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Aerospace

Aerospace is a peer-reviewed, open access journal of aeronautics and astronautics, published monthly online by MDPI. The European Aerospace Science Network (EASN) and ECATS International Association are affiliated with Aerospace and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Inspec, Ei Compendex, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Engineering, Aerospace) / CiteScore - Q2 (Aerospace Engineering)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 22.9 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.4 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion journal: Astronautics
Journal Cluster of Mechanical Manufacturing and Automation Control: Aerospace, Automation, Drones, Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, Machines, Robotics and Technologies.

Impact Factor: 2.2 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.4 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2226-4310

Latest Articles

39 pages, 3313 KB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Literature Review of Cybersecurity in Satellite Networks

by Buhong Wang, Jin Xiao, Ruochen Dong, Chengkai Piao, Yongjian Guan, Bofu Zhao, Yong Yang, Zhengyang Zhao, Siqi Li and Xiaofan Lyu

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030249 - 6 Mar 2026

Satellite networks are essential to global connectivity yet face severe multidimensional cybersecurity threats. This systematic review conducts a holistic analysis of threats across the physical, network, and user layers. We propose the Sat-ATT&CK knowledge matrix to model satellite-specific attack chains. Corresponding defense technologies [...] Read more.

Satellite networks are essential to global connectivity yet face severe multidimensional cybersecurity threats. This systematic review conducts a holistic analysis of threats across the physical, network, and user layers. We propose the Sat-ATT&CK knowledge matrix to model satellite-specific attack chains. Corresponding defense technologies are organized within the core functions (Protect, Detect, Respond) of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Cybersecurity Framework, establishing a structured threat–defense mapping. Furthermore, an exploratory case study on fine-tuning a large language model (SatSec) using the compiled literature corpus is presented. Finally, we identify key challenges and outline the future research directions toward a more resilient and intelligent security paradigm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

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22 pages, 5401 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Supersonic Compressor Cascade Aerodynamic Design and Optimization Methodology with Curvature Control

by Zhenjiu Zhang, Zhuoming Liang, Huanlong Chen and Yuhao Wang

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030248 - 6 Mar 2026

Addressing the issue of boundary layer separation and flow instability caused by shock wave–boundary layer interaction in supersonic compressor cascades, this work presents a novel aerodynamic design and optimization method for supersonic cascades. This method is based on a design philosophy of enhancing [...] Read more.

Addressing the issue of boundary layer separation and flow instability caused by shock wave–boundary layer interaction in supersonic compressor cascades, this work presents a novel aerodynamic design and optimization method for supersonic cascades. This method is based on a design philosophy of enhancing control over the shock wave and boundary layer by employing a blade channel with a curvature-continuous profile. An aerodynamic redesign and optimization methodology was conducted on the ARL-SL19 supersonic cascade, aiming to improve its aerodynamic performance and widen the stable operating range. The results indicate that for a low-loss diffusing channel, the design principle for the suction surface profile involves controlling the shock strength via the curvature of the forward section, while the aft section should feature a smooth and negative curvature variation. This approach facilitates the control of the boundary layer flow, thereby improving the overall aerodynamic performance of the supersonic cascade. Compared to the baseline, the aerodynamically optimized cascade demonstrates a 10.74% reduction in the total pressure loss coefficient at the design point. Furthermore, its performance at off-design conditions is also significantly enhanced: the near-stall total pressure loss coefficient is reduced by 6.66%, the maximum total pressure ratio is increased by 6.32%, and the stable operating range with low flow loss is considerably extended. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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29 pages, 8304 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Objective Optimization of an Adaptive Cycle Fan Based on XAI-Driven Feature Selection

by Heli Yang, Junying Wang, Lei Jin, Weihan Kong, Baotong Wang and Xinqian Zheng

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030247 - 6 Mar 2026

To address the high-dimensional design optimization of an adaptive cycle fan (ACF), this paper proposes a new multi-objective optimization (MOO) method based on explainable artificial intelligence (XAI)-driven feature selection. The proposed method integrates a neural network surrogate model, Shapley additive explanation (SHAP) analysis, [...] Read more.

To address the high-dimensional design optimization of an adaptive cycle fan (ACF), this paper proposes a new multi-objective optimization (MOO) method based on explainable artificial intelligence (XAI)-driven feature selection. The proposed method integrates a neural network surrogate model, Shapley additive explanation (SHAP) analysis, and a genetic algorithm. By considering Pareto front quality, surrogate model accuracy, and optimization preference, a composite evaluation metric, Q, is defined to guide a bidirectional feature selection process based on SHAP analysis, thereby establishing a dynamic, closed-loop process of simultaneous feature selection and MOO. The results indicate that the proposed method significantly enhances global search capability, accurately identifying 66 optimal features from 119 initial features. A further comparison with results without forward selection confirms the necessity of dynamically adjusting the feature space during optimization. Under the same condition, the optimal design increases the core pressure ratio from 2.71 to 2.81 and core efficiency from 80.80% to 82.92%. The flow mechanism analysis reveals that the performance gains mainly result from the reconstruction of shock structures and the suppression of shock–boundary layer interactions and secondary flows. The XAI-enhanced surrogate-assisted evolutionary algorithm (SAEA) proposed in this paper provides a promising methodology for high-dimensional MOO of aeroengines and other complex systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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16 pages, 9782 KB

Open AccessArticle

Concept of Composite Folded Core Skin Heat Exchanger with Experimental Investigation of Surface Temperatures Using Temperature-Sensitive Paints

by Marvin Tigre Larschow, Simon Thissen, Jakob Gugliuzza, Stefan Zistler, Stefan Carosella, Peter Middendorf and Rico Poser

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030246 - 6 Mar 2026

With the increasing integration of low-temperature waste heat systems in aviation, large areas are needed for heat dissipation without causing significant pressure losses. Large-area skin heat exchangers (SHXs) are coming into focus as a possible solution. SHXs based on composite materials offer a [...] Read more.

With the increasing integration of low-temperature waste heat systems in aviation, large areas are needed for heat dissipation without causing significant pressure losses. Large-area skin heat exchangers (SHXs) are coming into focus as a possible solution. SHXs based on composite materials offer a promising approach due to their weight-saving potential. This article presents a structure-integrated SHX with a folded core using modern materials and design strategies. An analytical 1D heat transfer model, validated by measurements with temperature-sensitive paints (TSPs), was derived to efficiently identify the optimal parameter set in the design process of an SHX. The model focuses on transverse heat conduction effects in the facesheet for lateral heat distribution and uses these specifically for the overall mass-optimized configuration of the SHX. It is shown that with an optimally selected distance between the cooling channels in the case considered here, up to 12% more energy can be dissipated in relation to the total mass of the SHX. This article concludes with a sensitivity analysis of the analytical model. The influence of heat transfer, thermal conductivity in two spatial directions, and facesheet thickness on the optimal channel spacing is examined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 15th EASN International Conference on Innovation in Aviation & Space Towards Sustainability Today and Tomorrow)

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36 pages, 3608 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physically Interpretable and AI-Powered Applied-Field Thrust Modelling for Magnetoplasmadynamic Space Thrusters Using Symbolic Regression: Towards More Explainable Predictions

by Miguel Rosa-Morales, Matthew Ravichandran, Wenjuan Song and Mohammad Yazdani-Asrami

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030245 - 5 Mar 2026

Magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters (MPDTs) are becoming increasingly viable as electric propulsion (EP) technology for space missions, yet their complex plasma behaviour, intricate thrust-generation process, and nonlinear multi-physics thrust–field interactions prove difficult for conventional modelling approaches, including empirical techniques. Traditional empirical modelling shortcomings include failure [...] Read more.

Magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters (MPDTs) are becoming increasingly viable as electric propulsion (EP) technology for space missions, yet their complex plasma behaviour, intricate thrust-generation process, and nonlinear multi-physics thrust–field interactions prove difficult for conventional modelling approaches, including empirical techniques. Traditional empirical modelling shortcomings include failure to predict accurately across wide operational regimes. This paper introduces a physically interpretable, artificial intelligence (AI)-powered thrust model for Applied-Field Magnetoplasmadynamic Thrusters (AF-MPDTs), developed using symbolic regression (SR) to address the gap between data-driven prediction and physics-based understanding. The proposed method, an alternative to traditional black box AI methods, incorporates physics-aware composite-term operators, ensuring that the resulting analytical expressions are bounded by known physical behaviours while retaining the flexibility to discover previously overlooked nonlinear couplings. A comprehensive dataset of AF-MPDTs undergoes rigorous preprocessing to ensure dimensional consistency and noise robustness. The SR model then evolves candidate equations, balancing predictive accuracy with interpretability through Tree-Structured Parzen Estimator (TPE) optimisation. The results, closed-form surrogate correlations with 95.98% of accuracy as goodness of fit, root mean square error of 0.0199, mean absolute error of 0.0143, and mean absolute percentage error reduction of 28.91% against the benchmark model in the literature. A post-discovery protocol for numerical robustness and physical consistency is implemented, with Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP) providing insight into the influence of each composite-term in the developed correlation, followed by a numerical robustness and physical consistency validation using a Monte Carlo (MC) envelope. A StabilityScore is calculated for all developed correlations, enabling explicit accuracy–complexity–stability comparisons. In doing so, we demonstrated that SR can systematically recover known physical relationships—such as the scaling of thrust with discharge current and applied magnetic field—while proposing interpretable higher-order corrections that improve fit quality. The resulting SR-based thrust models not only achieve competitive accuracy relative to state-of-the-art numerical and empirical methods but also offer more explainable and interpretable results capable of revealing compact formulations that capture essential acceleration mechanisms with transparency. Overall, this paper, using SR, advances explainable AI (XAI) methodologies capable of generating trustworthy, analytically transparent models for next-generation electric propulsion systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence in Aerospace Propulsion)

25 pages, 5771 KB

Open AccessArticle

Semi-Closed-Form Solution of Near-Minimum-Time Spin-to-Spin Attitude Maneuvers

by Seong-Hyeon Jo and Sung-Hoon Mok

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030244 - 4 Mar 2026

High-agility spacecraft require time-efficient attitude maneuvers under strict actuator- and system-driven saturation limits on angular rate and angular acceleration. Analytical methods for attitude profile generation are attractive for on-board use because of their deterministic structure and low computational burden; however, depending on boundary [...] Read more.

High-agility spacecraft require time-efficient attitude maneuvers under strict actuator- and system-driven saturation limits on angular rate and angular acceleration. Analytical methods for attitude profile generation are attractive for on-board use because of their deterministic structure and low computational burden; however, depending on boundary conditions and sequential constraint-enforcement logic, they may yield either infeasible commands that violate constraints or overly conservative commands that underutilize available authority and unnecessarily prolong maneuver time. In contrast, numerical optimization-based methods can produce (near-)minimum-time solutions but are often too iterative and tuning-sensitive for real-time deployment. The proposed method produces an iteratively refined closed-form solution. The inner loop yields a closed-form solution for a given set of parameters, while the outer loop updates the parameter set via an iterative rescale step. The resulting finite-jerk (jerk-limited) profiles are intended for use in a feedforward–feedback architecture to mitigate terminal mismatch induced by quaternion-kinematics linearization and acceleration-related variable mappings. Numerical studies evaluate the proposed method using representative single-case examples and Monte Carlo simulations with comparisons against a baseline analytical method and a numerical optimization-based method. These results indicate that the proposed approach substantially improves feasibility and optimality such that it achieves maneuver times close to those of numerically optimized solutions, while maintaining a semi-closed-form structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

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26 pages, 975 KB

Open AccessArticle

On the Design and Operation of the Thermal Management System of PEMFC-Powered Aircraft

by Marius Nozinski, Patrick Meyer, Fabian Delony, Jens Friedrichs, Jan Göing and Stephan Kabelac

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030243 - 4 Mar 2026

Hydrogen fuel-cell-powered all-electric aircraft are promising for decarbonizing short-range aviation, but the substantial low-temperature waste heat demands a compact thermal management system (TMS). This study presents a methodological framework for the integrated co-design of the TMS and powertrain using multi-objective optimization and holistic [...] Read more.

Hydrogen fuel-cell-powered all-electric aircraft are promising for decarbonizing short-range aviation, but the substantial low-temperature waste heat demands a compact thermal management system (TMS). This study presents a methodological framework for the integrated co-design of the TMS and powertrain using multi-objective optimization and holistic mission-level analysis to identify optimal TMS designs and operating strategies. Changes in TMS net drag translate into changes in required aircraft thrust, while changes in powertrain, TMS, and fuel mass affect the available payload under a constant maximum take-off mass assumption. This iterative process yields performance metrics across TMS cooling architectures (parallel or series), heat exchanger mass-drag characteristics, coolant temperature targets (50, 70, or 90 °C), and installation objectives (minimizing mass or ram-air duct length). The optimal design is a parallel cooling architecture that balances mass-specific heat rejection of 4.77 kW kg⁻¹ at hot-day take-off with drag-specific heat rejection of 1.29 kW N⁻¹ at standard-day cruise. A reduction in coolant temperature at standard-day missions entails no significant performance penalties and could improve the efficiency of electrical components. A shorter ram-air duct significantly decreases the available payload by 630 kg but may facilitate nacelle integration. The findings underscore that holistic TMS-powertrain co-design and optimization is essential for rigorous design of sustainable all-electric aircraft. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 15th EASN International Conference on Innovation in Aviation & Space Towards Sustainability Today and Tomorrow)

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17 pages, 1713 KB

Open AccessArticle

Conceptual Design of Metal Hydride Cartridges with Systematic Alloy Selection and Sizing Guidelines for Boil-Off-Gas Recovery from Liquid Hydrogen

by Florian Franke and Stefan Kazula

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030242 - 4 Mar 2026

Hydrogen has huge potential for sustainable future industries, but the formation of hydrogen boil-off gas (BOG) is a main drawback of liquid hydrogen (LH2) applications as BOG venting raises safety issues and leads to significant hydrogen loss. A promising approach for BOG recovery [...] Read more.

Hydrogen has huge potential for sustainable future industries, but the formation of hydrogen boil-off gas (BOG) is a main drawback of liquid hydrogen (LH2) applications as BOG venting raises safety issues and leads to significant hydrogen loss. A promising approach for BOG recovery is a system with exchangeable cartridges filled with metal hydride (MH). Previous studies focus on the macroscopic level of the interaction between the cartridges with the boil-off sources and the consumers. A detailed investigation of the cartridge design remains necessary to assess the potential of this novel BOG recovery system. This study elaborates design concepts for the individual cartridge. A thorough material selection for suitable MH alloys is conducted and requirements for the cartridge design are derived. The key design features of the cartridges are determined and summarized in a morphological box. Four explicit design concepts are elaborated and illustrated. These results provide the baseline for upcoming studies to explicitly design and manufacture an MH cartridge demonstrator for testing, assisting the transformation to an even more sustainable LH2 industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 15th EASN International Conference on Innovation in Aviation & Space Towards Sustainability Today and Tomorrow)

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22 pages, 7951 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Ambient Temperature on Cornering Characteristics of Aircraft Tires

by Xiaohui Bai, Xingbo Fang, Xiaohui Wei, Hu Chen and Hong Nie

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 241; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030241 - 4 Mar 2026

Aircraft functions under extreme environmental circumstances, encompassing both elevated and diminished temperatures, influence the material characteristics and inflation pressure of aircraft tires. This results in modifications to the tire’s cornering, affecting the shock absorption efficacy of the landing gear and maneuvering stability during [...] Read more.

Aircraft functions under extreme environmental circumstances, encompassing both elevated and diminished temperatures, influence the material characteristics and inflation pressure of aircraft tires. This results in modifications to the tire’s cornering, affecting the shock absorption efficacy of the landing gear and maneuvering stability during cornering. This study examines the cornering characteristics of aircraft tires at four ambient temperatures: −60 °C, −40 °C, 25 °C, and 50 °C. The analysis of stress–strain findings of rubber materials at varying temperatures assessed the impact of ambient temperature on rubber properties. Based on this, a numerical model for tire cornering was constructed using ABAQUS to examine the impact of ambient temperature on the tire’s cornering characteristics. The model considers the intricate friction dynamics between the tire and road surface and the convergence tolerance parameter of ABAQUS. The precision of this model and methodology was confirmed through experimental testing. The findings demonstrate that ambient temperature significantly affects the lateral force and self-aligning torque of aircraft tires, hence impacting cornering stiffness considerably. The influence of radial force and rolling speed on cornering differs with varying ambient temperatures. These results offer significant insights into the design of aircraft tire environmental adaptability and aircraft ground handling systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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32 pages, 7346 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Flight Tests of a Small Flying Wing UAV

by Witold Zięba, Paweł Rzucidło and Łukasz Wałek

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030240 - 4 Mar 2026

This study presents the design and flight testing of a small unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) in a flying wing configuration. The flying wing concept provides a low-drag platform suitable for observation, surveillance, and search-and-rescue missions. The UAV is designed to achieve inherent stability [...] Read more.

This study presents the design and flight testing of a small unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) in a flying wing configuration. The flying wing concept provides a low-drag platform suitable for observation, surveillance, and search-and-rescue missions. The UAV is designed to achieve inherent stability without the use of vertical stabilizers or artificial stabilization systems, which may reduce aerodynamic efficiency. The design process includes aerodynamic analyses aimed at balancing static and dynamic stability. Flight tests are conducted to validate the proposed configuration and to assess its ability to maintain stable flight under various operating conditions. The results confirm that the developed flying wing UAV achieves stable flight without artificial stabilization, demonstrating the potential of flying wing configurations as efficient platforms for small unmanned aerial vehicles. In particular, the concept is well suited for applications requiring long-endurance flights, low energy consumption, and reduced radar reflectivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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24 pages, 2089 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Coupling and Coordination Ability of Airport Agglomerations

by Yu Sun, Lei Liang, Xiaolei Chong, Zhenglei Chen, Jing Xue and Zijian Deng

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030239 - 4 Mar 2026

Airport agglomeration coupling coordination is a key indicator of healthy regional aviation development. This study constructs an evaluation index system from three dimensions—airport production, infrastructure construction, and network support—and assesses the coupling coordination capability of China’s four major airport agglomerations using the entropy [...] Read more.

Airport agglomeration coupling coordination is a key indicator of healthy regional aviation development. This study constructs an evaluation index system from three dimensions—airport production, infrastructure construction, and network support—and assesses the coupling coordination capability of China’s four major airport agglomerations using the entropy weight method and a coupling coordination model. Furthermore, an Airport Consistency Index is innovatively introduced as the reciprocal of the coefficient of variation, and an overall coordination degree is developed under the framework of “balanced average level + consistency correction.” By incorporating the inverse coefficient of variation, the proposed index explicitly assesses airport agglomeration dispersion in coordination performance, thereby mitigating the risk that a strong performance at leading airports masks structural imbalances within the system. This refinement enhances the diagnostic precision of the overall coordination assessment by integrating both average development level and internal convergence. Based on calculations for 2020–2024, the overall coordination ranking is Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei, Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area, Yangtze River Delta, and Chengdu–Chongqing. The Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei agglomeration shows strong and stable coordination with limited sensitivity to external conditions, whereas the Yangtze River Delta is more environmentally sensitive due to its large number of airports. The Greater Bay Area demonstrates solid coordination with substantial synergy potential, while Chengdu–Chongqing exhibits relatively weak coordination and considerable room for improvement. The proposed model effectively evaluates the overall coordination degree of airport agglomerations and supports targeted development recommendations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Airport Operations and Management)

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20 pages, 14893 KB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Degradation and Regeneration of Palladium Catalysts for Hybrid Rockets

by Sergio Cassese, Luca Mastroianni, Riccardo Guida, Stefano Mungiguerra, Vincenzo Russo, Tapio Salmi and Raffaele Savino

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030238 - 3 Mar 2026

The renewed interest in hydrogen peroxide-based space propulsion systems has highlighted the persistent issue of catalyst degradation during long-term operation. Although several studies have investigated the underlying causes of this phenomenon, effective regeneration techniques capable of restoring catalytic activity have not yet been [...] Read more.

The renewed interest in hydrogen peroxide-based space propulsion systems has highlighted the persistent issue of catalyst degradation during long-term operation. Although several studies have investigated the underlying causes of this phenomenon, effective regeneration techniques capable of restoring catalytic activity have not yet been clearly demonstrated. This study investigates the mechanisms responsible for performance degradation and proposes a viable regeneration strategy for palladium-based catalysts. Experimental analyses were conducted on a batch of commercial Al₂O₃/Pd pellets subjected to multiple firing cycles in a 10 N-class hybrid mini-thruster. Monitoring of the propulsive performance revealed a progressive decline in catalytic activity, ultimately preventing ignition of the hybrid rocket engine. To characterize the degradation mechanisms, the pellets were examined through visual inspection, static hydrogen peroxide decomposition tests, and Temperature Programmed Reduction (TPR) analysis. The results indicated significant surface oxidation of palladium, leading to reduced decomposition efficiency. A chemical regeneration procedure based on sodium borohydride (NaBH₄) treatment was subsequently developed to restore catalytic performance. The regenerated pellets were tested under the same experimental conditions that had previously led to ignition failure. Their propulsive performance was then compared with both the degraded pellets and a new batch of equivalent catalysts. The results demonstrate that the regeneration process successfully restored the catalytic activity to levels comparable with the original state, enabling stable and efficient hybrid combustion. These findings confirm the role of surface oxidation in catalyst degradation and demonstrate that targeted chemical treatment can significantly extend catalyst lifetime. The proposed regeneration strategy offers a practical method to reduce costs of ground-based experimental campaigns and support the future deployment of hydrogen peroxide-based propulsion systems in space applications by providing insights into the mechanisms that can degrade the performance of palladium catalysts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heat and Mass Transfer in Rocket Propulsion)

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22 pages, 4908 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Analytical Modeling Framework for Martian Soil—Sampling Scoop Interaction with Numerical Validation

by Hongtao Cao, Haoran Xie, Dong Pan, Yingchun Qi, Lutz Richter, Yan Shen and Meng Zou

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030237 - 3 Mar 2026

Accurate prediction of excavation forces is critical for the design reliability and operational safety of Mars surface sampling systems. This study establishes an analytical modeling framework to describe the excavation mechanics of Martian soil, focusing on the formation mechanism and evolution of resistance. [...] Read more.

Accurate prediction of excavation forces is critical for the design reliability and operational safety of Mars surface sampling systems. This study establishes an analytical modeling framework to describe the excavation mechanics of Martian soil, focusing on the formation mechanism and evolution of resistance. Soil deformation and failure processes are qualitatively identified using particle image velocimetry (PIV) and discrete element method (DEM) simulations. Based on limit equilibrium theory, the passive earth pressure is derived, and the scoop is divided into seven force-bearing regions for three-dimensional force decomposition. The analytical model is validated against multibody dynamics–discrete element method (MBD–DEM) co-simulation. The results indicate that excavation resistance exhibits a distinct single-peak evolution, maximizing near the maximum excavation depth. Notably, the inner bottom surface and cutting edge dominate resistance during penetration, contributing approximately 56% and 30% of the total force, respectively. The resistance mechanism transitions after soil emergence due to the gravitational effect of retained soil. Consequently, this framework provides a physically interpretable and quantitatively validated approach for force prediction, offering theoretical support for sampling scoop design and optimization in future Mars missions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

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27 pages, 5792 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Heat Transfer and Flow Structures of Supercritical n-Decane in Regenerative Cooling Channels Combining Different Thermal Protection Materials

by Guoning Zhao, Yichen Jiang and Jian Liu

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030236 - 3 Mar 2026

As hypersonic aircraft applications become increasingly extreme, traditional regenerative cooling channels primarily using high-temperature alloys as wall materials can no longer simultaneously meet the dual requirements of thermal protection and lightweight design. This study, based on hypersonic environments with Mach numbers exceeding 8, [...] Read more.

As hypersonic aircraft applications become increasingly extreme, traditional regenerative cooling channels primarily using high-temperature alloys as wall materials can no longer simultaneously meet the dual requirements of thermal protection and lightweight design. This study, based on hypersonic environments with Mach numbers exceeding 8, selects five materials with significant advantages from metals, ceramics, and C/SiC composite materials to conduct a coupled design of wall materials for the flow and heat transfer characteristics of n-decane under 3 MPa pressure. The results show that the heat transfer ability of different material combination schemes is closely related to the thermal–physical properties of the materials, and the materials with obvious advantages in specific thermal–physical properties are dominant. Under a heat flux of 1.5 MW/m², the GH3128 + Cu composite scheme demonstrates a 17.5% increase in Nusselt number and a 17.6% improvement in comprehensive heat transfer coefficient compared to the traditional high-temperature alloy scheme. When the heat flux triples to 4.5 MW/m², the temperature variation of the GH3128 + Cu composite scheme is only 50% of that of the steel + C/SiC composite scheme. This indicates that multi-material coupling exerts both synergistic effects and inhibitory effects on flow and heat transfer characteristics, highlighting the importance of flexible material selection tailored to different tactical and technical requirements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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16 pages, 5068 KB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement in Efficiency of Blunt Cone Drag and Heat Reduction by Combination of Aerospike and Partition Jets

by Shuang Wang, Yongkang Zheng, Hao Tian and Zhigong Tang

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030235 - 3 Mar 2026

To mitigate the severe aerodynamic and thermal loads on high-speed vehicles, a combined control approach employing an aerospike and a partition jet system is investigated. The influence of jet position on flow field behavior, drag reduction and thermal load management is examined. Using [...] Read more.

To mitigate the severe aerodynamic and thermal loads on high-speed vehicles, a combined control approach employing an aerospike and a partition jet system is investigated. The influence of jet position on flow field behavior, drag reduction and thermal load management is examined. Using the SST k-ω turbulence model integrated into a finite-volume framework, the study conducts numerical simulations by solving the three-dimensional Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations at a flight altitude of 30 km and Mach 5. Considering that the reverse force generated by the top and bottom jets would cause an increase in drag along the direction of motion, the lateral jet contributes more significantly to the drag reduction. The combination of the aerospike and multi-zone jets performs better in terms of drag reduction and thermal protection than single-zone jet strategies. Among them, the scheme with simultaneous jets at three positions has the highest drag reduction efficiency, up to 230%, but it requires the most working medium. Through the comprehensive analysis of the heat and drag reduction efficiency, the lateral jet is the optimal configuration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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13 pages, 1406 KB

Open AccessArticle

Centralized Landing Flow Merging for Drones Using Deep Reinforcement Learning

by Sasha Vlaskin, Jan Groot, Emmanuel Sunil, Joost Ellerbroek, Jacco Hoekstra and Dennis Nieuwenhuisen

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030234 - 3 Mar 2026

Drones are expected to support applications such as emergency response, parcel delivery, and infrastructure monitoring in dense urban airspaces, creating traffic levels that are unmanageable for human operators. Autonomous separation management is therefore essential, combining strategic and tactical control to prevent conflicts. This [...] Read more.

Drones are expected to support applications such as emergency response, parcel delivery, and infrastructure monitoring in dense urban airspaces, creating traffic levels that are unmanageable for human operators. Autonomous separation management is therefore essential, combining strategic and tactical control to prevent conflicts. This paper addresses the tactical landing phase by introducing a centralized landing flow manager—a reinforcement learning (RL) agent that adjusts drone speed and heading to merge landing flows safely and efficiently prior to a final approach fix. The objective of the work was to demonstrate the potential of reinforcement learning in this novel context, by implementing and evaluating it in simulation and testing its capabilities with 10 concurrent landing drones. The RL agent learns to successfully separate traffic, thereby lowering intrusion counts compared to the baseline autopilot, but is outperformed in safety by the decentralized Modified Voltage Potential (MVP) method due to outlier scenarios. Nevertheless, the RL-based system achieves faster scenario completion and thus a higher overall throughput, by speeding up the vehicles towards the final approach fix. Future work will explore improved network architectures, transfer learning across varied scenarios, and algorithmic fine-tuning to further enhance safety performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 15th EASN International Conference on Innovation in Aviation & Space Towards Sustainability Today and Tomorrow)

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19 pages, 6307 KB

Open AccessArticle

Robust Guidance Policies Through Deep Reinforcement Learning

by Seongyeon Kim, Jongho Shin and Hyeong-Geun Kim

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030233 - 2 Mar 2026

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) guidance systems must operate reliably under significant uncertainties, such as sensor noise, target maneuvers, and environmental disturbances. Traditional guidance methods like proportional navigation (PN), while computationally efficient, often struggle to maintain performance under such challenging conditions. To overcome these [...] Read more.

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) guidance systems must operate reliably under significant uncertainties, such as sensor noise, target maneuvers, and environmental disturbances. Traditional guidance methods like proportional navigation (PN), while computationally efficient, often struggle to maintain performance under such challenging conditions. To overcome these limitations, this study proposes a robust UAV guidance framework based on deep reinforcement learning (DRL), specifically utilizing the soft actor–critic (SAC) algorithm. The UAV–target tracking problem is formulated as the Markov decision process (MDP) for both two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) scenarios. A deep neural network policy is trained in noisy environments to generate acceleration commands that minimize the zero-effort miss (ZEM). Extensive numerical simulations conducted using the OpenAI Gym validate effectiveness of the proposed method under previously unseen initial conditions and increased noise levels. The results demonstrate that the SAC-based policy achieves higher tracking success rates than the PN, particularly under strict terminal conditions and observation noise. Full article

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22 pages, 4001 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Linear Formation Establishment During UAV Swarm Takeoff

by Enrique Machí, Henok Gashaw-Abejie, Jamie Wubben, Enrique Hernández-Orallo and Carlos T. Calafate

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030232 - 2 Mar 2026

Achieving a fast and safe takeoff procedure for UAV swarms poses significant challenges, particularly when the target aerial formation is linear. In such formations, UAVs often follow overlapping paths, which increases collision risks or forces the use of overly conservative strategies that prolong [...] Read more.

Achieving a fast and safe takeoff procedure for UAV swarms poses significant challenges, particularly when the target aerial formation is linear. In such formations, UAVs often follow overlapping paths, which increases collision risks or forces the use of overly conservative strategies that prolong takeoff time. To address these issues, this study investigates how attraction–repulsion mechanisms can accelerate the takeoff phase while ensuring safety through fully distributed control. We evaluate five takeoff methods—Sequential, Staggered, Simultaneous, Simultaneous with Magnetic Repulsion (M1), and Simultaneous with Magnetic Repulsion and Dispersion (M2)—under two initial ground setups (Matrix and Random) and varying swarm sizes. The primary objective is to achieve low takeoff times when targeting linear aerial formations while maintaining operational safety. Using a simulation-based approach with controlled environmental conditions, total takeoff time and safety (measured as episodes where UAVs violate a predefined separation distance) were analyzed. Results confirm that simultaneous strategies substantially reduce takeoff time, whereas the proposed repulsion- and dispersion-based mechanisms significantly mitigate conflicts in dense deployments. Overall, the study highlights a practical trade-off between speed and safety and shows that the proposed M2 mechanism offers an efficient and robust solution for organizing UAV swarms into linear formations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Unmanned Aerial Vehicle: Design and Development)

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22 pages, 9640 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Quenching of Laminar Separation Bubbles: The Stability–Fidelity Paradox and Drag Mechanism Inversion

by Hongda Li, Rui Zu and Guangzhou Cao

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030231 - 1 Mar 2026

Laminar separation bubbles (LSBs) on low-Reynolds-number airfoils are sustained by intrinsic unsteadiness driven by Kelvin–Helmholtz (K-H) growth in the separated shear layer. Using incompressible 2D URANS with the SA-

γ

transition model for a NACA 0012 airfoil at [...] Read more.

Laminar separation bubbles (LSBs) on low-Reynolds-number airfoils are sustained by intrinsic unsteadiness driven by Kelvin–Helmholtz (K-H) growth in the separated shear layer. Using incompressible 2D URANS with the SA-

γ

transition model for a NACA 0012 airfoil at

R e = 5.3 \times 10^{4}

, we reveal that numerical dissipation behaves as a critical bifurcation parameter. Validated against the recent Jardin (2025) experimental benchmark, the physical state correctly resolves the LSB-induced pressure plateau (

C_{p}

) and local negative skin friction (

C_{f} < 0

). However, when numerical dissipation exceeds the K-H instability growth rate, the physical limit-cycle oscillation collapses into a spurious fixed-point attractor—a phenomenon defined as numerical quenching. This pseudo-convergence triggers a catastrophic ∼30% deficit in mean lift (

C_{l}

). Furthermore, at

α = 6^{\circ}

, a drag-mechanism inversion is identified: while the physical branch is dominated by LSB-induced pressure (form) drag, the quenched branch exhibits a non-physical drag surge that exceeds the fully turbulent baseline. Phase portraits and power spectral densities (

S t \approx 0.2

) provide objective diagnostics, demonstrating that standard residual convergence is a deceptive indicator of physical fidelity in transitional separated aerodynamics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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34 pages, 14457 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Finite State Machine Guidance Architecture for Autonomous Rendezvous with Arbitrarily Elliptic Targets

by Diego Buratti, Gabriella Gaias, Stefano Torresan, Thomas Vincent Peters and Pedro Roque

Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030230 - 1 Mar 2026

This paper details the design of a guidance architecture, in the form of a layered, finite state machine, meant to enable safe and autonomous rendezvous operations. The onboard software uses relative state parametrization based on relative orbital elements which provide significant geometrical insight [...] Read more.

This paper details the design of a guidance architecture, in the form of a layered, finite state machine, meant to enable safe and autonomous rendezvous operations. The onboard software uses relative state parametrization based on relative orbital elements which provide significant geometrical insight into the shape of the relative orbit. The development is structured in two main steps: first, novel closed-form impulsive control schemes, derived from the Gauss Variational Equations expressed in a velocity-aligned frame, are formulated. These complement available strategies from the literature and generalize them for arbitrarily eccentric reference orbits. Secondly, the definition of the guidance layer provides the chaser spacecraft with the capability to select, schedule, and execute the proper maneuvers to complete a given rendezvous scenario, ensuring operational safety and predictability. The functionality and performance of the implemented architecture are analyzed through numerical tests in a linear propagator and a high-fidelity non-linear simulator. The results provide validation of the developed maneuvers’ strategies, as well as demonstrating how the proposed guidance architecture can be used in a straightforward fashion across different target orbit scenarios, while guaranteeing the same level of passive safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Guidance, Navigation and Control Algorithms for Satellite Formation Flying (2nd Edition))

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