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Aerospace
Volume 12
Issue 8
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Aerospace, Volume 12, Issue 8 (August 2025) – 68 articles

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26 pages, 13044 KiB  
Article
FSN-PID Algorithm for EMA Multi-Nonlinear System and Wind Tunnel Experiments Verification
by Hongqiao Yin, Jun Guan, Guilin Jiang, Yucheng Zheng, Wenjun Yi and Jia Jia
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 715; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080715 (registering DOI) - 11 Aug 2025
Abstract
In order to improve mathematical model accuracy of electromechanical actuator (EMA) and solve the problems of low-frequency response and large overshoot for nonlinear systems by using traditional proportional integral derivative (PID) algorithm, a fuzzy single neuron (FSN)-PID algorithm is proposed. Firstly, a complete [...] Read more.
In order to improve mathematical model accuracy of electromechanical actuator (EMA) and solve the problems of low-frequency response and large overshoot for nonlinear systems by using traditional proportional integral derivative (PID) algorithm, a fuzzy single neuron (FSN)-PID algorithm is proposed. Firstly, a complete multi-nonlinear dynamic model of EMA is constructed, which introduces internal friction and current limiter of brushless direct current motors (BLDCMs), dead zone backlash of gear trains, and LuGre friction between output shaft and fin. Secondly, a FSN-PID controller is introduced into the automatic position regulator (APR) of EMA control system, where the gain coefficient K of SN algorithm is adjusted by fuzzy control, and the stability of the controller is proved. In addition, simulations are conducted on the response effect of different fin positions under different algorithms for the analysis of the 6° fin position response; it can be concluded that the rise time with FSN-PID algorithm can be reduced by about 4.561% compared to PID, about 1.954% compared to fuzzy (F)-PID, about 0.875% compared to single neuron (SN)-PID, and about 0.380% compared to back propagation (BP)-PID. For the 4°-2 Hz sine position tracking analysis, it can be concluded that the minimum phase error of FSN-PID algorithm is about 0.4705 ms, which is about 74.44% smaller than PID, about 73.43% smaller than F-PID, about 17.24% smaller than SN-PID, and about 10.81% smaller than BP-PID. Finally, wind tunnel experiments investigate the actual high dynamic flight environment and verify the excellent position tracking ability of FSN-PID algorithm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Results in Wind Tunnel Testing)
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20 pages, 3384 KiB  
Article
Safety Analysis of Landing Control for Flying Cars Under Single-Pilot Operation (SPO)
by Jie Lin, Wenjin Zhang, Yang Meng and Haojun Peng
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 714; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080714 - 11 Aug 2025
Abstract
Flying cars are an important vehicle for future urban air mobility. Mainstream flying cars predominantly adopt the e-VTOL-like configuration. Unlike traditional aircraft, these flying cars must be operated by a single pilot. The corresponding hybrid ground-flight control scheme remains immature, with only a [...] Read more.
Flying cars are an important vehicle for future urban air mobility. Mainstream flying cars predominantly adopt the e-VTOL-like configuration. Unlike traditional aircraft, these flying cars must be operated by a single pilot. The corresponding hybrid ground-flight control scheme remains immature, with only a few reliability analyses focused on flight safety. Based on the single-pilot operation (SPO) concept, this paper designs a hybrid control scheme for e-VTOL-like flying cars and proposes a restricted driving mode for the the take-off and landing stages and an autonomous driving mode for the cruising stage, respectively. Taking the landing phase as an example, a fault mode analysis and fault tree analysis are conducted for the restricted driving mode, focusing on factors that are sensitive to flight safety. A fault probability analysis is performed of the landing control unit in the restricted driving mode. The calculated probability of the top event occurring is 1.98 × 10−8 per flight, which proves the feasibility of the design meets the safety requirements. This study provides a foundation for a safety assessment of driving modes in future designs of flying cars. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
20 pages, 4313 KiB  
Article
Design, Analysis, and Experimentation of Space Deployable Segmented Solar Concentrator
by Jinyuan Mei, Chunyang Han, Zhenbang Xu, Yunsheng Qi, Qingyu Meng, Zipeng Yang and Zhongyuan Li
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 713; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080713 - 11 Aug 2025
Abstract
To improve the optical concentrator ratio of space solar power stations (SSPSs), this paper proposes a deployable segmented solar concentrator (DSSC) based on an afocal reflective system. First, a novel concept of an afocal reflective concentrator composed of segmented primary and secondary mirrors [...] Read more.
To improve the optical concentrator ratio of space solar power stations (SSPSs), this paper proposes a deployable segmented solar concentrator (DSSC) based on an afocal reflective system. First, a novel concept of an afocal reflective concentrator composed of segmented primary and secondary mirrors is introduced, and the deployable mechanism for the segmented primary mirror is described in detail. Subsequently, a model for the comprehensive error of the deployable mechanism with 3D revolute joint clearances and link length errors is established based on the “massless link” equivalent model of the clearance in revolute joints and the homogeneous transfer matrix. Sensitivity analysis evaluates the impact of various geometric errors of the deployable mechanism on the comprehensive error. Finally, a prototype experimental system is built to verify the concentration ratio of the concentrator and the pose error of the deployable mechanism. The experimental results show that the DSSC geometric concentration ratio reaches 5.36 to 6, and the optical concentration ratio reaches 24.7 to 32.2. The repeatability of the deployable mechanism is ±50 µm and ±1.2′, meeting the tolerance requirements of the optical system. The proposed afocal reflective DSSC can be used for solar energy concentration, improving the utilization of solar energy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)
15 pages, 2785 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Magnetic Nozzle Configuration and Hybrid Propellant for Radio-Frequency Plasma Micro-Thrusters in Very Low Earth Orbit Applications
by Jinhao Liu, Longfei Ma, Jianwu He, Jinyue Geng, Li Duan, Qi Kang and Feng Xu
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 712; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080712 - 11 Aug 2025
Abstract
Very low Earth orbit (VLEO) satellites are confronted with the challenge of orbital decay caused by thin atmospheres, and the volume and power limitations of micro satellites further restrict the application of traditional electric propulsion systems. In response to the above requirements, this [...] Read more.
Very low Earth orbit (VLEO) satellites are confronted with the challenge of orbital decay caused by thin atmospheres, and the volume and power limitations of micro satellites further restrict the application of traditional electric propulsion systems. In response to the above requirements, this study proposes an innovative scheme of radio frequency plasma micro-thrusters based on magnetic nozzle acceleration technology. By optimizing the magnetic nozzle configuration through the system, the plasma confinement efficiency was significantly enhanced. Combined with the mixed working medium (5 sccm Xe + 10 sccm air), the thrust reached 1.7 mN at a power of 130 W. Experiments show that the configuration of the magnetic nozzle directly affects the plasma beam morphology and ionization efficiency, and a multi-magnet layout can form a stable trumpet-shaped plume. The air in the mixed working medium has a linear relationship with the thrust gain (60 μN/sccm), but xenon gas is required as a “seed” to maintain the discharge stability. The optimized magnetic nozzle enables the thruster to achieve both high thrust density (13.1 μN/W) and working medium adaptability at a power level of hundreds of watts. This research provides a low-cost and miniaturized propulsion solution for very low Earth orbit satellites. Its magnetic nozzle-hybrid propellant collaborative mechanism holds significant engineering significance for the development of air-aspirating electric propulsion technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)
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21 pages, 4843 KiB  
Article
A Study on the Influence of Flight Parameters on Two-Phase Flow and Radiation in the Plume of Solid Rocket Motors
by Moding Peng, Yuxuan Zou, Ruitao Zhang, Yan Ba and Yang Liu
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 711; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080711 - 11 Aug 2025
Abstract
Based on a pre-constructed simplified chemical reaction mechanism for afterburning in exhaust plumes, this study integrates a gas–solid two-phase combustion flow model with numerical radiative transfer calculations to systematically explore the optimization of computational domains for exhaust plume simulations and reveal the regulatory [...] Read more.
Based on a pre-constructed simplified chemical reaction mechanism for afterburning in exhaust plumes, this study integrates a gas–solid two-phase combustion flow model with numerical radiative transfer calculations to systematically explore the optimization of computational domains for exhaust plume simulations and reveal the regulatory mechanisms of flight parameters affecting on plume evolution. The results demonstrate that as altitude increases, the plume expands overall, the afterburning zone shifts rearward, and the peak radiation brightness is delayed but with a slight enhancement. Conversely, increasing flight velocity leads to axial elongation and radial compression of the plume, reduced afterburning intensity, and an overall decrease in radiative intensity. This study establishes a correlation between solid rocket motor flight parameters and plume dynamics, providing theoretical and practical guidance for suppressing infrared signature signals in solid rocket motors and designing multifunctional propellant formulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)
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20 pages, 2431 KiB  
Article
Game Theory-Based Leader–Follower Tracking Control for an Orbital Pursuit–Evasion System with Tethered Space Net Robots
by Zhanxia Zhu, Chuang Wang and Jianjun Luo
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 710; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080710 - 11 Aug 2025
Abstract
The tethered space net robot offers an effective solution for active space debris removal due to its large capture envelope. However, most existing studies overlook the evasive behavior of non-cooperative targets. To address this, we model an orbital pursuit–evasion game involving a tethered [...] Read more.
The tethered space net robot offers an effective solution for active space debris removal due to its large capture envelope. However, most existing studies overlook the evasive behavior of non-cooperative targets. To address this, we model an orbital pursuit–evasion game involving a tethered net and propose a game theory-based leader–follower tracking control strategy. In this framework, a virtual leader—defined as the geometric center of four followers—engages in a zero-sum game with the evader. An adaptive dynamic programming method is employed to handle input saturation and compute the Nash Equilibrium strategy. In the follower formation tracking phase, a synchronous distributed model predictive control approach is proposed to update all followers’ control simultaneously, ensuring accurate tracking while meeting safety constraints. The feasibility and stability of the proposed method are theoretically analyzed. Additionally, a body-fixed reference frame is introduced to reduce the capture angle. Simulation results show that the proposed strategy successfully captures the target and outperforms existing methods in both formation keeping and control efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamics and Control of Space On-Orbit Operations)
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34 pages, 13278 KiB  
Article
Vertiport Location Selection and Optimization for Urban Air Mobility in Complex Urban Scenes
by Yannan Lu, Weili Zeng, Wenbin Wei, Weiwei Wu and Hao Jiang
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 709; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080709 - 10 Aug 2025
Abstract
Vertiports, as dedicated facilities for electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft, are essential to ensure the efficiency and sustainability of Urban Air Mobility (UAM). However, UAM infrastructure site selection has become increasingly complex due to limited land availability, complex spatial conditions, and [...] Read more.
Vertiports, as dedicated facilities for electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft, are essential to ensure the efficiency and sustainability of Urban Air Mobility (UAM). However, UAM infrastructure site selection has become increasingly complex due to limited land availability, complex spatial conditions, and the need to balance multiple objectives. Focusing on passenger-carrying UAM operations, this study proposes a systematic framework for vertiport site selection. First, key factors are classified into high, medium, and low levels across the safety, economic, and social dimensions, forming a modular evaluation system. A GIS-based spatial screening process is developed to identify potential vertiport locations. Subsequently, a variable representing the level of demand satisfaction is incorporated into a progressive coverage model specifically designed for vertiport site optimization. A hybrid algorithm is designed to solve the model. Using Shenzhen as a case study, the proposed approach is validated through real-world data. The results show that vertiport size and spatial requirements significantly influence the selection of suitable land types. High economic constraints may cause facility over-concentration, while setting standards aligned with regional functions better supports equitable access. Locating vertiports in high-demand areas enhances demand satisfaction levels, and both service capacity and range strongly influence overall system performance. These findings provide practical insights for future vertiport planning, promoting the efficient use of urban resources and supporting the successful implementation and sustainability of UAM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Operational Requirements for Urban Air Traffic Management)
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47 pages, 7578 KiB  
Article
Guidance and Control Architecture for Rendezvous and Approach to a Non-Cooperative Tumbling Target
by Agostino Madonna, Giuseppe Napolano, Alessia Nocerino, Roberto Opromolla, Giancarmine Fasano and Michele Grassi
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 708; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080708 - 10 Aug 2025
Abstract
This paper proposes a novel Guidance and Control architecture for close-range rendezvous and final approach of a chaser spacecraft towards a non-cooperative and tumbling space target. In both phases, reference trajectory generation relies on a Sequential Convex Programming algorithm which iteratively solves a [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a novel Guidance and Control architecture for close-range rendezvous and final approach of a chaser spacecraft towards a non-cooperative and tumbling space target. In both phases, reference trajectory generation relies on a Sequential Convex Programming algorithm which iteratively solves a non-linear optimization problem accounting for propellant consumption, relative dynamics, collision avoidance and navigation sensor pointing constraints. At close range, trajectory tracking is entrusted to a translational H-infinity controller, coupled with a quaternion-feed-back regulator for target pointing. In the final approach phase, an attitude-pointing strategy is adopted, requiring a six degree-of-freedom H-infinity controller to follow a reference roto-translational trajectory generated to ensure target-chaser motion synchronization. Performance is evaluated in a high-fidelity simulation environment that includes environmental perturbations, navigation errors, and actuator (i.e., cold gas thrusters and reaction wheels) modelling. In particular, the latter aspects are also addressed by integrating the proposed solution within a complete Guidance, Navigation and Control pipeline including a state-of-the-art LIDAR-based relative navigation filter and a dispatching function for the distribution of commanded control actions to the actuation system. A statistical analysis on 1000 simulations shows the robustness of the proposed approach, achieving centimeter-level position accuracy and sub-degree attitude accuracy near the docking/berthing point. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced AI and Robotic Technologies for Spacecraft Modelling, Optimization, and Decision-Making)
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20 pages, 4179 KiB  
Article
A Layout Optimization Design Method for Flat-Panel Satellites with In-Orbit Validation
by Jiyao Zhang, Jinsheng Guo, Liwei Luo, Zhenqian Liu and Huayi Li
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 707; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080707 - 10 Aug 2025
Abstract
Since 2019, Starlink satellites, with their innovative flat-panel design and unprecedented number in orbit, have transformed the traditional satellite industry. Due to their mass production characteristics, flat-panel satellites face a pressing need for satellite layout optimization design (SLOD), particularly for feasible optimization results [...] Read more.
Since 2019, Starlink satellites, with their innovative flat-panel design and unprecedented number in orbit, have transformed the traditional satellite industry. Due to their mass production characteristics, flat-panel satellites face a pressing need for satellite layout optimization design (SLOD), particularly for feasible optimization results applicable in engineering. Existing layout optimization algorithms often focus on theoretical optima, computational efficiency, and multi-objective capabilities. Most algorithms are validated exclusively through numerical or CAD-based simulations, leaving their engineering applicability under-reported. This paper establishes a simplified mathematical model of SLOD with consideration for the key features of flat-panel satellites. Furthermore, we propose a differential evolution algorithm that leverages local optima for the layout optimization design of flat-panel satellites. By making targeted and limited improvements to initial human-designed layouts, the algorithm generates practical engineering solutions that significantly enhance the stacking efficiency, mass properties, and thermal distribution of flat-panel satellites. Finally, the effectiveness and engineering feasibility of the algorithm were verified through the design of Longjiang-3, China’s first flat-panel satellite, and the results were also validated in orbit. Compared with the baseline configuration, the optimized layout reduces the principal moment of inertia by 6.6% and the satellite module height by 3.5%. It also achieves a significant improvement in thermal power uniformity across the structure. Overall, the key layout metrics are enhanced by 26%. The present research results provide a theoretical basis and engineering solutions for the SLOD of flat-panel satellites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Space System Design)
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23 pages, 6646 KiB  
Article
Short-Period Characteristics Analysis of On-Orbit Solar Arrays
by Huan Liu, Chenjie Kong, Yuan Shen, Baojun Lin, Xueliang Wang and Qiang Zhang
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 706; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080706 - 9 Aug 2025
Viewed by 61
Abstract
Based on the analysis of solar array current data from a certain MEO-orbiting satellite, this paper reveals its short-period fluctuation characteristics and underlying mechanisms. The study finds that when solar panels face the sun during the light period, the output current exhibits significant [...] Read more.
Based on the analysis of solar array current data from a certain MEO-orbiting satellite, this paper reveals its short-period fluctuation characteristics and underlying mechanisms. The study finds that when solar panels face the sun during the light period, the output current exhibits significant short-period fluctuations in addition to being influenced by long-period factors such as sun–earth distance, incident light intensity changes, and space irradiation attenuation. Through theoretical analysis, we first confirm that the root cause of these short-period variations is the temperature change in the shunt circuit caused by load fluctuations, which in turn affects the output current characteristics. Unlike traditional methods that use static characteristic factors such as incident angles, this paper innovatively proposes using load current as a key characteristic factor. For asymmetric solar panel fault scenarios, load current, time phase, and fault-wing output current are used as characteristic factors to adaptively predict the current of normal wings. Meanwhile, feedforward neural network (FNN), Recurrent Neural Network (RNN), and long short-term memory (LSTM) are used for output current prediction. The experimental results show that these methods can accurately capture the short-period fluctuations caused by load mutations and adapt to the fluctuation trend of the normal wing during the prediction of current changes in the faulty wing. It is worth noting that, limited by the short-period fluctuation prediction scenario, the inherent advantage of LSTM in long-sequence prediction is not fully reflected. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)
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20 pages, 9103 KiB  
Article
Nonlinear Aerodynamic Responses of Flight Control Surfaces to Thrust Reverser Jet-Induced Flow Interference
by Yongfeng Jin, Guang Yang, Shengwen Li, Xiaoyu Sun, Enhe Gao and Lianhe Zhang
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 705; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080705 - 8 Aug 2025
Viewed by 189
Abstract
Numerical simulations were performed using the RANS (Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes) approach to analyze the flow field around an aircraft during the landing rollout phase with thrust reversers deployed. The objective was to characterize the flow structure modifications induced by the reversed jet flow and [...] Read more.
Numerical simulations were performed using the RANS (Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes) approach to analyze the flow field around an aircraft during the landing rollout phase with thrust reversers deployed. The objective was to characterize the flow structure modifications induced by the reversed jet flow and to assess its impact on the aerodynamic performance of various control surfaces. The results demonstrate that the reverse jet flow introduces significant disturbances to the flow field, substantially altering the aerodynamic load distribution over the airframe and causing a marked reduction in overall lift. High-lift devices are particularly susceptible to these effects: the pressure distributions on both the leading-edge slats and trailing-edge flaps are severely disrupted, resulting in a notable degradation of their lift augmentation capabilities. The rudder retains a generally linear response characteristic, though a slight reduction in effectiveness is observed. In contrast, the elevator exhibits a pronounced asymmetry in control effectiveness, with significantly greater degradation under positive deflection compared to negative deflection. This study elucidates the complex interference mechanisms associated with thrust reverser-induced flows and provides valuable insights for the optimization of thrust reverser system design and the enhancement of flight control strategies during the landing phase. It further delivers the first quantitative evaluation of elevator response asymmetry and accompanying lift degradation caused by reverse jet plumes, supplying design-ready metrics for reverser integration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Aircraft Structural Design and Applications)
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15 pages, 8859 KiB  
Article
Online Continual Physics-Informed Learning for Quadrotor State Estimation Under Wind-Induced Disturbances
by Yanhui Liu, Shuopeng Wang, Junhua Shi and Lina Hao
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 704; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080704 - 8 Aug 2025
Viewed by 77
Abstract
Accurate state estimation for quadrotors under wind-induced disturbances remains a critical challenge in dynamic outdoor environments. Existing model-based and data-driven approaches often struggle with real-time adaptation and catastrophic forgetting when faced with continuous wind disturbances. This paper proposes an online continual physics-informed learning [...] Read more.
Accurate state estimation for quadrotors under wind-induced disturbances remains a critical challenge in dynamic outdoor environments. Existing model-based and data-driven approaches often struggle with real-time adaptation and catastrophic forgetting when faced with continuous wind disturbances. This paper proposes an online continual physics-informed learning framework that integrates physics-informed neural networks with continual backpropagation to address these limitations. The physics-informed neural networks architecture embeds quadrotor dynamics into the neural network training process, ensuring physical consistency, while continual backpropagation enables continual learning from real-time streaming data without compromising previously acquired knowledge. Experimental validation on a simulation platform demonstrates the accuracy and robustness of the framework in ideal and wind-disturbed scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue UAV System Modelling Design and Simulation)
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26 pages, 3086 KiB  
Article
Research on Real-Path-Based UAV Distribution Center Layout in Urban Environments
by Linyanran Dai, Yong Tian, Naizhong Zhang, Lili Wan and Shunhang Hai
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 703; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080703 - 8 Aug 2025
Viewed by 158
Abstract
The growing adoption of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for urban parcel delivery highlights the need for efficient distribution center placement. Particularly in dense urban environments, obstacle avoidance usually increases real path distances beyond straight-line measurements. Considering these distance differences, this study first employs [...] Read more.
The growing adoption of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for urban parcel delivery highlights the need for efficient distribution center placement. Particularly in dense urban environments, obstacle avoidance usually increases real path distances beyond straight-line measurements. Considering these distance differences, this study first employs the Informed-RRT* algorithm with spatial indexing to calculate real UAV flight paths between locations. We use the real path distances instead of straight-line distances to determine service coverage areas in the distribution center layout model. In this model, we aim to minimize the total economic cost and maximize customer satisfaction, considering the service range, the balance between delivery capability and demand, and the constraints of the distribution mode. An immune-algorithm-enhanced genetic algorithm, the immune genetic algorithm, is used to solve the model, acquiring the distribution center layout. We conduct a simulation experiment in Shenzhen’s low-altitude airspace and compare the layout results between the real path distance criterion and the straight-line path distance criterion. The results show that using the real path distances instead of the straight-line distances leads to changes in distribution center layout, demonstrating the necessity of this framework. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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46 pages, 19960 KiB  
Article
ROS-Based Multi-Domain Swarm Framework for Fast Prototyping
by Jesus Martin and Sergio Esteban
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 702; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080702 - 8 Aug 2025
Viewed by 191
Abstract
The integration of diverse robotic platforms with varying payload capacities is a critical challenge in swarm robotics and autonomous systems. This paper presents a robust, modular framework designed to manage and coordinate heterogeneous swarms of autonomous vehicles, including terrestrial, aerial, and aquatic platforms. [...] Read more.
The integration of diverse robotic platforms with varying payload capacities is a critical challenge in swarm robotics and autonomous systems. This paper presents a robust, modular framework designed to manage and coordinate heterogeneous swarms of autonomous vehicles, including terrestrial, aerial, and aquatic platforms. Built on the Robot Operating System (ROS) and integrated with C++ and ArduPilot, the framework enables real-time communication, autonomous decision-making, and mission execution across multi-domain environments. Its modular design supports seamless scalability and interoperability, making it adaptable to a wide range of applications. The proposed framework was evaluated through simulations and real-world experiments, demonstrating its capabilities in collision avoidance, dynamic mission planning, and autonomous target reallocation. Experimental results highlight the framework’s robustness in managing UAV swarms, achieving 100% collision avoidance success and significant operator workload reduction, in the tested scenarios. These findings underscore the framework’s potential for practical deployment in applications such as disaster response, reconnaissance, and search-and-rescue operations. This research advances the field of swarm robotics by offering a scalable and adaptable solution for managing heterogeneous autonomous systems in complex environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in UAV Technology: Dynamics, Guidance, Navigation, and Control of Transformative Aerial Vehicles)
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25 pages, 3472 KiB  
Article
Physical Information-Based Mach Number Prediction and Model Migration in Continuous Wind Tunnels
by Luping Zhao and Chong Wang
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 701; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080701 - 7 Aug 2025
Viewed by 169
Abstract
In wind tunnel tests for aerospace and bridge engineering, the accurate prediction of Mach number remains a core challenge to ensure the reliability of airflow dynamics characterization. Pure data-driven models often fail to meet high-precision prediction requirements due to the lack of physical [...] Read more.
In wind tunnel tests for aerospace and bridge engineering, the accurate prediction of Mach number remains a core challenge to ensure the reliability of airflow dynamics characterization. Pure data-driven models often fail to meet high-precision prediction requirements due to the lack of physical mechanism constraints and insufficient generalization capability. This paper proposes a physical information-based long short-term memory network (P-LSTM), which constructs a physical loss function by embedding isentropic flow equations from gas dynamics, thereby constraining the Mach number prediction solution space within the physically feasible domain. This approach effectively balances the neural network’s ability to capture temporal features with the interpretability of physical mechanisms. Aiming at the scarcity of data in new wind tunnel scenarios, an adaptive weight transfer learning method (AWTL) is further proposed, realizing efficient knowledge transfer across different-scale wind tunnels via cross-domain data calibration, adaptive source-domain weight reweighting, and target-domain fine-tuning. Experimental results show that the P-LSTM method achieves a 50.65–62.54% reduction in RMSE, 48.00–54.05% in MAE, and 47.88–73.68% in MD compared with traditional LSTM for Mach number prediction in the 0.6 m continuous wind tunnel flow field. The AWTL model also outperforms the direct training model significantly in the 2.4 m continuous wind tunnel, with RMSE, MAE, and MD reduced by 85.26%, 95.12%, and 71.14%, respectively. These results validate that the proposed models achieve high-precision Mach number prediction with strong generalization capability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Results in Wind Tunnel Testing)
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1 pages, 127 KiB  
Retraction
RETRACTED: Bakhoum et al. Real Time Measurement of Airplane Flutter via Distributed Acoustic Sensing. Aerospace 2020, 7, 125
by Ezzat G. Bakhoum, Cheng Zhang and Marvin H. Cheng
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 700; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080700 - 7 Aug 2025
Viewed by 69
Abstract
The Aerospace Editorial Office retracts the article “Real Time Measurement of Airplane Flutter via Distributed Acoustic Sensing” [...] Full article
22 pages, 19937 KiB  
Article
Development and Evaluation of a Two-Dimensional Extension/Contraction-Driven Rover for Sideslip Suppression During Slope Traversal
by Kenta Sagara, Daisuke Fujiwara and Kojiro Iizuka
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 699; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080699 - 6 Aug 2025
Viewed by 167
Abstract
Wheeled rovers are widely used in lunar and planetary exploration missions owing to their mechanical simplicity and energy efficiency. However, they face serious mobility challenges on sloped soft terrain, especially in terms of sideslip and loss of attitude angle when traversing across slopes. [...] Read more.
Wheeled rovers are widely used in lunar and planetary exploration missions owing to their mechanical simplicity and energy efficiency. However, they face serious mobility challenges on sloped soft terrain, especially in terms of sideslip and loss of attitude angle when traversing across slopes. Previous research proposed using wheelbase extension/contraction and intentionally sinking wheels into the ground, thereby increasing shear resistance and reducing sideslip. Building upon this concept, this study proposes a novel recovery method that integrates beam extension/contraction and Archimedean screw-shaped wheels to enable lateral movement without rotating the rover body. The beam mechanism allows for independent wheel movement, maintaining stability by anchoring stationary wheels during recovery. Meanwhile, the helical structure of the screw wheels helps reduce lateral earth pressure by scraping soil away from the sides, improving lateral drivability. Driving experiments on a sloped sandbox test bed confirmed that the proposed 2DPPL (two-dimensional push-pull locomotion) method significantly reduces sideslip and prevents a drop in attitude angle during slope traversal. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced AI and Robotic Technologies for Spacecraft Modelling, Optimization, and Decision-Making)
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26 pages, 9053 KiB  
Article
Numerical Study of the Use of a Flapping Foil in Energy Harvesting with Suction- and Blower-Based Control
by Yalei Bai, Huimin Yao and Min Zheng
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 698; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080698 - 5 Aug 2025
Viewed by 232
Abstract
The method of extracting energy from a fluid environment using flapping foils offers advantages such as structural simplicity and environmental friendliness. However, its low energy harvesting efficiency remains a significant factor limiting its development. This study employs suction and blower-based control (SBC) to [...] Read more.
The method of extracting energy from a fluid environment using flapping foils offers advantages such as structural simplicity and environmental friendliness. However, its low energy harvesting efficiency remains a significant factor limiting its development. This study employs suction and blower-based control (SBC) to enhance the energy harvesting efficiency of flapping foils. Using an orthogonal experimental design and numerical methods, 49 representative combinations of SBC geometries were selected for numerical simulation. The effects and priority rankings of geometric parameters on foil performance were statistically analyzed. It was found that under the optimal geometry (the suction slot position is 0.54c, the injection slot position is 0.79c, the width of the slot is 0.015c, the angle of the suction slot is −3°, and the angle of the injection slot is −9°), the energy harvesting efficiency can reach 40.7%. Furthermore, under laminar flow conditions, the benefit of SBC increases with higher Reynolds numbers (Re). At Re = 2200, SBC maximized the improvement in energy harvesting efficiency by 76%. No significant correlation was observed between the flapping amplitude and the SBC effect. However, the reduced frequency significantly influences the efficiency improvement generated by SBC. The SBC method shifts the foil’s optimal operating region towards lower reduced frequencies, which benefits energy harvesting efficiency. The research presented herein may have potential applications in the development of marine energy systems and bio-inspired propulsion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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28 pages, 3973 KiB  
Article
A Neural Network-Based Fault-Tolerant Control Method for Current Sensor Failures in Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors for Electric Aircraft
by Shuli Wang, Zelong Yang and Qingxin Zhang
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 697; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080697 - 4 Aug 2025
Viewed by 182
Abstract
To enhance the reliability of electric propulsion in electric aircraft and address power interruptions caused by current sensor failures, this study proposes a current sensorless fault-tolerant control strategy for permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) based on a long short-term memory (LSTM) network. First, [...] Read more.
To enhance the reliability of electric propulsion in electric aircraft and address power interruptions caused by current sensor failures, this study proposes a current sensorless fault-tolerant control strategy for permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) based on a long short-term memory (LSTM) network. First, a hierarchical architecture is constructed to fuse multi-phase electrical signals in the fault diagnosis layer (sliding mode observer). A symbolic function for the reaching law observer is designed based on Lyapunov theory, in order to generate current predictions for fault diagnosis. Second, when a fault occurs, the system switches to the LSTM reconstruction layer. Finally, gating units are used to model nonlinear dynamics to achieve direct mapping of speed/position to phase current. Verification using a physical prototype shows that the proposed method can complete mode switching within 10 ms after a sensor failure, which is 80% faster than EKF, and its speed error is less than 2.5%, fully meeting the high speed error requirements of electric aircraft propulsion systems (i.e., ≤3%). The current reconstruction RMSE is reduced by more than 50% compared with that of the EKF, which ensures continuous and reliable control while maintaining the stable operation of the motor and realizing rapid switching. The intelligent algorithm and sliding mode control fusion strategy meet the requirements of high real-time performance and provide a highly reliable fault-tolerant scheme for electric aircraft propulsion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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18 pages, 28832 KiB  
Article
Mars-On-Orbit Color Image Spectrum Model and Color Restoration
by Hongfeng Long, Sainan Liu, Yuebo Ma, Junzhe Zeng, Kaili Lu and Rujin Zhao
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 696; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080696 - 4 Aug 2025
Viewed by 276
Abstract
Deep space Color Remote Sensing Images (DCRSIs) are of great significance in reconstructing the three-dimensional appearance of celestial bodies. Among them, deep space color restoration, as a means to ensure the authenticity of deep space image colors, has significant research value. The existing [...] Read more.
Deep space Color Remote Sensing Images (DCRSIs) are of great significance in reconstructing the three-dimensional appearance of celestial bodies. Among them, deep space color restoration, as a means to ensure the authenticity of deep space image colors, has significant research value. The existing deep space color restoration methods have gradually evolved into a joint restoration mode that integrates color images and spectrometers to overcome the limitations of on-orbit calibration plates; however, there is limited research on theoretical models for this type of method. Therefore, this article begins with the physical process of deep space color imaging, gradually establishes a color imaging spectral model, and proposes a new color restoration method for the color restoration of Mars remote sensing images. The experiment verifies that our proposed method can significantly reduce color deviation, achieving an average of 8.43 CIE DE 2000 color deviation units, a decrease of 2.63 (23.78%) compared to the least squares method. The color deviation decreased by 21.47 (71.81%) compared to before restoration. Hence, our method can improve the accuracy of color restoration of DCRSIs in space orbit. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)
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25 pages, 2567 KiB  
Article
Development of Improved Empirical Take-Off Equations
by Timothy T. Takahashi
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 695; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080695 - 2 Aug 2025
Viewed by 301
Abstract
This paper develops empirical relationships to estimate FAA/EASA and MIL-3013B rules-compliant take-off field performance for single and multi-engine aircraft. Recent experience with modern aircraft flight manuals revealed that popular empirical legacy methods are no longer accurate; improvements in tires and brakes lead to [...] Read more.
This paper develops empirical relationships to estimate FAA/EASA and MIL-3013B rules-compliant take-off field performance for single and multi-engine aircraft. Recent experience with modern aircraft flight manuals revealed that popular empirical legacy methods are no longer accurate; improvements in tires and brakes lead to significantly shorter certified distances. This work relies upon a survey of current operational aircraft and extensive numerical simulations of generic configurations to support the development of a collection of new equations to estimate take-off performance for single and multi-engine aircraft under dry and wet conditions. These relationships are individually tailored for civilian and U.S. Military rules; they account for the superior capability of modern braking systems and the implications of minimum-control speed on the certified distance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Conceptual Design: Tools, Processes and Examples)
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18 pages, 1610 KiB  
Article
Patterns and Causes of Aviation Accidents in Slovakia: A 17-Year Analysis
by Matúš Materna, Lucia Duricova and Andrea Maternová
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 694; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080694 - 1 Aug 2025
Viewed by 190
Abstract
Civil aviation safety remains a critical concern globally, with continuous efforts aimed at reducing accidents and fatalities. This paper focuses on the comprehensive evaluation of civil aviation safety in the Slovak Republic over the past several years, with the main objective of identifying [...] Read more.
Civil aviation safety remains a critical concern globally, with continuous efforts aimed at reducing accidents and fatalities. This paper focuses on the comprehensive evaluation of civil aviation safety in the Slovak Republic over the past several years, with the main objective of identifying prevailing trends and key risk factors. A comprehensive analysis of 155 accidents and incidents was conducted based on selected operational parameters. Logistic regression was applied to identify potential causal factors influencing various levels of injury severity in aviation accidents. Moreover, the prediction model can also be used to predict the probability of specific injury severity for accidents with given parameter values. The results indicate a clear declining trend in the annual number of aviation safety events; however, the fatality rate has stagnated or slightly increased in recent years. Human error, particularly mistakes and intentional violations of procedures, was identified as the dominant causal factor across all sectors of civil aviation, including flight operations, airport management, maintenance, and air navigation services. Despite technological advancements and regulatory improvements, human-related failures persist as a major safety challenge. The findings highlight the critical need for targeted strategies to mitigate human error and enhance overall aviation safety in the Slovak Republic. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Aviation Development 2024–2025)
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24 pages, 4297 KiB  
Article
Finite-Time RBFNN-Based Observer for Cooperative Multi-Missile Tracking Control Under Dynamic Event-Triggered Mechanism
by Jiong Li, Yadong Tang, Lei Shao, Xiangwei Bu and Jikun Ye
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 693; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080693 - 31 Jul 2025
Viewed by 227
Abstract
This paper proposes a hierarchical cooperative tracking control method for multi-missile formations under dynamic event-triggered mechanisms, addressing parameter uncertainties and saturated overload constraints. The proposed hierarchical structure consists of a reference-trajectory generator and a trajectory-tracking controller. The reference-trajectory generator considers communication and collaboration [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a hierarchical cooperative tracking control method for multi-missile formations under dynamic event-triggered mechanisms, addressing parameter uncertainties and saturated overload constraints. The proposed hierarchical structure consists of a reference-trajectory generator and a trajectory-tracking controller. The reference-trajectory generator considers communication and collaboration among multiple interceptors, imposes saturation constraints on virtual control inputs, and generates reference trajectories for each receptor, effectively suppressing aggressive motions caused by overload saturation. On this basis, a radial basis function neural network (RBFNN) combined with a sliding-mode disturbance observer is adopted to estimate unknown external disturbances and unmodeled dynamics, and the finite-time convergence of the disturbance observer is proved. A tracking controller is then designed to ensure precise tracking of the reference trajectory by missile. This approach not only reduces communication and computational burdens but also effectively avoids Zeno behavior, enhancing the practical feasibility and robustness of the proposed method in engineering applications. The simulation results verify the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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19 pages, 6718 KiB  
Article
Investigation of the Effect of Vortex Generators on Flow Separation in a Supersonic Compressor Cascade
by Xi Gao, Zhiyuan Cao, Qinpeng Gu and Bo Liu
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 692; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080692 - 31 Jul 2025
Viewed by 198
Abstract
The interaction between a shock wave and a boundary layer promotes corner separation and prevents performance enhancement in a supersonic compressor cascade. Different vortex generator (VG) designs are presented to control corner separation in a supersonic compressor cascade, including endwall VGs (EVG), suction [...] Read more.
The interaction between a shock wave and a boundary layer promotes corner separation and prevents performance enhancement in a supersonic compressor cascade. Different vortex generator (VG) designs are presented to control corner separation in a supersonic compressor cascade, including endwall VGs (EVG), suction surface VGs (SVG), and combined endwall and suction surface VGs (E-SVGs). It is demonstrated that EVG and coupled E-SVGs reduce losses in the supersonic compressor cascade. For an optimal EVG, the total loss is reduced by 24.6% and the endwall loss is reduced by 33.6%. The coupled E-SVG better controls corner separation and reduces endwall losses by 56.9%. The suppression mechanism is that vortices alter the direction of the separated flow, allowing it to overcome the chordwise pressure gradient. Moreover, the VGs change the shock structure near the endwall. For the EVG, clockwise vortices are effective in controlling corner separation due to their minor effect on the shock structure near the endwall. However, anticlockwise vortices are not suitable for controlling corner separation in the supersonic compressor because they increase the shock strength induced by the VG. The control mechanism of the coupled E-SVG on corner separation is also discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Instability and Transition of Compressible Flows)
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26 pages, 2036 KiB  
Article
Mission Planning for UAV Swarm with Aircraft Carrier Delivery: A Decoupled Framework
by Hongyun Zhang, Bin Li, Lei Wang, Yujie Cheng, Yu Ding, Chen Lu, Haijun Peng and Xinwei Wang
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 691; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080691 - 31 Jul 2025
Viewed by 166
Abstract
Due to the limited endurance of UAVs, especially in scenarios involving large areas and dense target nodes, it is challenging for multiple UAVs to complete diverse tasks while ensuring timely execution. Toward this, we propose a cross-platform system consisting of an aircraft carrier [...] Read more.
Due to the limited endurance of UAVs, especially in scenarios involving large areas and dense target nodes, it is challenging for multiple UAVs to complete diverse tasks while ensuring timely execution. Toward this, we propose a cross-platform system consisting of an aircraft carrier (AC) and multiple UAVs, which makes unified task planning for included heterogeneous platforms to maximize the efficiency of the entire combat system. The carrier-based UAV swarm mission planning problem is formulated to minimize completion time and resource utilization, taking into account large-scale targets, multi-type tasks, and multi-obstacle environments. Since the problem is complex, we design a decoupled framework to simplify the solution by decomposing it into two levels: upper-level AC path planning and bottom-level multi-UAV cooperative mission planning. At the upper level, a drop point determination method and a discrete genetic algorithm incorporating improved A* (DGAIIA) are proposed to plan the AC’s path in the presence of no-fly zones and radar threats. At the bottom level, an improved differential evolution algorithm with a market mechanism (IDEMM) is proposed to minimize task completion time and maximize UAV utilization. Specifically, a dual-switching search strategy and a neighborhood-first buying-and-selling mechanism are developed to improve the search efficiency of the IDEMM. Simulation results validate the effectiveness of both the DGAIIA and IDEMM. An animation of the simulation results is available at simulation section. Full article
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24 pages, 4753 KiB  
Article
A Secure Satellite Transmission Technique via Directional Variable Polarization Modulation with MP-WFRFT
by Zhiyu Hao, Zukun Lu, Xiangjun Li, Xiaoyu Zhao, Zongnan Li and Xiaohui Liu
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 690; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080690 - 31 Jul 2025
Viewed by 194
Abstract
Satellite communications are pivotal to global Internet access, connectivity, and the advancement of information warfare. Despite these importance, the open nature of satellite channels makes them vulnerable to eavesdropping, making the enhancement of interception resistance in satellite communications a critical issue in both [...] Read more.
Satellite communications are pivotal to global Internet access, connectivity, and the advancement of information warfare. Despite these importance, the open nature of satellite channels makes them vulnerable to eavesdropping, making the enhancement of interception resistance in satellite communications a critical issue in both academic and industrial circles. Within the realm of satellite communications, polarization modulation and quadrature techniques are essential for information transmission and interference suppression. To boost electromagnetic countermeasures in complex battlefield scenarios, this paper integrates multi-parameter weighted-type fractional Fourier transform (MP-WFRFT) with directional modulation (DM) algorithms, building upon polarization techniques. Initially, the operational mechanisms of the polarization-amplitude-phase modulation (PAPM), MP-WFRFT, and DM algorithms are elucidated. Secondly, it introduces a novel variable polarization-amplitude-phase modulation (VPAPM) scheme that integrates variable polarization with amplitude-phase modulation. Subsequently, leveraging the VPAPM modulation scheme, an exploration of the anti-interception capabilities of MP-WFRFT through parameter adjustment is presented. Rooted in an in-depth analysis of simulation data, the anti-scanning capabilities of MP-WFRFT are assessed in terms of scale vectors in the horizontal and vertical direction. Finally, exploiting the potential of the robust anti-scanning capabilities of MP-WFRFT and the directional property of antenna arrays in DM, the paper proposes a secure transmission technique employing directional variable polarization modulation with MP-WFRFT. The performance simulation analysis demonstrates that the integration of MP-WFRFT and DM significantly outperforms individual secure transmission methods, improving anti-interception performance by at least an order of magnitude at signal-to-noise ratios above 10 dB. Consequently, this approach exhibits considerable potential and engineering significance for its application within satellite communication systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)
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26 pages, 4302 KiB  
Article
Acceleration Command Tracking via Hierarchical Neural Predictive Control for the Effectiveness of Unknown Control
by Zhengpeng Yang, Chao Ming, Huaiyan Wang and Tongxing Peng
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 689; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080689 - 31 Jul 2025
Viewed by 116
Abstract
This paper presents a flight control framework based on neural network Model Predictive Control (NN-MPC) to tackle the challenges of acceleration command tracking for supersonic vehicles (SVs) in complex flight environments, addressing the shortcomings of traditional methods in managing nonlinearity, random disturbances, and [...] Read more.
This paper presents a flight control framework based on neural network Model Predictive Control (NN-MPC) to tackle the challenges of acceleration command tracking for supersonic vehicles (SVs) in complex flight environments, addressing the shortcomings of traditional methods in managing nonlinearity, random disturbances, and real-time performance requirements. Initially, a dynamic model is developed through a comprehensive analysis of the vehicle’s dynamic characteristics, incorporating strong cross-coupling effects and disturbance influences. Subsequently, a predictive mechanism is employed to forecast future states and generate virtual control commands, effectively resolving the issue of sluggish responses under rapidly changing commands. Furthermore, the approximation capability of neural networks is leveraged to optimize the control strategy in real time, ensuring that rudder deflection commands adapt to disturbance variations, thus overcoming the robustness limitations inherent in fixed-parameter control approaches. Within the proposed framework, the ultimate uniform bounded stability of the control system is rigorously established using the Lyapunov method. Simulation results demonstrate that the method exhibits exceptional performance under conditions of system state uncertainty and unknown external disturbances, confirming its effectiveness and reliability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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31 pages, 26260 KiB  
Article
Aeroelastic Analysis of a Tailless Flying Wing with a Rotating Wingtip
by Weiji Wang, Xinyu Ai, Xin Hu, Chongxu Han, Xiaole Xu, Zhihai Liang and Wei Qian
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 688; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080688 - 31 Jul 2025
Viewed by 144
Abstract
This paper presents a preliminary investigation into the aeroelastic behavior of a tailless flying wing equipped with a rotating wingtip. Based on the configuration of Innovative Control Effectors (ICE) aircraft, an aeroelastic model of the tailless flying wing with a rotating wingtip has [...] Read more.
This paper presents a preliminary investigation into the aeroelastic behavior of a tailless flying wing equipped with a rotating wingtip. Based on the configuration of Innovative Control Effectors (ICE) aircraft, an aeroelastic model of the tailless flying wing with a rotating wingtip has been developed. Both numerical simulation and wind tunnel tests (WTTs) are employed to study the aeroelastic characteristics of this unique design. The numerical simulation involves the coupling of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and implicit dynamic approaches (IDAs). Using the CFD/IDA coupling method, aeroelastic response results are obtained under different flow dynamic pressures. The critical flutter dynamic pressure is identified by analyzing the trend of the damping coefficient, with a focus on its transition from negative to positive values. Additionally, the critical flutter velocity and flutter frequency are obtained from the WTT results. The critical flutter parameters, including dynamic pressure, velocity, and flutter frequency, are examined under different wingtip rotation frequencies and angles. These parameters are derived using both the CFD/IDA coupling method and WTT. The results indicate that the rotating wingtip plays a significant role in influencing the flutter behavior of aircraft with such a configuration. Research has shown that the rotation characteristics of the rotating wingtip are the primary factor affecting its aeroelastic behavior, and increasing both the rotation frequency and rotation angle can raise the flutter boundary and effectively suppress flutter onset. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aeroelasticity, Volume V)
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24 pages, 5286 KiB  
Article
Graph Neural Network-Enhanced Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning for Intelligent UAV Confrontation
by Kunhao Hu, Hao Pan, Chunlei Han, Jianjun Sun, Dou An and Shuanglin Li
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 687; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080687 - 31 Jul 2025
Viewed by 256
Abstract
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are widely used in surveillance and combat for their efficiency and autonomy, whilst complex, dynamic environments challenge the modeling of inter-agent relations and information transmission. This research proposes a novel UAV tactical choice-making algorithm utilizing graph neural networks to [...] Read more.
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are widely used in surveillance and combat for their efficiency and autonomy, whilst complex, dynamic environments challenge the modeling of inter-agent relations and information transmission. This research proposes a novel UAV tactical choice-making algorithm utilizing graph neural networks to tackle these challenges. The proposed algorithm employs a graph neural network to process the observed state information, the convolved output of which is then fed into a reconstructed critic network incorporating a Laplacian convolution kernel. This research first enhances the accuracy of obtaining unstable state information in hostile environments. The proposed algorithm uses this information to train a more precise critic network. In turn, this improved critic network guides the actor network to make decisions that better meet the needs of the battlefield. Coupled with a policy transfer mechanism, this architecture significantly enhances the decision-making efficiency and environmental adaptability within the multi-agent system. Results from the experiments show that the average effectiveness of the proposed algorithm across the six planned scenarios is 97.4%, surpassing the baseline by 23.4%. In addition, the integration of transfer learning makes the network convergence speed three times faster than that of the baseline algorithm. This algorithm effectively improves the information transmission efficiency between the environment and the UAV and provides strong support for UAV formation combat. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspective on Flight Guidance, Control and Dynamics)
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31 pages, 18320 KiB  
Article
Penetrating Radar on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle for the Inspection of Civilian Infrastructure: System Design, Modeling, and Analysis
by Jorge Luis Alva Alarcon, Yan Rockee Zhang, Hernan Suarez, Anas Amaireh and Kegan Reynolds
Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 686; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080686 - 31 Jul 2025
Viewed by 309
Abstract
The increasing demand for noninvasive inspection (NII) of complex civil infrastructures requires overcoming the limitations of traditional ground-penetrating radar (GPR) systems in addressing diverse and large-scale applications. The solution proposed in this study focuses on an initial design that integrates a low-SWaP (Size, [...] Read more.
The increasing demand for noninvasive inspection (NII) of complex civil infrastructures requires overcoming the limitations of traditional ground-penetrating radar (GPR) systems in addressing diverse and large-scale applications. The solution proposed in this study focuses on an initial design that integrates a low-SWaP (Size, Weight, and Power) ultra-wideband (UWB) impulse radar with realistic electromagnetic modeling for deployment on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The system incorporates ultra-realistic antenna and propagation models, utilizing Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) solvers and multilayered media, to replicate realistic airborne sensing geometries. Verification and calibration are performed by comparing simulation outputs with laboratory measurements using varied material samples and target models. Custom signal processing algorithms are developed to extract meaningful features from complex electromagnetic environments and support anomaly detection. Additionally, machine learning (ML) techniques are trained on synthetic data to automate the identification of structural characteristics. The results demonstrate accurate agreement between simulations and measurements, as well as the potential for deploying this design in flight tests within realistic environments featuring complex electromagnetic interference. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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