In 2017, 46.5% of school buildings in Italy needed urgent maintenance regarding architectural usability and accessibility, but also concerning structural, energy, and environmental aspects. A total of 36% of the energy needs during the operational and management phase of the Italian school sector are required by secondary schools. The main objective of this paper is to propose an integrated (architectural, energy, and environmental) redevelopment for the “Raffaello” School in Pistoia (Italy), aimed at improving the environmental and technological system and decreasing the building’s primary energy demand. Here, for the sake of brevity, we will only deal explicitly with energy rehabilitation. The results show that the replacement of the artificial lighting system with LED lamps alone leads to a 45% decrease in primary energy demand. Full article

Every year, the juice industry generates millions of tons of by-products worldwide such as seeds, skins and pomace. This creates significant environmental problems. It is estimated that about 25% of the fruit weight used in juice production is waste. However, even after processing, this waste contains high amounts of valuable bioactive substances. Phenolic compounds and pectin have been found to be the main components of apple pomace and are responsible for its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, and anticancer properties. However, the low bioavailability and sensitivity of some chemicals limit their use in many areas. Advanced extraction techniques and encapsulation of apple pomace extracts is a promising technique to overcome these problems and increasing their applicability (e.g., in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, or food industries). Full article

A continuous increase of environmental pollution has been recorded worldwide, during recent decades, as a result of industrialization and urbanization. In particular, metal release in the environmental media may threaten human health, due to their persistence and accumulation in the food chain. We report here the functionalization of chitosan with poly(benzofurane-co-arylacetic) acid, which is a new material with the ability of complex metals from contaminated water. The synthesized polymer was structurally investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray photon electron microscopy (XPS), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), while heavy metals were determined by atomic absorption spectrometry. Different isotherms and kinetic models were used to describe the absorption equilibrium and the behavior of the material, based on the initial pollutant concentration and contact time. The results are pointing out that such natural materials can be easily synthesized, at low costs, thus offering attractive solutions for wastewater treatment. Full article

The articles reveal the removal effectiveness of 7 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which were recognized in water from a highway drainage system by using the ultrasound treatment process. Results showed that after 45 min of sonication, the average removal of PAHs reached 59%. The reduction of analyzed substances was proportional to treated time and irradiation amplitude. Furthermore, as a consequence of ozone addition to the sonicated samples, the efficiency of the treatment was significantly higher. Full article

In Poland, the most commonly used solar fluid in heating installations with solar collectors are 35–50% water propylene glycol solutions or ethyl. These mixtures (with ennobling additives) effectively protect the solar installation against the effects of freezing of the working medium at low outside temperatures prevailing in winter. These solutions, compared to water, are characterized by higher viscosity and lower values of the specific heat in the range of typical working temperatures of the working fluid in the solar circuit, have a higher price per unit volume, and may cause poisoning due to accidental ingestion. It is possible in solar installations operating also in winter use of water only, without the addition of glycols, but then equipment is necessary the automatic control system controlling the installation with the protection function of anti-freeze. The aim of this study is to review selected examples of solar installations in which water was used as the solar fluid, proving the disadvantage of using glycol. Full article

In Europe, primary energy consumption in buildings accounts for up to 25–40%, depending on the climate conditions. Space heating and Domestic Hot Water (DHW) contribute significantly to this energy consumption. Among the most common sources for heat generation in these appliances is natural gas. Condensing boilers can surpass the 100% energy performance over the lower heating value, if the operating conditions enable the water vapor in the exhaust gases to condensate. Consequently, optimizing the operating parameters of condensing boilers is necessary to decrease fuel consumption without hindering water heating needs. The present work presents an experimental approach to the operating parameters of a condensing boiler that works with natural gas. The aim is to develop a theoretical model that relates the energy performance to the water temperature set by the final user and the excess air set by the maintenance staff. Full article

The building sector has the responsibility of being a generator of high carbon emissions, due to inefficient energy consumption in the last decades. For the European Union (EU) and the building sector, this pollution has generated a great impact and concern, establishing objectives in sustainability and energy efficiency in the short term. The EU, committed to energy sustainability, has established several guidelines, aiming at reducing carbon emissions. For this reason, European directives have been published to increase energy efficiency and sustainability in buildings, with EPBD 2018/844/EU being the most up-to-date regulation. This directive mainly focuses on reducing carbon emissions and increasing the efficiency of energy systems in buildings, but it also refers to the importance of establishing indoor air quality indices and smart management of ventilation systems. Before this directive was published, many of the implemented ventilation strategies did not consider the indoor air quality (IAQ) in their scope of established comfort parameters. Therefore, this study analyses the performance of the ventilation system, controlled smartly to cover the demand and the established IAQ rates via CO₂ ppm, through renewable geothermal energy systems. This study has been carried out at the LUCIA building, a near Zero Energy Building (nZEB), which belongs to the University of Valladolid, Spain. This building stands out for being one of the most sustainable buildings in the world, according to LEED certification, ranking as the most sustainable building in the northern hemisphere. This building to study is equipped with cutting-edge energy systems, with zero carbon emissions. Several parameters have been analysed (air speed, enthalpy, air flow, temperature, humidity, kWh, climate data, etc.) enabling an energy optimisation of the combined systems. All the monitoring data obtained by the smart management have been analysed, providing favourable outcomes, due to the establishment of IAQ levels, according to the EPBD 2018/844/EU. After this study, the smart management of ventilation combined with removable geothermal energy can be exported as a strategy to reach the established IAQ levels through zero carbon systems. Full article

The conducted research concerned a comparison of the levels of use of activated carbons purifying water and biogas, and their reactivation capacity. The process of reactivation of both activated carbons was carried out using laboratory kiln. Reactivation was carried out in identical conditions for both tested samples. The obtained results proved that both activated carbons can be regenerated although they differ significantly in degree of use. It was proven that the technological process, the degree of contamination, and the contact time of activated carbon with the medium have a significant impact on the quality, speed, and success of the reactivation process. Full article

This paper defines the concept of organic and conventional agriculture and presents the differences in the quality of produced food resulting from the farming system. The test materials were the same groups of food products from certified organic and conventional production. As a result, the dry matter content, water activity and the content of potassium, iron, copper, manganese and lead were compared. The obtained results showed that food from organic farming is characterized by higher dry matter content and lower water activity. Conventional products are characterized by higher content of the examined elements, which is due to, among others, geochemical background, the use of mineral fertilizers, and the development of industry and transport. Ecological management influences the increase in the quality of consumed food by limiting the migration of nutrients and other pollutants to the environment. Full article

Due to the European Union, which aspires to pursue an ambitious climate policy, in Poland we have been seeing the development of the energy sector over recent years, reflected by a constantly growing share of green energy. Nevertheless, it is still not enough in relation to the requirements of European law. Europe is to become a climate neutral continent by 2050—if Poland wants to comply with these agreements, it must undergo an energy transformation. Full article

Refrigeration and air conditioning consume 15% of the total generated electricity. Vapor condensation devices need a heat sink which may come in the form of absorption cycles devices. Two fluids, which change phase and concentration, flow through these devices. These changes take place amid a two-phase flow in contact with a solid phase. Hence, an extended study of the velocity profiles across the thin liquid layer is necessary, which is assumed to be conducted by a laser Doppler anemometer. The preliminary studies concerning the calibration of this anemometer are reported. Full article

The described experimental study, performed over the years, includes the quantitative and qualitative monitoring of the presence of microorganisms of air in outdoor and indoor environments of the Albanian Capital, Tirana, during a time when large demographic movements, accompanied by important urban interventions and infrastructural changes, have been part of our lives. A project, part of the National Program in Biotechnology (R & D—the year 2000), was the first support to obtain a database on microbiological air pollution in selected urban areas in Tirana and isolate and identify specific air microbial pollutants. The results obtained were an incentive to continue further with additional scientific evaluation monitoring research, which included the years 2011 to 2015 and then those of 2016–2020. Over the years, there has been a significant reduction in pollutant microbial loads (for selected outdoor areas of the center of Tirana, the total discovered loads decreased from values of the order 10⁵–10⁶, to currently about 10², for the same areas). A fluctuation in indoor microbial loads was observed in many cases. Additionally, a prominent presence of typical environmental fungi pollutants such as Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus terreus, as well as bacterial pollutants, cocci, and bacilli (typical Bacillus megatherium) was identified during a Total Viable Count (TVC) and other microbiological tests of identification. Full article

Efficient air cooling systems for hot climatic conditions, such as southern Europe, are required. Regenerative indirect evaporative cooler (RIEC) and desiccant regenerative indirect evaporative cooler (DRIEC) could be interesting alternatives to direct expansion conventional systems (DX). The main objective of this work was to evaluate the seasonal performance of three air cooling systems in terms of thermal comfort, ventilation and energy consumption. DRIEC was the recommended system to serve a standard classroom in terms of thermal comfort and RIEC in terms of ventilation and energy consumption. Full article

The involvement of the young people in adopting sustainable behaviors and their possible activities as social entrepreneurs is important, in terms of the future adults who will make decisions on sustainable economic development. The objective of the study is to find out what are drivers, barriers and practices in the vision of young people and adolescents in Romania, in terms of social entrepreneurship. The study took place online and aimed to facilitate access to quality information related to the integration of the sustainable development principles in daily behaviors of young people, their willingness to become involved in social entrepreneurship activities. As a working methodology, a questionnaire is applied to adolescents and young people, before and after the seminars they participate, in which they are asked about how they see their involvement in some activities of the environmental protection and in social entrepreneurship activities or in what way they want to contribute to the achievement of the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and which sustainability goals they would choose first. Full article

The development of the waste management system in the European Union is studied. The waste management practices in a range of the EU countries are analyzed. The main principles of solving the problem of managing waste in the EU are revealed. A comparison of indicators for waste management in the EU and Ukraine is provided. The dominant European trends among other areas of waste—“zero waste” and “circular economy”—are identified. The regulatory framework for waste management developed in Ukraine as a step towards international environmental safety standards is discussed. Full article

Hemp biomass is useful in many branches of the economy. Hemp cultivation to obtain seeds has been gaining importance recently. In this process, shredded straw is a waste biomass which can be used for energy purposes. The possibilities for using waste hemp straw for solid biofuel production are described in this extended abstract, using the example of the Henola variety. The analyzed biomass was characterized by a high content of cellulose (over 40%) and hemicellulose (almost 30%), as well as a high calorific value (18,300 kJ·kg⁻¹) and heat of combustion (17,100 kJ·kg⁻¹). Full article

This study focused on the use of technical solutions for automated parking for urban needs with regard to energetic self-sufficiency, balancing the price and usability of the building area for the optimal number of parking spaces and the goal of the maximum use of the building surface for green areas that provide not only oxygen production but also filtration of dust particles and appropriate water management. Full article

Indirect greenhouse gases emissions due to electricity production for powering heat pumps are compared in all Polish climatic zones. The different meteorological conditions are defined by the typical meteorological year. The comparison is made for air-to-water, brine-to-water and water-to-water devices. It starts from determining electrical energy consumption and coefficient of performance value in every hour of a heating season. The determination algorithm takes into consideration a buffer tank or separating heat exchanger when one is required. Subsequently the emissions estimations are done for the present Polish energy mix and assumed one in “Energy policy of Poland until 2040”. Full article

Regenerative indirect evaporative cooling (RIEC) systems are an interesting alternative to conventional air-cooling systems. In the present work, the main objective was to experimentally determine the performance of a RIEC air-cooling system under different inlet air conditions. Moreover, a mathematical RIEC model based on a modified ε-NTU numerical method was developed and validated. The experimental RIEC results showed a high cooling capacity, with dew point effectiveness values up to 0.91. The accuracy obtained of the mathematical model was more than acceptable. Therefore, it can be used properly to study the global behavior of a RIEC. Full article

Smoke generated in the combustion process of plastics reduces visibility and contains toxic products causing severe health problems for and may be hazardous to both people and the environment. Therefore, the awareness of smoke specification is important. This paper presents two most common small-scale methods for measuring smoke parameters. The cone calorimeter method and single-chamber test, respectively, standardized by ISO 5660 and PN-EN ISO 5659-2 were reviewed. Fundamentals of these methods and measurement techniques were described. Di-verse smoke parameters obtained from these methods were collected and specified. Attention was also drawn to the relevance of these parameters to standard requirements for various industry fields such as rail transport or shipbuilding. Full article

The paper presents the results of studies on the effect of rye bran addition (from 10 to 20%) on the course of the granulation process of post-harvest sage waste and on the quality of the obtained granulate (including its fuel properties). The granulation process was tested on the SS-4 test stand, with a P-300 granulator with a “flat matrix-compacting rollers” working system. The addition of rye bran causes a reduction of the power requirement of the granulator (from 3.75 to 3.19 kW) and a reduction of physical and bulk density, as well as an increase in its kinetic durability. We determined the higher heating value of sage (at 10% moisture content), 19.39 MJ/kg, and the lower heating value, 18.17 MJ/kg, thereby allowing us to state its high energy values. The addition of 20% of rye bran causes a decrease in the higher heating value by 2.07% and the lower heating value by 2.67%. Full article

The release of toxic substances in the environment continues to be a problem despite increased efforts to reduce this. The commonly used methods of removing heavy metal ions from water and wastewater have many disadvantages, including a low efficiency and high cost. Heavy metals and dyes are the most problematic pollutants due to their toxicity and stability in the environment. For this reason, in recent years, remediation technologies such as the sorption on materials of natural origin, have been developed. However, these technologies are still rarely used at an industrial level. Recently, scientists have attempted to apply the promising properties of nanotechnology to this field, conducting research on the possibility of using biosorbents in the nanoscale in wastewater treatment. Much attention is currently paid to the preparation of cost-effective, efficient, and environmentally friendly adsorbents, as well as their chemical modifications, to increase the metal removal efficiency from water and wastewater. The waste materials from the agricultural industry are cheap adsorbents that require little treatment. This kind of biosorbent is not able to remove specific metal ions, but by chemical modifications its adsorption capacity and specificity can be increased. The data from the literature are reported for various types of bio-adsorbent materials, e.g., fruit or vegetable pomace and nut shells. One of the most promising raw materials is apple pomace. It was estimated that, in recent years, global apple production reached approximately 75 million tons, equating to 5–7 million tons of apple pomace per year. The management of such waste is a serious challenge. The rational management of exhausting resources requires looking at waste in terms of its use as a reusable raw material. The aim of this paper was to collect information and compare the parameters (pH, dose of adsorbent, and kinetics, etc.) of heavy metal sorption on apple pomace in order to demonstrate the potential of this adsorbent application. Full article

Every year, millions of tons of waste glass are generated all over the world and disposed in landfills. Utilization of this waste by substituting a certain share of cement in cement mortars can contribute to the reduction of environmental pollution in two aspects: the utilization of waste and the reduction of the cement content in cement-based mortars. The cement industry is responsible for approximately 6% of global CO₂ emissions. Seven different mortar mixes, containing between 0% and 30% of waste glass powder added by weight of cement, were analyzed. The following physical and mechanical properties of the mortar mixes were measured: compressive strength, flexural strength, and density. The test results revealed that waste glass powder can be used in small amounts in cement-based mortars to reduce the amount of cement and to utilize waste glass. A higher performance, modified cement-based mortar can be produced for civil engineering applications by replacing 5% with waste glass powder. The linear regression equations obtained illustrate the relationships between the density and compressive strength, and between density and flexural strength at 28 days. Full article

Monitoring and computer modeling of water networks is an effective tool supporting water management in the city. The aim of this paper is to present the results of measurement campaigns carried out in Polanica-Zdrój, preceding the construction, calibration and validation of the hydrodynamic model of the water supply network. The obtained results showed that the changed conditions of the functioning of the local community during a pandemic also significantly affect the way water is used. Daily distribution of water consumption by residents of multi-family housing has been significantly “flattened” due to remote work and extended time at home. This confirms the necessity to conduct on-line measurements in order to calibrate the model reliably and effectively use the results of computer simulations. Full article

The development of sewage systems leads to an increase in people’s living standards and an improvement in the comfort of their daily lives. In 2021, the use of septic tanks is still a big issue; many of them are not properly sealed and can be harmful to the environment because of leakage. A good alternative for them is an individual sewage treatment plant. There are many types of such investment. This paper focuses on the selection between three types of sewage treatment plants (a biological wastewater treatment plant with activated sludge and a constructed wasteland) using MCDA–AHP and TOPSIS methods. Full article

A plastic can be turned into millions of fragments of microplastic particles by anthropogenic activities and environmental events (such as wind, UV light, and the water wave action). Due to their surface hydrophobicity, absorbance of persistent organic pollutants, potential to transport contaminants and persistent properties, microplastics have the potential to become widely dispersed in the water environment via hydrodynamic processes and water currents. Plastic materials are durable and, rather than decomposing, they break down into small plastic particles over time. These small particles of less than 5 mm are usually defined as microplastics. As a consequence of the large plastic production rates, plastic waste accumulation in the natural environment has rapidly increased worldwide. However, the effects of plastic wastes in different ecosystems are still largely unknown. Water and wastewater treatment plants are important facilities to estimate plastic waste release to or retention amounts in the environment. Sampling, analysis and standardization of measurements in microplastic analysis is still an ongoing issue. Since wastewater has a mixed matrix, very few microplastic measurements have been made so far. Furthermore, the lack of a standard and viable method to identify microplastics has limited the correct assessment of microplastics and may lead to an incorrect estimation. In this study, microplastic sampling techniques, extraction methods and identification methods of microplastics in wastewater were compared. It was concluded that studies were mostly performed with grap-type sampling, wet peroxite oxidation and identification methods with a microscope and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrophotometer (FTIR). In the FTIR analysis to determine the polymer structure of microplastics, the most common type of polymers were found to be polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE). Full article

Wastewater treatment operations focus on removing pollutants from wastewater to meet water quality standards for public health and environmental protection. However, in recent decades new sustainability targets for wastewater treatment plants have been postulated and implemented, which assume that energy is one of the key elements. Therefore, a transition from a negative energy balance (energy demand covered by external sources) to an energy-neutral or unevenly positive energy balance of wastewater treatment has been postulated. The carbon footprint (CF) is a new measure of sustainability in the wastewater sector for determining the overall impact of wastewater treatment plants on climate change. The following paper presents a method for estimating and assessing the carbon footprint of wastewater treatment plants. Full article

Fungi are important components of every ecosystem. In nature, they play a significant role as decomposers, decomposing organic matter into simple compounds available for plants. They are a curious group of organisms that attracts more and more interest not only among mycologists and phytopathologists, but also geneticists, biochemists and physiologists. Metabolic products of arboreal fungi show multidirectional action, including in the field of biological protection against harmful phytopathogens. Particularly invasive and difficult to control are soil fungi, phytobacteria and phytoviruses, which are widely spread in the rhizosphere. Moreover, the variety of pathogens is constantly increasing, and new forms are rapidly emerging, often more resistant to the biological control agents used so far. Full article

Reliable feasibility analysis of potential exploitation of a mining waste deposit poses a great challenge. One of the most crucial parts of this process is the approximation of the deposit volume. In this case study we propose a novel method of tailing pile volume estimation using open remote sensing and cartographic data. For selected piles, the difference between the proposed and classical approach reach 50% of the pile volume, which is a significant change in the potential value of the deposit. Full article

As ore quality declines in KGHM mines after continuous exploitation, it becomes increasingly relevant to extract as much economic value as possible from the mined ore while limiting the environmental impact. The recovery of cobalt from converter slag is a possible extraction route that can increase economic output at a limited environmental and logistic cost. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is used to assess the environmental impact of copper exploitation and to compare that impact with the estimated impact of cobalt extraction in the Lubin mine. In most impact categories, Co extraction would be responsible for less than 0.2% of the impact, while increasing economic output by 3.38%. Economic allocation shows that cobalt recovery is environmentally pertinent. Full article

The climate is changing very fast today, and this is not natural. We are experiencing the impact of climate change in many aspects. It is also expected to impact the performance of buildings badly in due course of time. In recent years, many countries started investing to evaluate the energy performances of the buildings and opting for the best suited energy-saving measures. However, this concept may be new in the context of Bhutan. However, the author expects that this new concept may revolutionize the building construction sectors in Bhutan. Many studies show that buildings are one of the world’s largest consumers of energy, and on the other hand, strategies are available to reduce energy consumption. The strategies can be applied right from the design phases for the new buildings and retrofits for the old buildings. In order to apply the best strategies of energy consumption reduction and to understand building energy consumption patterns, an evaluation of the building’s energy performance needs to be carried out. Full article

Deciding on the level of model complexity is one of the first decisions that has to be made before engaging in the creation of a functional hydraulic model of a municipal water supply system. There are a number of influencing factors such as time needed to simulate the network, time needed to create such model and ease of use. The aim of this work is to prove that level of detail has influence on parameters such as pressure at measurement points, spread of flow speed and flow volume at different parts of mains. The Voronoi polygon method is one of the basic demand allocation methods, which, in the event of a different number of junctions depending on model complexity, has to generate a varying number of polygons of different sizes used to aggregate the demands. Full article

Activated carbon has many applications in the environment, cosmetology, medicine and industry. The surface of each activated carbon can be modified to obtain the desired adsorption properties. Chemical activation can greatly affect the adsorption efficiency, control activity and application of the activated carbon. The aim of the study was to modify the selected activated carbon by chemical and physical methods, while maintaining these parameters so that it could be used in medicine. Powdered activated carbons with higher mechanical strength, large specific surface area and large macro-, meso- and micropore volume were prepared using natural waste wood material. This was followed by the digestion process and the washing of activated carbon. The study results indicate a significant influence of the centrifugal washing of activated carbon on the changes in the ash content and methylene index in the final product. Full article

The main challenge in the field of water distribution systems (WDS) is (re)designing the network in order to achieve savings. In many water systems, there are pumping stations designed for much larger flows than what would be observed under normal operating conditions. On the other hand, reducing the diameter of the water pipes has become the main saving method. Designers very often forget to design the network so that it can be used for fire protection purposes. The computer modelling of water networks supports the decision-making process by identifying the optimal compromise between cost and performance (e.g., flow, velocity, pressure). Computer models help in the selection of optimal values of hydraulic pumps, preparation of the pump control method and selection of energy-optimized pumping systems, ensuring the efficiency and pressure of the WDS during normal operation and in fire conditions. The article presents the results of optimization of the pump station in terms of efficiency and pressure in the system, and optimization of pump energy consumption. Computer simulations of the water supply system, measurements of pressure and flow, hydrant flow tests, and model calibration were used in the research. Full article

The study assessed unfavorable phenomena occurring in swimming pool water, including the occurrence of organic micropollutants in swimming pools and the transformation of these compounds during the swimming pool water treatment processes. The presence of three selected compounds was examined from the personal care products group (PCP) in pool water samples, collected in 2018 and 2019, from fifteen pools characterized using three different solutions of swimming pool water treatment systems. In addition, experimental studies on the effects of UV radiation and ozone on selected organic micropollutants, previously identified in swimming pools and the relationship between swimming pool water turbidity and the concentration of the selected PCP micropollutants, were carried out Full article