunted growth.	[94,100]
Nematode	Meloidogyne enterolobii	Brazil, US, Taiwan, China	Root-knot nematode: root galls, stunted growth, yellowing, reduced fruit yield.	[93,96]

and

Table 6. Fungal, bacterial, and nematode viral pathogens and their associated diseases in H. costaricensis.

Pathogen Type	Major Pathogens (Genus/ Species)	Countries/ Regions	Main Symptoms/Impact	Key References
Fungal	Neocosmospora rubicola, Phomopsis asparagi, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Pestalotiopsis clavispora	China	Stem rot/blight: reddish-brown stem lesions, internal necrosis, dieback (N. rubicola); fruit rot: soft, watery rot with white fungal growth (P. asparagi); anthracnose: dark, sunken spots, fruit rot (C. gloeosporioides); grayish stem lesions with black spore masses (P. clavispora).	[95,98,99]
Bacterial	No major confirmed bacterial pathogens specific to H. costaricensis in the current literature; generalists like Enterobacter cloacae may infect multiple Hylocereus spp.	Malaysia, China (general)	Soft rot: water-soaked, mushy lesions, rapid tissue collapse (if present).	[89]
Viral	Cactus virus X (CVX)	US, Taiwan, Korea, China	Chlorotic spots, mosaic, red–brown margins, stunted growth, distorted spines.	[94,100]
Nematode	Meloidogyne enterolobii, Rotylenchulus reniformis	US, Taiwan, China, Israel	Root-knot and reniform nematodes: root galls, stunted growth, yellowing, reduced fruit yield, root stunting.	[95,96]

provide information on the individual infections that harm each dragon fruit species. Table 4 lists the principal fungal, bacterial, viral, and nematode diseases that affect H. undatus, highlighting their geographic distribution and distinguishing symptoms. Table 5 provides a comparable overview of H. megalanthus, and Table 6 focuses on H. costaricensis. These tables are comprehensive resources for producers and researchers, providing a clear picture of the disease environment and assisting in the creation of focused management plans to safeguard dragon fruit crops and ensure their long-term viability.

5.3. Chemical Control: Advantages, Limitations, Concerns, and Management Strategies

Chemical control is still a frequent first response to dragon fruit pest outbreaks, providing rapid suppression of pests such as weevils and mealybugs via the use of pesticides and soaps. However, this strategy has several limitations: prolonged usage can promote pesticide resistance, kill beneficial insects, and contaminate the environment. Broad-spectrum chemicals frequently destroy natural enemies, resulting in pest recurrence, while residual concerns might jeopardize food safety and export compliance. For smallholders, the cost and availability of safe products are further impediments, and tropical conditions increase the risk of pesticide runoff into waterways.

Effective pest management is intimately related to disease prevention in dragon fruit. Pests such as thrips and aphids cause wounds that allow pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, and viruses to enter, and some pests even transfer diseases directly. To combat these problems, farmers should start with good planting material, practice hygiene, prune for ventilation, and use fungicides sparingly. Many farmers now prefer biological management and integrated pest management (IPM), which combines natural enemies (such as predatory insects and entomopathogenic fungi), cultural practices, and selective chemical application. Botanical pesticides (e.g., neem oil) and trap crops contribute to environmentally sustainable management, whereas fruit bagging provides a chemical-free option for fruit protection. Other techniques, listed in

Table 7. Species-specific disease management for dragon fruit.

Disease	Management Strategies	Key References
Fungal	Use healthy planting material; prune and remove infected tissues; maintain orchard sanitation; rotate and judiciously apply fungicides; employ biological controls such as Bacillus subtilis (especially in combination with sodium bicarbonate); apply elicitors like oligochitosan-nanosilica; optimize irrigation and airflow; disinfect tools.	[85,89,90,92,101]
Bacterial	Remove and destroy infected plants; improve drainage and avoid overhead irrigation; sanitize tools and equipment; use copper-based bactericides with caution; start with disease-free planting material; maintain field hygiene.	[88,89,101]
Viral	Use certified virus-free planting stock; control insect vectors (aphids, thrips); promptly rogue and destroy symptomatic plants; sanitize tools; avoid mechanical transmission; maintain field hygiene.	[94,101]
Nematode	Use nematode-free planting material; rotate crops with nonhosts; apply soil solarization and organic amendments; maintain weed control; use nematicides as a last resort; monitor roots regularly for galls.	[73,89,101]

, are suited to the primary diseases of H. undatus (Table 4), H. megalanthus (Table 5), and H. costaricensis (Table 6), thereby promoting sustainable dragon fruit production across variations.

6. Sustainable Farming Practices for Dragon Fruit

As dragon fruit continues to gain popularity in global markets, growers are increasingly turning to sustainable farming practices to ensure long-term viability, environmental stewardship, and market competitiveness [102,103]. Unlike conventional systems, which often rely heavily on chemical inputs and monocultures, sustainable approaches emphasize the ecological balance, resource efficiency, and resilience to climate variability. This review explores key sustainable practices in dragon fruit cultivation, including organic farming, water conservation through drip irrigation, crop rotation and intercropping, soil health monitoring, and the adoption of climate-smart agriculture [75].

6.1. Organic Farming Approaches

Organic dragon fruit farming is rooted in the principle of minimizing synthetic chemical inputs and fostering natural ecosystem processes [104]. Farmers practicing organic cultivation typically avoid synthetic fertilizers and pesticides and opt instead for organic amendments such as compost, farmyard manure, vermicompost, and green manure [31]. These organic materials not only supply essential nutrients but also improve the soil structure and microbial activity, which are crucial for shallow-rooted dragon fruit plants [105]. Organic growers often use botanical pesticides such as neem oil and garlic extracts to manage pests, reducing the risk of chemical residues on fruit and promoting a healthier farm environment. In addition, organic certification can open access to premium markets, providing economic incentives for growers to adopt these practices [106]. However, transitioning to organic systems requires careful planning, knowledge sharing, and sometimes higher labor inputs, particularly for weed and pest management.

6.2. Drip Irrigation and Water Conservation

Water management is a cornerstone of sustainable dragon fruit farming, especially in arid and semiarid regions where water scarcity is a concern [107]. Drip irrigation has emerged as a highly efficient method for delivering water directly to the root zone and minimizing evaporation losses. Studies indicate drip systems use up to 50% less water than surface irrigation and help lower fungal disease risk by keeping foliage dry [108]. In Israel, for example, commercial dragon fruit is successfully grown in arid zones via drip irrigation and fertigation, which allows for precise nutrient delivery and optimal plant growth [34]. The use of automated moisture sensors combined with scheduling can improve water management by supplying plants with appropriate amounts of water during important growth periods. These technologies not only conserve water but also lower production costs and environmental impacts.

6.3. Crop Rotation and Intercropping

Although dragon fruit is a perennial crop, integrating crop rotation and intercropping into orchard systems can significantly increase sustainability. Intercropping dragon fruit with legumes, vegetables, or cover crops helps diversify the agroecosystem, disrupts pest and disease cycles, and improves soil fertility through natural nitrogen fixation [109]. For example, planting leguminous cover crops between dragon fruit rows can reduce weed pressure, add organic matter, and support beneficial insect populations. Crop rotation, where feasible, can also break cycles of soil-borne diseases and pests, reducing the need for chemical interventions [69,110]. In Southeast Asia, some growers have successfully intercropped dragon fruit with short-duration vegetables or herbs, providing additional income streams and improving overall land use efficiency. These practices not only support biodiversity but also build resilience against environmental stress [110].

6.4. Soil Health Monitoring and Conservation

Healthy soil is the foundation of sustainable dragon fruit production. The shallow root system of plants make them particularly sensitive to soil compaction, salinity, and nutrient imbalances. Regular soil testing and monitoring are essential for informed nutrient management, helping farmers apply fertilizers and amendments on the basis of actual needs rather than assumptions. Organic amendments such as compost and biochar are commonly used to enhance soil structure, increase water retention, and support microbial life [111]. Mulching with organic materials helps conserve moisture, suppress weeds, and moderate the soil temperature, all of which benefit fruit growth. Conservation tillage and the avoidance of heavy machinery use also help maintain the soil structure and prevent erosion. In long-term plantations, maintaining soil fertility and organic matter is critical, as dragon fruit is often grown on the same plants for 15–20 years. These conservation practices not only sustain productivity but also contribute to the overall health of the farm ecosystems [112,113].

6.5. Climate-Smart Agriculture for Dragon Fruit

With the increasing unpredictability of weather patterns and the intensification of climate extremes, climate-smart agriculture is becoming essential for dragon fruit growers. The Central Andes of Peru provide critical insights into how altered precipitation patterns and elevated temperatures will affect CAM metabolism crops such as dragon fruit, with projections indicating that temperature increases of 2–3 °C by 2050 may initially improve photosynthetic efficiency but will then trigger heat stress beyond optimal thresholds (>38 °C), reducing fruit set and quality [19]. Addressing this involves adapting farming practices to reduce vulnerability to climate risks while minimizing greenhouse gas emissions. High tunnel systems and shade netting, for example, can protect dragon fruit from excessive rainfall, hail, or frost while also moderating temperature and humidity [114]. The use of drought-resistant rootstocks and the selection of climate-adapted varieties further increase resilience [30]. Integrating agroforestry practices, including planting shade trees or windbreaks, can help protect crops from extreme weather and contribute to biodiversity [108]. Additionally, efficient water and nutrient management combined with the use of renewable energy for irrigation and processing can help lower the carbon footprint of dragon fruit production [105]. Demonstration farms and farmer field schools play a vital role in sharing climate-smart techniques and building capacity among growers.

7. Technological Innovations

Dragon fruit (Hylocereus spp.) cultivation has rapidly expanded in recent years, especially in Asia and Latin America, driven by rising global demand and fruit adaptability to diverse climates. As competition and environmental pressures increase, growers and researchers are embracing technological innovations to optimize productivity, resource use, and sustainability [115]. This review explores the transformative role of remote sensing and GIS, precision agriculture, smart sensors, and data-driven decision support tools in modern dragon fruit farming.

7.1. Use of Remote Sensing and GIS in Farm Management

Remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GISs) have revolutionized farm management by providing growers with spatially explicit, real-time data on crop health, land use, and environmental conditions. In Vietnam, for example, researchers have used nighttime light (NTL) remote sensing data to map dragon fruit croplands, leveraging the unique practice of illuminating plantations at night to induce off-season flowering [16]. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) offers a swift and noninvasive approach for evaluating soil chemical characteristics and identifying heavy metal levels, serving as a viable substitute for traditional methods such as inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) [116]. The strong seasonality of NTL signals driven by growers turning on lights during winter enables the identification and monitoring of dragon fruit plantations from space, distinguishing them from urban areas and other crops [16,117]. This approach not only helps estimate the planted area and production but also tracks the expansion or contraction of dragon fruit cultivation over time, supporting regional planning and policy decisions [16,117]. High-resolution synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and other satellite data further enhance land use classification, allowing for the detection of subtle changes in plantation boundaries and the assessment of rural–urban transformation [16,118]. GIS-based analysis also enables growers to identify optimal locations for new plantings by integrating data on temperature, rainfall, soil pH, and land use, thus reducing the risk of crop failure and maximizing resource efficiency [119].

7.2. Precision Agriculture Techniques

Precision agriculture is transforming dragon fruit cultivation by enabling farmers to apply inputs of water, fertilizers, and pesticides exactly where and when they are needed. In the Ecuadorian Amazon, pilot projects are demonstrating how remote monitoring systems, computer vision, and variable-rate application technologies can optimize resource use and improve fruit quality. These techniques help farmers plan annual production, ensure traceability, and meet the stringent quality and biosecurity standards required for export markets [120,121]. Data analytics and remote sensing are integral to precision agriculture, allowing for continuous crop monitoring and early detection of stress or disease. For example, drones equipped with multispectral cameras can assess plant health across large fields and identify areas of nutrient deficiency or pest infestation that require targeted intervention [121]. Variable-rate irrigation and fertigation systems, guided by soil moisture and nutrient data, deliver water and nutrients precisely, reducing waste and environmental impact [9,122]. These innovations not only increase productivity but also support sustainable farming by minimizing the overuse of agrochemicals and conserving natural resources [121,122].

7.3. Smart Sensors for Nutrient and Pest Detection

Smart sensors are at the heart of modern, data-driven dragon fruit cultivation. These devices continuously monitor soil moisture, temperature, nutrient levels, and even pest activity, providing farmers with actionable insights in real time [123]. Internet of Things (IoT) networks connect these sensors to centralized platforms, allowing for automated alerts and remote management [124]. For example, soil sensors can trigger drip irrigation systems when moisture falls below a set threshold, ensuring optimal water use and preventing both drought stress and overwatering [33]. Pest detection has also become more precise with the use of smart traps and image recognition technology. Cameras and sensors deployed in the field can identify and count specific pests, such as fruit flies or thrips, enabling timely and targeted control measures [125]. This reduces the need for broad-spectrum pesticide applications and helps preserve beneficial insects. Smart sensors also facilitate nutrient management by measuring soil and plant nutrient status, guiding the precise application of fertilizers to match crop demand and growth stage.

7.4. Data-Driven Decision Support Tools

The integration of remote sensing, precision agriculture, and smart sensors generates vast amounts of data, which can be harnessed through decision support tools (DSTs) to guide farm management. These tools use algorithms and predictive models to synthesize data from multiple sources of satellite imagery, weather forecasts, sensor networks, and historical yield records to help farmers make informed decisions about irrigation, fertilization, pest control, and harvest timing [126,127].

For example, decision support platforms can analyze real-time weather data and crop growth models to recommend optimal irrigation schedules, reduce water use, and prevent disease outbreaks associated with excess moisture [128]. Yield prediction models, which are based on remote sensing and field data, assist growers in planning harvests and marketing strategies, improving profitability and reducing postharvest losses. In regions such as Vietnam and Thailand, the adoption of such tools has enabled large-scale producers to coordinate lighting schedules for off-season flowering, synchronize harvests, and respond swiftly to market fluctuations [119].

Technological innovations are reshaping dragon fruit cultivation, making it more precise, efficient, and sustainable. Remote sensing and GIS provide a bird’s eye view of plantation dynamics and environmental conditions, whereas precision agriculture techniques ensure that inputs are used judiciously and only where needed. Smart sensors enable real-time monitoring and rapid response to changing field conditions, and data-driven decision support tools to turn complex information into practical recommendations. Together, these advancements are helping dragon fruit growers meet the challenges of climate change, resource scarcity, and market demands, ensuring the continued success of crops in a rapidly evolving agricultural landscape.

8. Socioeconomic and Environmental Considerations

Dragon fruit’s popularity is driven not only by its exotic appeal and nutritional value but also by the economic opportunities it offers to smallholders and commercial farmers alike. As cultivation expands, there is an increasing need to consider sustainability as an approach that is environmentally responsible, economically feasible, and socially equitable within agricultural systems [106]. This shift requires more than just swapping out chemical inputs for organic inputs. It involves a deeper understanding of economic trade-offs, farmer education, biodiversity preservation, and supportive policy frameworks that together shape the future of sustainable dragon fruit production.

8.1. Cost–Benefit Dynamics of Sustainable Farming

Regarding adopting sustainable practices, the first question many farmers ask is simple: “Will it pay off?” Research shows that the answer is often yes, although with some important caveats. For example, a detailed cost–benefit analysis in Nepal revealed that dragon fruit cultivation has a benefit–cost ratio of 1:87, confirming its profitability for both small- and large-scale growers [20]. However, costs related to infrastructure, such as trellis systems and plant protection structures, were significant contributors to overall returns. On the other hand, irrigation costs had a negative impact, suggesting that smart water management is key to improving profitability. Similarly, in Indonesia, a study of organic dragon fruit farms revealed that sustainable approaches not only lowered input costs by reducing dependency on chemical fertilizers and pesticides but also yielded higher prices in niche organic markets. These farms delivered better net present values and stronger benefit–cost ratios compared to conventional systems [129]. However, sustainability efforts often require initial costs for training, certification, and infrastructure, which can hinder farmers with limited resources [130]. A case from Vietnam’s Binh Thuan province further illustrates the financial upside of sustainable innovation. Farmers using solar-powered irrigation and energy-saving LED lights reduce their energy costs and water use, increasing profitability while reducing environmental impact [16,131]. These examples show that while the path to sustainability may require investment, long-term returns through efficiency, resilience, and access to premium markets can make it more than worthwhile.

8.2. Farmers Through Knowledge and Training

The adoption of sustainable practices does not occur in a vacuum. It depends heavily on the knowledge, skills, and resources that farmers have access to. Across regions such as Nepal, Cambodia, the Philippines and Vietnam, studies highlight that extension services, cooperative networks, and hands-on training are critical for driving adoption and improving farm outcomes [20]. However, many smallholder farmers face real barriers: limited access to up-to-date information, lack of technical know-how, and financial constraints that prevent them from experimenting with new methods. In response, programs that combine demonstration plots, mobile advisory tools, and peer-to-peer learning are proving effective [132]. In Vietnam, for example, the UNDP-MARD project introduced digital traceability systems and climate-smart practices to more than 5000 farmers, empowering them to meet international standards while increasing yields sustainably [133]. Community-based models, including cooperatives and self-help groups, also play a significant role. These structures foster knowledge sharing, collective action, and improved access to credit and markets, making the transition to sustainable practices less risky and more accessible, demonstrating that investing in farmer education and institutional support is not optional [134].

8.3. Impact on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

Sustainable dragon fruit cultivation does not just benefit farmers; it also supports the environment. When implemented correctly, it enhances biodiversity, supports ecosystem services, and helps create a more resilient agricultural landscape. Agroecological practices such as intercropping and companion planting are good examples. The growth of marigolds or basils alongside dragon fruit can deter pests such as nematodes and thrips naturally, reducing the need for chemical inputs and supporting beneficial insects [135,136,137]. These biodiversity-friendly approaches promote pollination, improve soil health, and strengthen pest resistance, making farms more self-sustaining. However, the rapid expansion of dragon fruit monocultures, particularly in sensitive ecosystems, has unintended consequences [138]. A study in xeric forests revealed that converting native landscapes into dragon fruit plantations led to substantial deforestation and biodiversity loss [138]. This underscores the importance of adopting land-use strategies that protect habitat and ecosystem functions while scaling production.

Sustainable farms are increasingly embracing permaculture principles, closed-loop nutrient systems, and efficient water irrigation to reduce their environmental footprint. These practices do not just conserve resources; rather, they create healthier, more climate-resilient farms.

8.4. The Power of Policy and Certification

Government policies and certification programs can promote or prevent the adoption of sustainable dragon fruit farming. When well designed, they provide technical, financial, and market support that farmers need to shift away from harmful practices. Across several countries, national programs promote good agricultural practices (GAPs), organic certification, integrated pest and nutrient management, and mechanization [139,140]. These initiatives standardize production, improve safety and quality, and help farmers access broader markets.

Certification schemes such as Global GAP, organic labeling, and carbon footprint tracking are particularly important for accessing high-value export markets. In Vietnam, over 269 hectares of dragon fruit farms are now Global GAP-certified, supported by traceability systems that ensure transparency and increase consumer trust. These certifications not only reward farmers with better prices but also require adherence to sustainability metrics such as reduced chemical use, social responsibility, and environmental care. Policy frameworks that offer subsidies, training, and credit access, especially for smallholders, are vital for ensuring equitable access to sustainable agriculture. Aligning national strategies with climate-smart goals helps integrate dragon fruit cultivation into broader environmental and economic development agendas [141,142]. Ultimately, collaborative partnerships among governments, NGOs, research bodies, and farmers are essential to make sustainable dragon fruit farming scalable and inclusive.

9. Future Direction and Research Needs

As dragon fruit becomes a popular high-value crop in tropical and subtropical areas, innovation and research are essential for its continued development. While basic agronomic practices are now well understood, many unanswered questions still exist that limit the full potential of these practices. For example, more work is needed to understand nutrient uptake in different soils, long-term soil health under intensive cultivation, and climate-specific pest and disease patterns [143]. Similarly, more robust datasets on each genetic diversity, physiological stress tolerance, and optimal irrigation strategies are lacking. Without these gaps, developing regionally adapted, climate-resilient, and profitable farming systems will remain a challenge. One of the most promising frontiers is genetic improvement [144]. Although many dragon fruit varieties are grown globally, breeding efforts are still fragmented, and most farmers propagate plants vegetatively via unknown or uncharacterized cultivars. Brazilian research groups, especially Embrapa, have led efforts to improve the genetics of pitaya. They have created T2T genome assemblies and looked at interspecific hybrids with better agronomic traits. These genomic data make it easier to use marker-assisted selection to find plants that can handle drought, fight disease, and improve fruit quality. This is important for growing plants in tropical and subtropical areas [15]. Future research should prioritize identifying and promoting genotypes with traits such as increased sweetness; extended shelf-life; and tolerance to drought, salinity, or disease for each genetic species [145]. Tools such as genomics, tissue culture, and marker-assisted selection can help speed up the breeding process and conserve rare varieties [146,147]. Creating structured breeding programs in collaboration with universities and international partners will be crucial to unlocking the crop’s full potential. In addition to genetics, digital tools such as artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) offer exciting possibilities for dragon fruit cultivation [148]. These technologies can analyze environmental and farm data to develop predictive models for pest outbreaks, irrigation timing, and nutrient application. AI-powered systems, combined with satellite imagery and sensor inputs, can help farmers make real-time decisions that increase productivity while reducing resource use. For example, early detection of crop stress through drone imaging could allow for targeted intervention, minimizing chemical use and crop losses. However, to make these tools truly effective, region-specific datasets and user-friendly platforms must be developed, particularly for smallholder farmers with limited access to digital infrastructure. Finally, collaborative research and global partnerships will be essential in moving the industry forward. No single institution or country can address all aspects of dragon fruit sustainability, from pest biology to market access [149]. Initiatives such as the UNDP-MARD project in Vietnam demonstrate how partnerships between governments, researchers, and farmers can promote sustainable practices through training, digital tools, and certification support [150]. Broader international cooperation, including open-access databases and joint research programs, can accelerate innovation and ensure equitable benefits for producers worldwide. As climate challenges grow and global demand increases, coordinated research and policy efforts will be key to ensuring that dragon fruit farming remains both productive and sustainable in the years to come.