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Preliminary Aircraft Design for Hybrid Electric Propulsion Architectures: A Focus on Critical Loss of Thrust
Cost Effectiveness of Reusable Launch Vehicles Depending on the Payload Capacity
Aerodynamic Shape Optimization of Wing–Fuselage Intersection for Minimum Interference Drag
Space Trajectory Planning with a General Reinforcement-Learning Algorithm
Urban Air Mobility Aircraft Operations in Urban Environments: A Review of Potential Safety Risks

Journal Description

Aerospace

Aerospace is a peer-reviewed, open access journal of aeronautics and astronautics published monthly online by MDPI. The European Aerospace Science Network (EASN), and the ECATS International Association are affiliated with Aerospace and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Inspec, Ei Compendex, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Engineering, Aerospace) / CiteScore - Q2 (Aerospace Engineering)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 20.9 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.5 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion journal: Astronomy.

Impact Factor: 2.2 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.4 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2226-4310

Latest Articles

37 pages, 2819 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Macroscopic-Level Collaborative Optimization Framework for IADS: Multiple-Route Terminal Maneuvering Area Scheduling Problem

by Chaoyu Xia, Minghua Hu, Xiuying Zhu, Yi Wen, Junqing Wu and Changbo Hou

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 639; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070639 - 18 Jul 2025

The terminal maneuvering area (TMA) serves as a critical transition zone between upper enroute airways and airports, representing one of the most complex regions for managing high volumes of arrival and departure traffic. This paper presents the multi-route TMA scheduling problem as an [...] Read more.

The terminal maneuvering area (TMA) serves as a critical transition zone between upper enroute airways and airports, representing one of the most complex regions for managing high volumes of arrival and departure traffic. This paper presents the multi-route TMA scheduling problem as an optimization challenge aimed at optimizing TMA interventions, such as rerouting, speed control, time-based metering, dynamic minimum time separation, and holding procedures; the objective function minimizes schedule deviations and the accumulated holding time. Furthermore, the problem is formulated as a mixed-integer linear program (MILP) to facilitate finding solutions. A rolling horizon control (RHC) dynamic optimization framework is also introduced to decompose the large-scale problem into manageable subproblems for iterative resolution. To demonstrate the applicability and effectiveness of the proposed scheduling models, a hub airport—Chengdu Tianfu International Airport (ICAO code: ZUTF) in the Cheng-Yu Metroplex—is selected for validation. Numerical analyses confirm the superiority of the proposed models, which are expected to reduce aircraft delays, shorten airborne and holding times, and improve airspace resource utilization. This study provides intelligent decision support and engineering design ideas for the macroscopic-level collaborative optimization framework of the Integrated Arrival–Departure and Surface (IADS) system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Air Transportation—Operations and Management)

25 pages, 7778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pressure Characteristics Analysis of the Deflector Jet Pilot Stage Under Dynamic Skewed Velocity Distribution

by Zhilin Cheng, Wenjun Yang, Liangcai Zeng and Lin Wu

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 638; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070638 - 17 Jul 2025

The velocity distribution at the deflector jet outlet significantly influences the pressure characteristics of the pilot stage, thereby affecting the dynamic performance of the servo valve. Conventional mathematical models fail to account for the influence of dynamic velocity distribution on pilot stage pressure [...] Read more.

The velocity distribution at the deflector jet outlet significantly influences the pressure characteristics of the pilot stage, thereby affecting the dynamic performance of the servo valve. Conventional mathematical models fail to account for the influence of dynamic velocity distribution on pilot stage pressure characteristics, resulting in significant deviations from actual situations. As the deflector shifts, the secondary jet velocity distribution transitions from a symmetric to an asymmetric dynamic profile, altering the pressure within the receiving chambers. To address this, a dynamic skewed velocity distribution model is proposed to more accurately capture the pressure characteristics. The relationship between the skewness coefficient and deflector displacement is established, and the pressure calculation method for the receiving chambers is refined accordingly. A comparative analysis shows that the proposed model aligns most closely with computational fluid dynamics results, achieving a 98% match in velocity distribution and a maximum pressure error of 1.43%. This represents an improvement of 84.98% over the normal model and 82.35% over the uniform model, confirming the superior accuracy of the dynamic skewed model in pilot stage pressure calculation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aerospace Vehicles and Complex Fluid Flow Modelling)

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20 pages, 4974 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Shape Memory Alloy Actuated Bearing Active Preload System (SMA-BAPS) for Space Spindles

by Yuhang Zhang, Jun Jiang, Qiang Zhang, Yuanzi Zhou, Xiaoyong Zhang and Ruijie Sun

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 637; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070637 - 17 Jul 2025

In this study, a novel shape memory alloy actuated bearing active preload system (SMA-BAPS) was proposed and experimentally demonstrated. SMA actuators placed in a single or antagonistic configuration were employed to drive the screw pair and thus fulfill one-way or bidirectional preload adjustment. [...] Read more.

In this study, a novel shape memory alloy actuated bearing active preload system (SMA-BAPS) was proposed and experimentally demonstrated. SMA actuators placed in a single or antagonistic configuration were employed to drive the screw pair and thus fulfill one-way or bidirectional preload adjustment. Moreover, the self-locking screw pair was used to maintain the bearing preload without external energy input. To determine the parameters of screw pair and SMA actuators, a detailed design process was conducted based on analytical models of the proposed system. Finally, a screw pair with a lead of 3 mm and SMA actuators with a diameter of 0.5 mm and a length of 130 mm were adopted. Prototype tests were conducted to validate and evaluate the performance of the preload adjustment with the SMA-BAPS. The resistive torque and the natural frequency of spindles were recorded to represent the preload level of the bearing. Through the performance tests, the SMA-BAPS induced a maximum 47% variation in the resistive torque and a 20% variation in the spindle’s natural frequency. The response time of the SMA-BAPS was less than 5 s when the heating current of 5 A was applied on the SMA actuator. This design highlighted the compact size, quick response, as well as the bidirectional preload adjustment, representing its potential use in aerospace mechanisms and advanced motors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

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15 pages, 3857 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Damage and Failure Analysis of Aero-Engine Electronic Controllers Under Thermal Shock

by Fang Wen, Jinshan Wen and Jie Jin

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 636; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070636 - 16 Jul 2025

The Engine Electronic Controller (EEC), as the core component of an aircraft engine control system, is vulnerable to rapid failure when exposed to thermal shock during engine fire incidents, potentially leading to catastrophic aviation accidents. To address this issue, this study conducts both [...] Read more.

The Engine Electronic Controller (EEC), as the core component of an aircraft engine control system, is vulnerable to rapid failure when exposed to thermal shock during engine fire incidents, potentially leading to catastrophic aviation accidents. To address this issue, this study conducts both numerical simulations and experimental investigations to evaluate the thermal performance of the EEC under thermal shock conditions, exploring the weaknesses of the EEC chassis under high-temperature thermal shock and the damage to important internal electronic components. A three-dimensional finite element model of the EEC was established to simulate its behavior under a thermal shock of 1100 °C. Simulation results reveal that the aluminum alloy chassis wall cannot withstand the extreme thermal load, resulting in failure of the internal electronic components within the first 5 min of exposure, thereby rendering the EEC inoperative. In contrast, when the chassis wall is made of stainless steel, all components and internal electronics remain functional throughout the initial 5 min thermal shock period. Experimental results show that the temperature evolution and component failure patterns under both scenarios align well with the simulation outcomes, thus validating the model’s accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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32 pages, 5465 KiB

Open AccessArticle

DETEAMSK: A Model-Based Reinforcement Learning Approach to Intelligent Top-Level Planning and Decisions for Multi-Drone Ad Hoc Teamwork by Decoupling the Identification of Teammate and Task

by Penghui Xu, Yu Zhang, Le Hao and Qilin Yan

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 635; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070635 - 16 Jul 2025

The ability to collaborate with new teammates, adapt to unfamiliar environments, and engage in effective planning is essential for multi-drone agents within unmanned combat systems. This paper introduces DETEAMSK (Model-based Reinforcement Learning by Decoupling the Identification of Teammates and Tasks), a model-based reinforcement [...] Read more.

The ability to collaborate with new teammates, adapt to unfamiliar environments, and engage in effective planning is essential for multi-drone agents within unmanned combat systems. This paper introduces DETEAMSK (Model-based Reinforcement Learning by Decoupling the Identification of Teammates and Tasks), a model-based reinforcement learning method in intelligent top-level planning and decisions designed for ad hoc teamwork among multi-drone agents. It specifically addresses integrated reconnaissance and strike missions in urban combat scenarios under varying conditions. DETEAMSK’s performance is evaluated through comprehensive, multidimensional experiments and compared with other baseline models. The results demonstrate that DETEAMSK exhibits superior effectiveness, robustness, and generalization capabilities across a range of task domains. Moreover, the model-based reinforcement learning approach offers distinct advantages over traditional models, such as the PLASTIC-Model, and model-free approaches, like the PLASTIC-Policy, due to its unique “dynamic decoupling identification” feature. This study provides valuable insights for advancing both theoretical and applied research in model-based reinforcement learning methods for multi-drone systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Unmanned Aerial Vehicle: Design and Development)

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16 pages, 2272 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Rapid Method for Heat Transfer Coefficient Prediction on the Icing Surfaces of Aircraft Wings Based on a Partitioned Boundary Layer Integral Model

by Liu Wang, Dexin Zhang, Zikang Cheng, Jiaxin Feng, Bo Sun, Jianye Chen and Junlong Xie

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 634; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070634 - 16 Jul 2025

Aircraft wing surface icing compromises flight safety, where accurate calculation of heat transfer coefficient on airfoil surfaces serves as a prerequisite for designing thermal anti-icing systems. However, during icing conditions, ice morphology changes wall roughness and transition properties, making it difficult to accurately [...] Read more.

Aircraft wing surface icing compromises flight safety, where accurate calculation of heat transfer coefficient on airfoil surfaces serves as a prerequisite for designing thermal anti-icing systems. However, during icing conditions, ice morphology changes wall roughness and transition properties, making it difficult to accurately determine the heat transfer coefficient. The current study develops a partitioned rough-wall boundary layer integral methodology in order to overcome this issue, extending the conventional boundary layer integral method. The technique generates a convective heat transfer coefficient formulation for aircraft icing surfaces while accounting for roughness differences brought on by water droplet shape. The results show that the partitioned rough-wall boundary layer integral method divides the wing surface into three distinct zones based on water droplet dynamics—a smooth zone, rough zone, and runback zone—each associated with specific roughness values. The NACA0012 airfoil was used for numerical validation, which showed that computational and experimental data concur well. Additionally, the suggested approach predicts transition locations with a high degree of agreement with experimental results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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17 pages, 2117 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On-Orbit Life Prediction and Analysis of Triple-Junction Gallium Arsenide Solar Arrays for MEO Satellites

by Huan Liu, Chenjie Kong, Yuan Shen, Baojun Lin, Xueliang Wang and Qiang Zhang

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 633; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070633 - 16 Jul 2025

This paper focuses on the triple-junction gallium arsenide solar array of a MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) satellite that has been in orbit for 7 years. Through a combination of theoretical and data-driven methods, it conducts research on anti-radiation design verification and life prediction. [...] Read more.

This paper focuses on the triple-junction gallium arsenide solar array of a MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) satellite that has been in orbit for 7 years. Through a combination of theoretical and data-driven methods, it conducts research on anti-radiation design verification and life prediction. This study integrates the Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) algorithm into the full life cycle management of MEO satellite solar arrays, providing a solution that combines theory and engineering for the design of high-reliability energy systems. Based on semiconductor physics theory, this paper establishes an output current calculation model. By combining radiation attenuation factors obtained from ground experiments, it derives the theoretical current values for the initial orbit insertion and the end of life. Aiming at the limitations of traditional physical models in addressing solar performance degradation under complex radiation environments, this paper introduces an LSTM algorithm to deeply mine the high-density current telemetry data (approximately 30 min per point) accumulated over 7 years in orbit. By comparing the prediction accuracy of LSTM with traditional models such as Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) and Feedforward Neural Network (FNN), the significant advantage of LSTM in capturing the long-term attenuation trend of solar arrays is verified. This study integrates deep learning technology into the full life cycle management of solar arrays, constructs a closed-loop verification system of “theoretical modeling–data-driven intelligent prediction”, and provides a solution for the long-life and high-reliability operation of the energy system of MEO orbit satellites. Full article

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27 pages, 8289 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A High-Efficient Modeling Method for Aerodynamic Loads of an Airfoil with Active Leading Edge Based on RFA and CFD

by Shengyong Fang, Sheng Zhang, Jinlong Zhou and Weidong Yang

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 632; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070632 - 15 Jul 2025

For the airfoil in freestream, the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces and the variations in pressure gradients are significant at its leading edge area. Under reasonable deflections, the active leading edge can effectively change airfoil aerodynamic loads, which helps to [...] Read more.

For the airfoil in freestream, the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces and the variations in pressure gradients are significant at its leading edge area. Under reasonable deflections, the active leading edge can effectively change airfoil aerodynamic loads, which helps to improve the rotor aerodynamic performance. In this paper, a modeling method for an airfoil with an active leading edge was developed to calculate its aerodynamic loads. The pitch motion of the rotor blade and the leading edge deflections were taken into account. Firstly, simulations of steady and unsteady flow for the airfoil with an active leading edge were conducted under different boundary conditions and with different leading edge deflection movement. Secondly, the rational function approximation (RFA) was employed to establish the relationship between aerodynamic loads and airfoil/active leading edge deflections. Then, coefficient matrices of the RFA approach were identified based on a limited number of high-fidelity computational fluid dynamics (CFD) results. Finally, an aerodynamic model of the airfoil with an active leading edge was developed, and its accuracy was validated by comparing it to the high-fidelity CFD results. Comparative results reveal that the developed model can calculate the aerodynamic loads of an airfoil with an active leading edge accurately and efficiently when applied appropriately. The modeling method can be used in aerodynamic load calculations and the aeroelastic coupling analysis of a rotor with active control devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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15 pages, 1617 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Stochastic Optimization Model for Multi-Airport Flight Cooperative Scheduling Considering CvaR of Both Travel and Departure Time

by Wei Cong, Zheng Zhao, Ming Wei and Huan Liu

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 631; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070631 - 14 Jul 2025

By assuming that both travel and departure time are normally distributed variables, a multi-objective stochastic optimization model for the multi-airport flight cooperative scheduling problem (MAFCSP) with CvaR of travel and departure time is firstly proposed. Herein, conflicts of flights from different airports at [...] Read more.

By assuming that both travel and departure time are normally distributed variables, a multi-objective stochastic optimization model for the multi-airport flight cooperative scheduling problem (MAFCSP) with CvaR of travel and departure time is firstly proposed. Herein, conflicts of flights from different airports at the same waypoint can be avoided by simultaneously assigning an optimal route to each flight between the airport and waypoint and determining its practical departure time. Furthermore, several real-world constraints, including the safe interval between any two aircraft at the same waypoint and the maximum allowable delay for each flight, have been incorporated into the proposed model. The primary objective is minimization of both total carbon emissions and delay times for all flights across all airports. A feasible set of non-dominated solutions were obtained using a two-stage heuristic approach-based NSGA-II. Finally, we present a case study of four airports and three waypoints in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region of China to test our study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flight Performance and Planning for Sustainable Aviation)

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23 pages, 4015 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting Electromagnetic Performance Under Wrinkling in Thin-Film Phased Arrays

by Xiaotao Zhou, Jianfei Yang, Lei Zhang, Huanxiao Li, Xin Jin, Yesen Fan, Yan Xu and Xiaofei Ma

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 630; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070630 - 14 Jul 2025

Deployable thin-film antennas deliver large aperture gains and high stowage efficiency for spaceborne phased arrays but suffer wrinkling-induced planarity loss and radiation distortion. To bridge the lack of electromechanical coupling models for tensioned thin-film patch antennas, we present a unified framework combining structural [...] Read more.

Deployable thin-film antennas deliver large aperture gains and high stowage efficiency for spaceborne phased arrays but suffer wrinkling-induced planarity loss and radiation distortion. To bridge the lack of electromechanical coupling models for tensioned thin-film patch antennas, we present a unified framework combining structural deformation and electromagnetic simulation. We derive a coupling model capturing the increased bending stiffness of stepped-thickness membranes, formulate a wrinkling analysis algorithm to compute tension-induced displacements, and fit representative unit-cell deformations to a dual-domain displacement model. Parametric studies across stiffness ratios confirm the framework’s ability to predict shifts in pattern, gain, and impedance due to wrinkling. This tool supports the optimized design of wrinkle-resistant thin-film phased arrays for reliable, high-performance space communications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Space Mechanisms and Robots)

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16 pages, 2144 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inter-Frequency Aided Acquisition for BeiDou DFMC Receivers: Dual-Frequency Cooperation and Extended Integration

by Zhenyang Ma, Xupeng Zhang, Zhaobin Duan and Yicheng Li

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 629; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070629 - 12 Jul 2025

With the advancement of the third-generation BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS-3), BeiDou dual-frequency multi-constellation (DFMC) receivers exhibit distinct advantages in accuracy and reliability due to their dual-frequency capabilities. However, the integration time imposes constraints on further improvements in sensitivity. To address this limitation, [...] Read more.

With the advancement of the third-generation BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS-3), BeiDou dual-frequency multi-constellation (DFMC) receivers exhibit distinct advantages in accuracy and reliability due to their dual-frequency capabilities. However, the integration time imposes constraints on further improvements in sensitivity. To address this limitation, this study proposes a dual-frequency cooperative acquisition strategy targeting the B1C and B2a signals, with the objective of enhancing acquisition performance in weak signal environments. A dual-channel acquisition architecture was designed, incorporating an inter-frequency Doppler assistance technique to improve acquisition efficiency. Simulation results demonstrate that, compared to conventional fixed short integration time architectures, the proposed cooperative acquisition approach increases the receiver’s acquisition sensitivity by 5.7 dB. Real-world experiments further confirm the effectiveness of this strategy, achieving successful acquisition of the PRN28 signal with 5 ms of coherent integration, thereby highlighting its practical utility. This research offers an innovative solution for high-sensitivity signal acquisition in challenging environments for BeiDou DFMC receivers and provides valuable insights for the advancement of high-precision BeiDou applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

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21 pages, 29238 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Distributed Impulsive Multi-Spacecraft Approach Trajectory Optimization Based on Cooperative Game Negotiation

by Shuhui Fan, Xiang Zhang and Wenhe Liao

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 628; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070628 - 12 Jul 2025

A cooperative game negotiation strategy considering multiple constraints is proposed for distributed impulsive multi-spacecraft approach missions in the presence of defending spacecraft. It is a dual-stage decision-making method that includes offline trajectory planning and online distributed negotiation. In the trajectory planning stage, a [...] Read more.

A cooperative game negotiation strategy considering multiple constraints is proposed for distributed impulsive multi-spacecraft approach missions in the presence of defending spacecraft. It is a dual-stage decision-making method that includes offline trajectory planning and online distributed negotiation. In the trajectory planning stage, a relative orbital dynamics model is first established based on the Clohessy–Wiltshire (CW) equations, and the state transition equations for impulsive maneuvers are derived. Subsequently, a multi-objective optimization model is formulated based on the NSGA-II algorithm, utilizing a constraint dominance principle (CDP) to address various constraints and generate Pareto front solutions for each spacecraft. In the distributed negotiation stage, the negotiation strategy among spacecraft is modeled as a cooperative game. A potential function is constructed to further analyze the existence and global convergence of Nash equilibrium. Additionally, a simulated annealing negotiation strategy is developed to iteratively select the optimal comprehensive approach strategy from the Pareto fronts. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed method effectively optimizes approach trajectories for multi-spacecraft under complex constraints. By leveraging inter-satellite iterative negotiation, the method converges to a Nash equilibrium. Additionally, the simulated annealing negotiation strategy enhances global search performance, avoiding entrapment in local optima. Finally, the effectiveness and robustness of the dual-stage decision-making method were further demonstrated through Monte Carlo simulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

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22 pages, 6645 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Visual Detection on Aircraft Wing Icing Process Using a Lightweight Deep Learning Model

by Yang Yan, Chao Tang, Jirong Huang, Zhixiong Cen and Zonghong Xie

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 627; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070627 - 12 Jul 2025

Aircraft wing icing significantly threatens aviation safety, causing substantial losses to the aviation industry each year. High transparency and blurred edges of icing areas in wing images pose challenges to wing icing detection by machine vision. To address these challenges, this study proposes [...] Read more.

Aircraft wing icing significantly threatens aviation safety, causing substantial losses to the aviation industry each year. High transparency and blurred edges of icing areas in wing images pose challenges to wing icing detection by machine vision. To address these challenges, this study proposes a detection model, Wing Icing Detection DeeplabV3+ (WID-DeeplabV3+), for efficient and precise aircraft wing leading edge icing detection under natural lighting conditions. WID-DeeplabV3+ adopts the lightweight MobileNetV3 as its backbone network to enhance the extraction of edge features in icing areas. Ghost Convolution and Atrous Spatial Pyramid Pooling modules are incorporated to reduce model parameters and computational complexity. The model is optimized using the transfer learning method, where pre-trained weights are utilized to accelerate convergence and enhance performance. Experimental results show WID-DeepLabV3+ segments the icing edge at 1920 × 1080 within 0.03 s. The model achieves the accuracy of 97.15%, an IOU of 94.16%, a precision of 97%, and a recall of 96.96%, representing respective improvements of 1.83%, 3.55%, 1.79%, and 2.04% over DeeplabV3+. The number of parameters and computational complexity are reduced by 92% and 76%, respectively. With high accuracy, superior IOU, and fast inference speed, WID-DeeplabV3+ provides an effective solution for wing-icing detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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21 pages, 2304 KiB

Open AccessReview

Quantifying Pilot Performance and Mental Workload in Modern Aviation Systems: A Scoping Literature Review

by Ainsley R. Kyle, Brock Rouser, Ryan C. Paul and Katherina A. Jurewicz

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 626; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070626 - 12 Jul 2025

Flight deck automation changes the nature of traditional piloting tasks, ultimately changing the cognitive requirements of the pilot. It is unclear how pilot performance should be measured as automation increases. The objective of this work is to understand the variability in experimental methodology [...] Read more.

Flight deck automation changes the nature of traditional piloting tasks, ultimately changing the cognitive requirements of the pilot. It is unclear how pilot performance should be measured as automation increases. The objective of this work is to understand the variability in experimental methodology regarding how pilot performance is measured since the introduction of flight deck automation. There were 90 articles included in this scoping literature review. Less than half of the articles investigated pilot performance (~40%), about half of the articles investigated mental workload (~45%), and almost 70% of the articles collected psychophysiological data; however, only 20% of the articles investigated human–automation interaction despite automation increasing in the flight deck. Design of resilient systems that support the needs of the pilot require consideration of human-system dynamics. As aircraft systems become more autonomous, performance metrics are increasingly derived from the human operator, reflecting a shift towards human-centered evaluation. Thus, it becomes more important to understand and model the relationship between performance, mental workload, and psychophysiological data when humans work with automation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Traffic and Transportation)

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15 pages, 1974 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the Conceptual Design of a 50-Seat Supersonic Transport

by Taichi Kawanabe and Zhong Lei

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 625; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070625 - 11 Jul 2025

The research and development of the next generation of supersonic transports (SSTs) meets economic and environmental problems. An SST encounters critical challenges, including the need for low fuel consumption, low noise, and low gas emissions. Currently, the feasibility of developing SSTs is increasing [...] Read more.

The research and development of the next generation of supersonic transports (SSTs) meets economic and environmental problems. An SST encounters critical challenges, including the need for low fuel consumption, low noise, and low gas emissions. Currently, the feasibility of developing SSTs is increasing through the application of cutting-edge technologies, such as composite materials, advanced electric systems, sustainable aviation fuel, and innovative design methodologies. The object of this study was to perform the conceptual design of a 50-seat supersonic transport utilizing general conceptual design methods. In estimating weight and flight performance, statistical formulae were correlated with data from civil supersonic and subsonic jet transports. For wing sizing, carpet plots were created to explore the optimal combination of wing aspect ratio and wing loading. The results suggested that by utilizing advanced technologies, such as the use of a composite material for the structure, the maximum takeoff weight can potentially be reduced while still meeting design requirements. The constraint of climb gradient largely affects the maximum takeoff weight, and it is anticipated that flight performance at low speeds will be improved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Development of Supersonic Aircraft)

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19 pages, 1841 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Liquid Xenon Tank Filling Process in Different Gravity Environments

by Zong-Yu Wu, Chao Jiang, Yong Chen, Kai Li, Yiyong Huang and Yun Cheng

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 624; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070624 - 11 Jul 2025

With the advancement in deep-space exploration, the injection technology using xenon as a working fluid in electric propulsion systems has emerged as a key area of interest. To delve into the gas-liquid dynamics of the liquid xenon injection process and the influence of [...] Read more.

With the advancement in deep-space exploration, the injection technology using xenon as a working fluid in electric propulsion systems has emerged as a key area of interest. To delve into the gas-liquid dynamics of the liquid xenon injection process and the influence of gravity on this mechanism, this investigation employs a VOF two-phase flow model coupled with the Lee model to elucidate the characteristics of the two-phase flow during microgravity conditions. The findings uncover that in the absence of gravitational forces, gas-liquid stratification does not occur during the filling process. Consequently, this leads to an even distribution of gas and liquid within the tank, which in turn prolongs the filling duration in orbiting scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Simulations in Electric Propulsion)

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16 pages, 3138 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Vibration Characteristics of Angular Contact Ball Bearings in Aviation Engines Under Changing Conditions

by Yanfang Dong, Zibo Yan, Jianyong Sun, Wei Yu, Hai Zhang, Wenbo Zhou and Jihao Jin

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 623; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070623 - 11 Jul 2025

This paper addresses the vibration characteristics of angular contact ball bearings in aircraft engines under variable load conditions. Based on multibody dynamics theory, a dynamic model of the bearing was established. Vibration data under actual operating conditions were obtained using an experimental test [...] Read more.

This paper addresses the vibration characteristics of angular contact ball bearings in aircraft engines under variable load conditions. Based on multibody dynamics theory, a dynamic model of the bearing was established. Vibration data under actual operating conditions were obtained using an experimental test platform. This study systematically investigated the influence of rotational speed, axial load, and radial load on the vibration acceleration level of the bearing outer ring. Through a comparison of simulation and experimental data (with an error rate below 10%), the reliability of the model was validated. The results indicate that the bearing vibration acceleration level exhibits a nonlinear increasing relationship with rotational speed. An increase in radial load significantly amplifies the amplitude of acceleration-level fluctuations, while appropriately increasing axial load can reduce bearing vibration intensity. Under variable load coupling conditions, the dynamic interaction between axial and radial forces results in complex nonlinear vibration responses, with a 2 s acceleration time achieving the optimal balance between vibration suppression and efficiency (steady-state average of 70.4 dB). Additionally, the morphological characteristics of the cage center-of-gravity trajectory (such as trajectory disorder and poor smoothness) are closely related to vibration characteristics, revealing the critical role of dynamic load changes in bearing stability. The research results provide a theoretical basis for optimizing the operating conditions, vibration control, and reliability design of aircraft engine bearings. Full article

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10 pages, 1102 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of Propellant Electrostatic Sensitivity Based on Small-Sample Machine Learning Models

by Fei Wang, Kai Cui, Jinxiang Liu, Wenhai He, Qiuyu Zhang, Weihai Zhang and Tianshuai Wang

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 622; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070622 - 11 Jul 2025

Hydroxyl-terminated-polybutadiene (HTPB)-based composite solid propellants are extensively used in aerospace and defense applications due to their high energy density, thermal stability, and processability. However, the presence of highly sensitive energetic components in their formulations leads to a significant risk of accidental ignition under [...] Read more.

Hydroxyl-terminated-polybutadiene (HTPB)-based composite solid propellants are extensively used in aerospace and defense applications due to their high energy density, thermal stability, and processability. However, the presence of highly sensitive energetic components in their formulations leads to a significant risk of accidental ignition under electrostatic discharge, posing serious safety concerns during storage, transportation, and handling. To address this issue, this study explores the prediction of electrostatic sensitivity in HTPB propellants using machine learning techniques. A dataset comprising 18 experimental formulations was employed to train and evaluate six machine learning models. Among them, the Random Forest (RF) model achieved the highest predictive accuracy (R² = 0.9681), demonstrating a strong generalization capability through leave-one-out cross-validation. Feature importance analysis using SHAP and Gini index methods revealed that aluminum, catalyst, and ammonium perchlorate were the most influential factors. These findings provide a data-driven approach for accurately predicting electrostatic sensitivity and offer valuable guidance for the rational design and safety optimization of HTPB-based propellant formulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence in the Design of Solid Propellants for Aerospace Applications)

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27 pages, 5964 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Improved Labyrinth Seal Stability Accounting for Radial Deformation

by Guozhe Ren, Hongyuan Tang, Dan Sun, Wenfeng Xu and Yu Li

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 621; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070621 - 10 Jul 2025

This study examines the labyrinth seal disc of an aero-engine, specifically analysing the radial deformation caused by centrifugal force and heat stress during operation. This distortion may lead to discrepancies in the performance attributes of the labyrinth seal and could potentially result in [...] Read more.

This study examines the labyrinth seal disc of an aero-engine, specifically analysing the radial deformation caused by centrifugal force and heat stress during operation. This distortion may lead to discrepancies in the performance attributes of the labyrinth seal and could potentially result in contact between the labyrinth seal tip and neighbouring components. A numerical analytical model incorporating the rotor and stator cavities, along with the labyrinth seal disc structure, has been established. The sealing integrity of a standard labyrinth seal disc’s flow channel is evaluated and studied at different clearances utilising the fluid–solid-thermal coupling method. The findings demonstrate that, after considering radial deformation, a cold gap of 0.5 mm in the conventional labyrinth structure leads to stabilisation of the final hot gap and flow rate, with no occurrence of tooth tip rubbing; however, both the gap value and flow rate show considerable variation relative to the cold state. When the cold gap is 0.3 mm, the labyrinth plate makes contact with the stator wall. To resolve the problem of tooth tip abrasion in the conventional design with a 0.3 mm cold gap, two improved configurations are proposed, and a stability study for each configuration is performed independently. The leakage and temperature rise attributes of the two upgraded configurations are markedly inferior to those of the classic configuration at a cold gap of 0.5 mm. At a cold gap of 0.3 mm, the two improved designs demonstrate no instances of tooth tip rubbing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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19 pages, 1293 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Open-Source Real-Time SDR Platform for Rapid Prototyping of LANS AFS Receiver

by Rion Sobukawa and Takuji Ebinuma

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 620; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070620 - 10 Jul 2025

The Lunar Augmented Navigation Service (LANS) is the lunar equivalent of GNSS for future lunar explorations. It offers users accurate position, navigation, and timing (PNT) capabilities on and around the Moon. The Augmented Forward Signal (AFS) is a standardized signal structure for LANS, [...] Read more.

The Lunar Augmented Navigation Service (LANS) is the lunar equivalent of GNSS for future lunar explorations. It offers users accurate position, navigation, and timing (PNT) capabilities on and around the Moon. The Augmented Forward Signal (AFS) is a standardized signal structure for LANS, and its recommended standard was published online on 7 February 2025. This work presents software-defined radio (SDR) implementations of the LANS AFS simulator and receiver, which were rapidly developed within a month of the signal specification release. Based on open-source GNSS software, including GPS-SDR-SIM and Pocket SDR, our system provides a valuable platform for future algorithm research and hardware-in-the-loop testing. The receiver can operate on embedded platforms, such as the Raspberry Pi 5, in real-time. This feature makes it suitable for lunar surface applications, where conventional PC-based SDR systems are impractical due to their size, weight, and power requirements. Our approach demonstrates how open-source SDR frameworks can be rapidly applied to emerging satellite navigation signals, even for extraterrestrial PNT applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

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