Languages

29 pages, 2091 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Distributional Learning and Language Activation: Evidence from L3 Spanish Perception Among L1 Korean–L2 English Speakers

by Jeong Mun and Alfonso Morales-Front

Languages 2025, 10(6), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060147 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 344

Abstract

This study investigates L3 Spanish perception patterns among L1 Korean–L2 English bilinguals with varying L3 proficiency levels, aiming to test the applicability of traditional L2 perceptual models in multilingual contexts. We conducted two experiments: a cross-linguistic discrimination task and a cross-language identification task. [...] Read more.

This study investigates L3 Spanish perception patterns among L1 Korean–L2 English bilinguals with varying L3 proficiency levels, aiming to test the applicability of traditional L2 perceptual models in multilingual contexts. We conducted two experiments: a cross-linguistic discrimination task and a cross-language identification task. Results revealed unexpected outcomes unique to multilingual contexts. Participants had difficulty reliably discriminating between cross-linguistic categories and showed little improvement over time. Similarly, they did not demonstrate progress in categorizing sounds specific to each language. The absence of a clear correlation between proficiency levels and the ability to discriminate and categorize sounds suggests that input distribution and language-specific activation may play more critical roles in L3 perception, consistent with the distributional learning approach. We argue that phoneme distributions from all three languages likely occupy a shared perceptual space. When a specific language is activated, the relevant phoneme distributions become dominant, while others are suppressed. This selective activation, while not crucial in traditional L1 and L2 studies, is critical in L3 contexts, like the one examined here, where managing multiple phonemic systems complicates discrimination and categorization. These findings underscore the need for theoretical adjustments in multilingual phonetic acquisition models and highlight the complexities of language processing in multilingual settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Investigation of L3 Speech Perception)

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32 pages, 5128 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Sino-Vietnamese Negative Prefixes bất, vô, phi and Their Coexistence with Sentential Negators: A Synchronic and Diachronic Analysis

by Giorgio Francesco Arcodia and Trang Phan

Languages 2025, 10(6), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060146 - 17 Jun 2025

Viewed by 958

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive synchronic and diachronic analysis of the Sino-Vietnamese negative prefixes bất (Chinese 不 bù), vô (無 wú), and phi (非 fēi), examining their historical development and modern usage in Vietnamese, with a comparative perspective on their [...] Read more.

This paper presents a comprehensive synchronic and diachronic analysis of the Sino-Vietnamese negative prefixes bất (Chinese 不 bù), vô (無 wú), and phi (非 fēi), examining their historical development and modern usage in Vietnamese, with a comparative perspective on their Chinese equivalents. By investigating the interaction between these prefixes and Vietnamese sentential negators—such as the native chẳng and the Chinese-derived không—the study explores the evolution of negation in Vietnamese over several centuries. The research draws on a corpus of three bilingual Classical Chinese–Vietnamese translations of Confucius’s Analects from the 17th, 19th, and 21st centuries, two written in traditional Nôm script and one in the modern Quốc ngữ alphabet. This corpus provides valuable insights into linguistic shifts driven by language contact in Vietnam. The findings reveal that in the 17th century, the Sino-Vietnamese prefixes bất, vô, and phi were largely absent, with native chẳng dominating. By the 19th century, chẳng persisted, but không emerged as a sentential negator, and bất appeared, both reflecting Chinese forms and demonstrating innovative uses. In the 21st century, không became the dominant negator, with bất and vô seeing increased usage, reflecting broader trends of linguistic modernization. This study situates these changes within the broader context of 20th-century East Asian literacy expansion, where Japan played a pivotal role in disseminating modernized Chinese-based vocabulary. By examining the selective adaptation and integration of Sino-Vietnamese elements, this paper contributes to a deeper understanding of language contact, syntactic influence, and lexical innovation in the evolving Vietnamese lexicon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues in Vietnamese Linguistics)

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13 pages, 279 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of I Think as Different Types of Markers in English Conversations

by Zhaoyi Pan

Languages 2025, 10(6), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060145 - 17 Jun 2025

Viewed by 185

Abstract

This research investigated the use of I think as different types of markers by Thai learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) to determine whether the use of I think by Thai intermediate- and advanced-level EFL participants showed any significant differences. The [...] Read more.

This research investigated the use of I think as different types of markers by Thai learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) to determine whether the use of I think by Thai intermediate- and advanced-level EFL participants showed any significant differences. The types of markers and the functions of I think used by the Thai EFL participants were identified, as were their inappropriate uses of I think. In total, 72 Thai EFL participants were involved in this research, and dyadic English conversations were conducted for data collection. The statistical results illustrated that the Thai intermediate-level EFL participants used I think significantly more often than the Thai advanced-level EFL participants, particularly as a stance marker (SM). By contrast, the Thai advanced-level EFL participants used I think significantly more often as a pragmatic marker (PM) and as a politeness marker (PoM) than the Thai intermediate-level EFL participants. The Thai intermediate-level EFL participants mainly used the SM I think to express a subjective evaluative stance, while the Thai advanced-level EFL participants used I think across a broader range of markers and functions. Their inappropriate uses of I think are also discussed. Full article

13 pages, 1942 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Evolution of Noun Prefixes in West-Coastal Bantu Languages of Gabon

by Japhet Niama Niama

Languages 2025, 10(6), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060144 - 17 Jun 2025

Viewed by 331

Abstract

This study offers a detailed comparative analysis of the reflexes of Proto-Bantu noun class prefixes within nine Gabonese languages belonging to the B50, B60, and B70 groups of Guthrie’s referential inventory of the Bantu languages. Genealogically speaking, all of them are part of [...] Read more.

This study offers a detailed comparative analysis of the reflexes of Proto-Bantu noun class prefixes within nine Gabonese languages belonging to the B50, B60, and B70 groups of Guthrie’s referential inventory of the Bantu languages. Genealogically speaking, all of them are part of the Kwilu-Ngounie subclade of the Bantu family’s West-Coastal Bantu branch. Starting out from a robust dataset comprising over 4000 lexical items collected through fieldwork and existing descriptions, the Comparative Method is used to distinguish changes in noun class morphology due to regular sound shifts from those emerging from analogical reanalysis and levelling. The comparative study shows a systematic reduction and reorganization of the inherited Proto-Bantu noun class system, notably the loss of classes 12/13 and 19 across all languages, variable retention and loss of classes 7/8 and 11, and complex patterns of reshuffling involving classes 5, 9/10, and 1/2. Key innovations, potentially reinforcing lexicon-based hypotheses of phylogenetic subgrouping within Kwilu-Ngounie, include the development of a class 7 allomorphy conditioned by stem-initial segments in the B50 languages and the emergence of vocalic prefixes restricted to the B60 and B70 languages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments on the Diachrony and Typology of Bantu Languages)

22 pages, 3293 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phonetically Based Corpora for Anglicisms: A Tijuana–San Diego Contact Outcome

by Ruben Roberto Peralta-Rivera, Carlos Ivanhoe Gil-Burgoin and Norma Esthela Valenzuela-Miranda

Languages 2025, 10(6), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060143 - 16 Jun 2025

Viewed by 710

Abstract

Research in Loanword Phonology has extensively examined the adaptation processes of Anglicisms into recipient languages. In the Tijuana–San Diego border region, where English and Spanish have reciprocally existed, Anglicisms exhibit two main phonetic patterns: some structures exhibit Spanish phonetic properties, while others preserve [...] Read more.

Research in Loanword Phonology has extensively examined the adaptation processes of Anglicisms into recipient languages. In the Tijuana–San Diego border region, where English and Spanish have reciprocally existed, Anglicisms exhibit two main phonetic patterns: some structures exhibit Spanish phonetic properties, while others preserve English phonetic features. This study analyzes 131 vowel tokens drawn from spontaneous conversations with 28 bilingual speakers in Tijuana, recruited via the sociolinguistic ‘friend-of-a-friend’ approach. Specifically, it focuses on monosyllabic Anglicisms with monophthongs by examining the F1 and F2 values using Praat. The results were compared with theoretical vowel targets in English and Spanish through Euclidean distance analysis. Dispersion plots generated in R further illustrate the acoustic distribution of vowel realizations. The results reveal that some vowels closely match Spanish targets, others align with English, and several occupy intermediate acoustic spaces. Based on these patterns, the study proposes two phonetically based corpora—Phonetically Adapted Anglicisms (PAA) and Phonetically Non-Adapted Anglicisms (PNAA)—to capture the nature of Anglicisms in this contact setting. This research offers an empirically grounded basis for cross-dialectal comparison and language contact studies from a phonetically based approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Linguistic Boundaries: From the Acquisition of Languages to Multilingual Practices)

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7 pages, 179 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Across Languages and Borders: Empirical Advances in Family Language Policy Research

by Anastassia Zabrodskaja

Languages 2025, 10(6), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060142 - 13 Jun 2025

Viewed by 344

Abstract

This Special Issue is closely linked to the international conference Research on Social and Affective Factors in Home Language Maintenance and Development (#HOLM2023), which was held at Tallinn University, Estonia, from 14 to 16 December 2023 [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Policy and Practice in Multilingual Families)

37 pages, 5216 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unraveling the Overall Picture of Japanese Dialect Variation: What Factors Shape the Big Picture?

by Wilbert Heeringa and Fumio Inoue

Languages 2025, 10(6), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060141 - 12 Jun 2025

Viewed by 435

Abstract

We studied the Japanese dialect by calculating aggregated PMI Levenshtein distances among local Japanese dialects using data from 2400 locations and 141 items from the Linguistic Atlas of Japan Database (LAJDB). Through factor analysis, we found the latent linguistic variables underlying the aggregated [...] Read more.

We studied the Japanese dialect by calculating aggregated PMI Levenshtein distances among local Japanese dialects using data from 2400 locations and 141 items from the Linguistic Atlas of Japan Database (LAJDB). Through factor analysis, we found the latent linguistic variables underlying the aggregated distances. We found two factors, the first of which reflects a division into five groups, and the second of which reflects the long-standing East/West cultural contrast in mainland Japan, also known as the AB division. In the latter division, the eastern group includes the Okinawa islands. We paid special attention to the Tokyo dialect, which is associated with Standard Japanese. In a second factor analysis, only distances to the Tokyo dialect were considered. Although the patterns represented by the four factors vary, they consistently show that dialects geographically closer to Tokyo are more similar to the Tokyo dialect. Additionally, the first three factors reflected the similarity of the Hokkaido varieties to Tokyo’s local dialect. The results of the factor analyses were linked back to the individual variation patterns of the 141 items. A more precise analysis of Tokyo’s position within the Japanese dialect continuum revealed that it is situated within a region of local dialects characterized by relatively small average linguistic distances to other dialects. This area includes the more central area of mainland Japan and Hokkaido. When the influence of geographical distance is filtered out, only the local dialects of Hokkaido remain as dialects with the smallest average distance to other local dialects. Additionally, we observed that dialects geographically close to Tokyo are most closely related to it. However, when we again use distances that are controlled for geographical distance, the local dialects on Hokkaido stand out as being very related to the Tokyo dialect. This probably indicates that the Tokyo dialect has had a relatively large influence on Hokkaido. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dialectal Dynamics)

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5 pages, 188 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Linguistics of Social Media: An Introduction to the Special Issue

by Andreea Simona Calude

Languages 2025, 10(6), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060140 - 12 Jun 2025

Viewed by 465

Abstract

It is hard to remember a world without social media (SM) [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Linguistics of Social Media)

25 pages, 1627 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reconciling Inter- and Intra-Individual Variation in L2 Socio-Pragmatic Development: Intensifier Variation in Spoken German

by Mason A. Wirtz

Languages 2025, 10(6), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060139 - 12 Jun 2025

Viewed by 309

Abstract

This study is the first to scrutinize the rates of, and the lexical diversity in, adjective intensification in second language (L2) German. We additionally attend to the issue concerning whether sociodemographic variables (i.e., length of residence, age, and gender) and individual learner differences [...] Read more.

This study is the first to scrutinize the rates of, and the lexical diversity in, adjective intensification in second language (L2) German. We additionally attend to the issue concerning whether sociodemographic variables (i.e., length of residence, age, and gender) and individual learner differences (i.e., L2 proficiency, intensity of exposure to the L2, and L2 socioaffect) can predict (a) the inter-individual variation in syntactic adjective intensification, and (b) the observed intra-individual variation based on a weighted measure of intensifier lexical diversity. We analyzed spoken data collected via virtual reality (VR) elicitation tasks from 40 learners of L2 German (first language [L1] English). We found that learners engaged in adjective intensification at similar rates as those reported in the literature, despite some cases of overshooting the target; learners also preferred markers of intensification consistent with the lexical choices of L1 German speakers. Sociodemographic variables did not predict different rates of adjective intensification; rather, individual learner differences such as those relating to L2 proficiency and L2 exposure correlated with more target-like use of intensifiers, though the correlations were weak. The diversity in adjective intensification was also only marginally related to demographic factors and individual learner differences. Our findings suggest that L2 learners indeed engage in similar intensification practices as do L1 speakers; however, systematically predicting more ‘successful’ adoption of target-like sociopragmatic norms among L2 learners remains challenging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Variationist Linguistics on German—Focus on Lexis and Pragmatics)

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26 pages, 3917 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multimodal Existential Negation in Ecuadorian Highland Kichwa

by Simeon Floyd

Languages 2025, 10(6), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060138 - 11 Jun 2025

Viewed by 878

Abstract

Conventionalized or symbolic “emblematic” visual expressions are the types of “gesture” that most closely resemble lexical and grammatical elements seen in spoken languages or in sign languages in the visual modality. The relationship between conventionalization in the visual modality and in morphosyntax is [...] Read more.

Conventionalized or symbolic “emblematic” visual expressions are the types of “gesture” that most closely resemble lexical and grammatical elements seen in spoken languages or in sign languages in the visual modality. The relationship between conventionalization in the visual modality and in morphosyntax is a topic that remains only partially explored, with more research focused on iconic and indexical aspects of visual expression than on symbolic aspects. However, the culture-specific nature of symbolic gestures makes them an important phenomenon for the study of cultural variation at the intersection of modality and linguistic diversity. This study examines the relationship of a specific area of morphosyntax, negation and syntactic polarity, to an element of the visual modality, a practice of visual existential negation used by speakers of Imbabura Kichwa, a variety of Ecuadorian Highland Kichwa, a Quechuan language spoken in the Ecuadorian Andes. A data set of natural speech recordings will illustrate this open-handed rotating gesture that expresses negative existence: “there is none”. This gesture will be analyzed in terms of its form, meaning, and combination with spoken elements in discourse context, finding that in this variety of Kichwa, this practice is associated with a specific verb root meaning “to lack” or “to not exist”. This discussion will be framed in the wider context of the areal distribution of similar types of visual existential negation in other languages of Ecuador, reflecting the diversity of multimodal conventionalization across speech communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coexpressivity, Gesture, and Language Emergence: Modality, Composition, and Creation)

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7 pages, 201 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Introduction to the Special Issue Linguistic Practices in Heritage Language Acquisition

by Ekaterina Protassova and Maria Yelenevskaya

Languages 2025, 10(6), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060137 - 10 Jun 2025

Viewed by 263

Abstract

Linguistic practices in heritage language (HL) acquisition refer to the ways in which language is used, managed, and passed on within families, communities, or institutions to help children, adolescents, and young adults learn and maintain it [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Linguistic Practices in Heritage Language Acquisition)

24 pages, 2269 KiB

Open AccessArticle

This Is the Way People Are Negative Anymore: Mapping Emotionally Negative Affect in Syntactically Positive Anymore Through Sentiment Analysis of Tweets

by Christopher Strelluf and Thomas T. Hills

Languages 2025, 10(6), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060136 - 10 Jun 2025

Viewed by 828

Abstract

The adverb anymore is standardly a negative polarity item (NPI), which must be licensed by triggers of non-positive polarity. Some Englishes also allow anymore in positive-polarity clauses. Linguists have posited that this non-polarity anymore (NPAM) carries a feature of negative affect. However, this [...] Read more.

The adverb anymore is standardly a negative polarity item (NPI), which must be licensed by triggers of non-positive polarity. Some Englishes also allow anymore in positive-polarity clauses. Linguists have posited that this non-polarity anymore (NPAM) carries a feature of negative affect. However, this claim is based on elicited judgments, and linguists have argued that respondents cannot reliably evaluate NPAM via conscious judgment. To solve this problem, we employ sentiment analysis to examine the relationship between NPAM and negative affect in a Twitter corpus. Using two complementary sentiment analytic frameworks, we demonstrate that words occurring with NPAM have lower valence, higher arousal, and lower dominance than words occurring with NPI-anymore. Broadly, this confirms NPAM’s association with negative affect in natural-language productions. We additionally identify inter- and intra-regional differences in affective dimensions, as well as variability across different types of NPI trigger, showing that the relationship between negative affect and NPAM is not monolithic dialectally, syntactically, or semantically. The project demonstrates the utility of sentiment analysis for examining emotional characteristics of low-frequency variables, providing a new tool for dialectology, micro-syntax, and variationist sociolinguistics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Linguistics of Social Media)

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17 pages, 379 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Paradoxes of Language Policy in Morocco: Deconstructing the Ideology of Language Alternation and the Resurgence of French in STEM Instruction

by Brahim Chakrani, Adam Ziad and Abdenbi Lachkar

Languages 2025, 10(6), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060135 - 9 Jun 2025

Viewed by 533

Abstract

Language-in-education policies often serve hidden political and economic agendas, and thus language policy research must examine policies beyond official state discourse. This article critically analyzes Morocco’s Language Alternation Policy (LAP), introduced in 2019, using the historical–structural approach. It examines the broader historical context [...] Read more.

Language-in-education policies often serve hidden political and economic agendas, and thus language policy research must examine policies beyond official state discourse. This article critically analyzes Morocco’s Language Alternation Policy (LAP), introduced in 2019, using the historical–structural approach. It examines the broader historical context and structural factors that shape the adoption and implementation of LAP. While the official policy discourse frames LAP as an egalitarian reform aimed at promoting balanced multilingualism by alternating instructional media in science education, its de facto implementation reveals a stark contradiction. The ideological underpinnings of LAP are the resurgence of French as the exclusive medium of instruction in science and technology classrooms. This policy undercuts a decades-long Arabization of science and the promotion of the Amazigh language, as well as denying Moroccans the potential advantages of learning English. The disparity between official policy discourse and implementation reveals the influence of France’s neocolonial agenda, exercised through Francophonie, international clientelism, and financial patronage. Through implementing LAP to align with France’s interests in Morocco, French-trained political actors undermine the country’s decolonization efforts and preserve the long-standing socioeconomic privileges of the francophone elite. We analyze how LAP functions ideologically to resolidify France’s cultural and linguistic hegemony and reinforce pre- and post-independence linguistic and social inequalities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sociolinguistic Studies: Insights from Arabic)

18 pages, 317 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Infinitival and Gerund-Participial Catenative Complement Constructions in English World-Wide

by Peter Craig Collins

Languages 2025, 10(6), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060134 - 9 Jun 2025

Viewed by 309

Abstract

Previous research on non-finite catenative complementation (for example, start Ving/to V; force NP into Ving/to V) has largely been restricted to BrE and/or AmE. The present study seeks to expand the regional coverage of such research by [...] Read more.

Previous research on non-finite catenative complementation (for example, start Ving/to V; force NP into Ving/to V) has largely been restricted to BrE and/or AmE. The present study seeks to expand the regional coverage of such research by analysing a set of catenative constructions in two large web-derived corpora, GloWbE and NOW, both of which comprise 20 subcorpora representing different national varieties of English. The implications of the findings for such diachronically relevant phenomena as colloquialisation and grammaticalisation are considered. For example, the dominance of bare infinitivals over to infinitivals with catenative help is suggestive of auxiliarisation, an interpretation supported by the semantically bleached sense of generalised causation associated with help, and historical evidence of support for the bare-infinitival variant in colloquial registers. Notable findings include American English epicentrality—and possibly hypercentrality—in many of the results, with Canadian English and Philippine English in particular sharing the American aversion to from-less “prevent NP Ving” and “help to V”; the occasional conservative tendency of the Outer Circle varieties to resist diachronic trends associated with the reference varieties (such as the rise of “fear Ving” at the expense of “fear to V”); and high scores for the African Englishes, suggested to be attributable to the popularity of “serial verb” constructions in a number of African languages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sociolinguistic Variation and Change: Focus on English as a Second and Foreign Language)

6 pages, 189 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

The Acquisition of L2 Sociolinguistic Competence: Critical Insights from an Evolving Field

by Vera Regan and Kristen Kennedy Terry

Languages 2025, 10(6), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060133 - 6 Jun 2025

Viewed by 303

Abstract

This Special Issue on the acquisition of sociolinguistic competence showcases current research at the juncture of Language Variation and Change (LVC) and Second Language Acquisition (SLA) (Regan, in press) [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Acquisition of L2 Sociolinguistic Competence)

18 pages, 941 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Synonymic Taste Words Alter Perceived Taste in American Consumers

by Tamara Marie Johnson and Simone Eveline Pfenninger

Languages 2025, 10(6), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060132 - 4 Jun 2025

Viewed by 407

Abstract

Investigations into crispy and crunchy in American English have demonstrated that these synonymic taste words have differing effects on perceived taste depending on association. To test the generalizability of these findings, category fluency tasks were used to elicit foods and beverages more and [...] Read more.

Investigations into crispy and crunchy in American English have demonstrated that these synonymic taste words have differing effects on perceived taste depending on association. To test the generalizability of these findings, category fluency tasks were used to elicit foods and beverages more and less associated with several pairs of synonymic taste words. Next, taste tests were conducted using synonymic taste words and some of their more and less associated products as stimuli. The results showed that more associated taste words have a marginally significant, positive effect on taste ratings, with significant interaction effects for certain products resulting in lower taste ratings. This study confirms that synonymic taste words beyond crispy and crunchy can alter perceived taste in American consumers. Moreover, it demonstrates that the underlying mechanisms are complex and, in addition to association, depend on the particular food or beverage as well as further factors. Full article

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21 pages, 435 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Development of [Patient-Subj V-Qilai AP] as a Middle Construction in Chinese

by Fangqiong Zhan

Languages 2025, 10(6), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060131 - 3 Jun 2025

Viewed by 812

Abstract

The middle construction (MC) is a term originally used to account for derived intransitives in the generative tradition and is well-documented in many Indo-European languages. While diverse views exist on the Chinese MC, some scholars have argued that Chinese [patient-subj V-qilai AP] sentences [...] Read more.

The middle construction (MC) is a term originally used to account for derived intransitives in the generative tradition and is well-documented in many Indo-European languages. While diverse views exist on the Chinese MC, some scholars have argued that Chinese [patient-subj V-qilai AP] sentences share traits with the English MC. Although diachronic literature on the development of the Chinese MC is limited, examining the grammaticalization of directional verb phrases like V-qilai provides valuable insights into its evolution. Building on previous analyses, I identify [patient-subj V-qilai AP] as the Chinese MC with V-qilai as its marker. Through an analysis of Classical Chinese data and the approach of constructional assemblies, I propose that the Chinese MC originated from assembled constructions comprising a subject, a directional verb phrase, and a descriptive construction. Over time, these assemblies evolved, with shifts in subject roles, motion interpretation, and descriptive functions, resulting in the emergence of the MC. Quantitative analysis of Classical data indicates the absence of the MC before 1900, suggesting its development through a gradual increase in the frequency of interconnected assemblies. By tracing the development of the Chinese MC, this research enhances our understanding of how middle voice mechanisms emerge across languages. Full article

27 pages, 386 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Is Negation Negative? (And a Discussion of Negative Concord in SOV Languages)

by Paloma Jeretič

Languages 2025, 10(6), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060130 - 3 Jun 2025

Viewed by 516

Abstract

Is negation negative? For some authors, in some languages, it is not. This is the case for so-called strict negative concord languages (e.g., Russian), in which negation is taken to be non-negative, following the cross-linguistic analysis for negative concord systems proposed by Hedde [...] Read more.

Is negation negative? For some authors, in some languages, it is not. This is the case for so-called strict negative concord languages (e.g., Russian), in which negation is taken to be non-negative, following the cross-linguistic analysis for negative concord systems proposed by Hedde Zeijlstra’s work “Sentential negation and negative concord”. However, this analysis is focused on languages with SVO word order. In this paper, I propose to reconsider the typology of negative concord by zooming out of the focus on SVO languages that current literature has relied on. I discuss the case of SOV languages where observing a strict NC pattern leads to weaker conclusions about the nature of negation than for SVO languages with strict negative concord, leaving the negativity status of negation in those languages underdetermined. I then take a look at Turkish, an SOV language with three sentential negation markers: plain sentential negation -mA, copular negation değil, and existential negation yok. Evidence from the interaction of these markers with neither..nor phrases suggests that değil and yok, in contrast with -mA, are non-negative for some speakers. In order to explain the variation, I put forward a hypothesis about the learning process, in which there is sometimes insufficient evidence in the input to determine whether değil and yok are negative, and learners choose between two conflicting heuristics that result in the negativity or non-negativity of these markers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Theoretical Studies on Turkic Languages)

33 pages, 3861 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Importance of Being Onset: Tuscan Lenition and Stops in Coda Position

by Giuditta Avano and Piero Cossu

Languages 2025, 10(6), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060129 - 30 May 2025

Viewed by 1811

Abstract

This paper examines Gorgia Toscana (GT), a phenomenon of stop lenition observed in Tuscan varieties of Italian. Traditionally, this process has been understood to occur in post-vocalic positions, which, in the native lexicon, corresponds to onset position due to the absence of stops [...] Read more.

This paper examines Gorgia Toscana (GT), a phenomenon of stop lenition observed in Tuscan varieties of Italian. Traditionally, this process has been understood to occur in post-vocalic positions, which, in the native lexicon, corresponds to onset position due to the absence of stops in syllable codas in Italian, apart from geminate consonants that straddle the coda and onset of adjacent syllables. However, stops in coda positions are found in both loanwords (e.g., admin, Batman) and bookwords (e.g., ritmo, tecnica). Drawing on original acoustic data collected from 42 native speakers of Florentine Italian, we investigated the realization of stops in such lexical items through allophonic classification and quantitative analysis. Our primary aim was to test the Onset Hypothesis, which posits that Gorgia exclusively affects stops in onset positions, implying that coda stops should not undergo lenition. Our findings support this hypothesis. We provide a phonological analysis within the frameworks of Strict CV and Coda Mirror, emphasizing the importance of syllable structure in understanding the manifestation of Gorgia Toscana, which we argue cannot be adequately captured solely by considering the linear order of segments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Speech Variation in Contemporary Italian)

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21 pages, 678 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Addition of a Target Structure to Task Repetition as an Accuracy Enhancement: The Necessity of Reducing Cognitive Load

by Nicolas Buhot and Qiang Xing

Languages 2025, 10(6), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060128 - 29 May 2025

Viewed by 395

Abstract

Task repetition is a technique that promotes the development of utterance fluency, but the addition of an accuracy enhancement is necessary. The study tested the effects of an accuracy enhancement where a Target Structure was used in response to what a partner said, [...] Read more.

Task repetition is a technique that promotes the development of utterance fluency, but the addition of an accuracy enhancement is necessary. The study tested the effects of an accuracy enhancement where a Target Structure was used in response to what a partner said, limiting cognitive load (group 1, n = 31), while group 2 (n = 29) had to independently produce an idea formulated by the structure, which represented an additional load that could negatively affect the processes of proceduralization. Group 3 (n = 26) constituted the control group. Group 1 outperformed group 2 in terms of the fluent use of the structure, with a large effect size. Regarding the accurate use of the Target Structure, group 1 also outperformed group 2, but with a smaller effect size. In a new task, group 1 used the structure more, and a significant correlation was observed between the number of uses of the structure and the degree of proceduralization. Full article

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29 pages, 2368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chinese “Dialects” and European “Languages”: A Comparison of Lexico-Phonetic and Syntactic Distances

by Chaoju Tang, Vincent J. van Heuven, Wilbert Heeringa and Charlotte Gooskens

Languages 2025, 10(6), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060127 - 29 May 2025

Viewed by 1806

Abstract

In this article, we tested some specific claims made in the literature on relative distances among European languages and among Chinese dialects, suggesting that some language varieties within the Sinitic family traditionally called dialects are, in fact, more linguistically distant from one another [...] Read more.

In this article, we tested some specific claims made in the literature on relative distances among European languages and among Chinese dialects, suggesting that some language varieties within the Sinitic family traditionally called dialects are, in fact, more linguistically distant from one another than some European varieties that are traditionally called languages. More generally, we examined whether distances among varieties within and across European language families were larger than those within and across Sinitic language varieties. To this end, we computed lexico-phonetic as well as syntactic distance measures for comparable language materials in six Germanic, five Romance and six Slavic languages, as well as for six Mandarin and nine non-Mandarin (‘southern’) Chinese varieties. Lexico-phonetic distances were expressed as the length-normalized MPI-weighted Levenshtein distances computed on the 100 most frequently used nouns in the 32 language varieties. Syntactic distance was implemented as the (complement of) the Pearson correlation coefficient found for the PoS trigram frequencies established for a parallel corpus of the same four texts translated into each of the 32 languages. The lexico-phonetic distances proved to be relatively large and of approximately equal magnitude in the Germanic, Slavic and non-Mandarin Chinese language varieties. However, the lexico-phonetic distances among the Romance and Mandarin languages were considerably smaller, but of similar magnitude. Cantonese (Guangzhou dialect) was lexico-phonetically as distant from Standard Mandarin (Beijing dialect) as European language pairs such as Portuguese–Italian, Portuguese–Romanian and Dutch–German. Syntactically, however, the differences among the Sinitic varieties were about ten times smaller than the differences among the European languages, both within and across the families—which provides some justification for the Chinese tradition of calling the Sinitic varieties dialects of the same language. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dialectal Dynamics)

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21 pages, 1613 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Orthographic Processing of Spanish as a Heritage Language in Gibraltar: The Role of Interactional Context in Interference Control

by Alicia Mariscal

Languages 2025, 10(6), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060126 - 28 May 2025

Viewed by 937

Abstract

Despite the increase in studies on Spanish as a heritage language (SHL), few focus on spelling, with research limited to the U.S. According to the adaptive control hypothesis, language production is governed by control processes, which adapt to the demands of real-world interactional [...] Read more.

Despite the increase in studies on Spanish as a heritage language (SHL), few focus on spelling, with research limited to the U.S. According to the adaptive control hypothesis, language production is governed by control processes, which adapt to the demands of real-world interactional contexts. In this article, these control processes are inferred from the interlingual spelling errors observed in Gibraltarian SHL speakers. The hypothesis is that the Gibraltar dense code-switching context will be manifested in a high number of interlingual misspellings in Spanish due to English interference. Misspellings were identified in the written productions of a sample of 80 Gibraltarian pre-college SHL students (N = 40 in Spanish; N = 40 in English), collected via availability tests and stored in the Dispolex dataset by the members of the project “Lenguas en contacto y disponibilidad léxica: la situación lingüística e intercultural de Ceuta y Gibraltar”. Gibraltarians’ Spanish misspellings were then compared with those found in the U.S. The high percentage of spelling errors in SHL students in Gibraltar might be explained in light of lower inhibitory control of interferences in dense code-switching interactional contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Processing in Spanish Heritage Speakers)

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21 pages, 2248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relative Clauses in Native Lower Sorbian and the Relativizer how

by Andreas Pankau

Languages 2025, 10(6), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060125 - 28 May 2025

Viewed by 755

Abstract

Native Lower Sorbian, an endangered West Slavic minority language spoken in Germany, possesses a relative clause formation strategy employing the invariant relativizer ak and optional resumption. The focus of this paper lies on the status of ak. In other languages that have [...] Read more.

Native Lower Sorbian, an endangered West Slavic minority language spoken in Germany, possesses a relative clause formation strategy employing the invariant relativizer ak and optional resumption. The focus of this paper lies on the status of ak. In other languages that have them, invariant relativizers are drawn from the set of complementizers, wh-words, or demonstratives. ak seems to differ in that respect because it belongs to neither category. In this paper, I argue that ak is not an outlier. Instead, ak is a variant of the manner wh-word kak ‘how’ in its non-manner use as a complementizer. After I show how the complementizer kak differs from the wh-adverb kak and that relative clauses in Native Lower Sorbian feature empty operator movement, I argue that the empty operator sitting in SpecCP triggers a rule partially deleting the complementizer kak. More specifically, the rule elides the initial [k] of kak, reducing it to ak. This makes Native Lower Sorbian similar to Bern German or West Frisian, both of which also feature the partial deletion of a complementizer in the presence of a moved element in SpecCP. Furthermore, Native Lower Sorbian is yet another language where how has a non-manner use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mind Your Manner Adverbials!)

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23 pages, 333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

General Attitudes, Intelligibility, and Acceptability: How Philippine English Is Perceived by Filipino-Americans

by Leah Gustilo, Francisco Dumanig and Rodney Jubilado

Languages 2025, 10(6), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060124 - 27 May 2025

Viewed by 1439

Abstract

Despite the growing acceptance of the varieties of English, standard language ideology continues to cause some to be valorized and denigrated. This paper examines the attitudes of Filipino-Americans within an inner-circle English variety zone towards Philippine English (PhE), focusing on its status, development, [...] Read more.

Despite the growing acceptance of the varieties of English, standard language ideology continues to cause some to be valorized and denigrated. This paper examines the attitudes of Filipino-Americans within an inner-circle English variety zone towards Philippine English (PhE), focusing on its status, development, lexicon, intelligibility, and acceptability. The study surveyed 113 Filipino-American speakers of American English (AmE) who were familiar with Philippine culture and PhE. Studies show that some first-language English speakers exhibit negative attitudes towards new English varieties. Contrary to this trend, our findings reveal positive attitudes among AmE speakers towards PhE. However, although it is commonly understood, these positive attitudes do not guarantee the full acceptability of PhE. Notably, there is a growing trend towards the acceptability of PhE neologisms, especially in formal and scientific contexts, indicating a shift in previous perceptions. Additionally, the findings of the study highlight that word-formation processes significantly influence the acceptability of new terms across different speech domains, a novel finding that merits further investigation. Acceptability plays a vital role in the dissemination of local expressions and in shaping the status of a language variety. This research may contribute to understanding the evolving dynamics of the acceptability of PhE and its status in local and international contexts. The positive attitudes towards PhE among American English speakers indicate a shift in perceptions. Language teaching can build on this trend by fostering an environment where students are encouraged to appreciate and respect different English varieties. This can be achieved through exposure to diverse linguistic inputs and discussions on language attitudes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Discourse and Identity in the Diverse and Evolving Varieties of Southeast Asian Englishes)

51 pages, 669 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Negative Indefinite Constructions in Bantu: ‘Nobody’

by Maud Devos, Johan van der Auwera and Rasmus Bernander

Languages 2025, 10(6), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060123 - 27 May 2025

Viewed by 1816

Abstract

This paper presents a first typology of negative indefinites in Bantu languages. The lack of interest in expressions of ‘nobody’ in Bantu languages is connected with the idea that they merely involve a generic noun for ‘person’ and main clause negation. Our study, [...] Read more.

This paper presents a first typology of negative indefinites in Bantu languages. The lack of interest in expressions of ‘nobody’ in Bantu languages is connected with the idea that they merely involve a generic noun for ‘person’ and main clause negation. Our study, based on a dataset of 85 Bantu languages, shows that exponents of ‘nobody’ can be quite diverse, either resembling exponents of ‘somebody’ or differing from them through the use of pragmatically strong modifiers like scalar additive operators or explicit quantifiers like the numeral ‘one’. We also look at the constructions in which exponents of ‘nobody’ occur and observe that next to canonical SVO constructions, two construction types are used which are known to express information structure in Bantu languages: inversion constructions and existential cleft constructions. Inversion constructions are shown to be especially frequent with intransitive clauses but we also find object inversion for either ‘somebody’ or ‘nobody’ but not for both in the same language. Existential cleft constructions, on the other hand, are shown to be especially frequent with transitive clauses and, more importantly, they are more frequently used for expressions of ‘nobody’ than for expressions of ‘somebody’ in line with recent observations for South-East Asian and Mixtec languages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments on the Diachrony and Typology of Bantu Languages)

28 pages, 1093 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Blended Phonetic Training with HVPT Features for EFL Children: Effects on L2 Perception and Listening Comprehension

by KyungA Lee and Hyunkee Ahn

Languages 2025, 10(6), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060122 - 26 May 2025

Viewed by 562

Abstract

Despite being fundamental for speech processing, L2 perceptual training often lacks attention in L2 classrooms, especially among English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners navigating complex English phonology. The current study investigates the impact of the blended phonetic training program incorporating HVPT features on [...] Read more.

Despite being fundamental for speech processing, L2 perceptual training often lacks attention in L2 classrooms, especially among English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners navigating complex English phonology. The current study investigates the impact of the blended phonetic training program incorporating HVPT features on enhancing L2 perception and listening comprehension skills in Korean elementary EFL learners. Fifty-seven learners, aged 11 to 12 years, participated in a four-week intervention program. They were trained on 13 challenging consonant phonemes for Korean learners, using multimedia tools for practice. Pre- and posttests assessed L2 perception and listening comprehension. They are grouped into three proficiency levels based on listening comprehension tests. The results showed significant improvements in L2 perception (p = 0.01) with small and in listening comprehension (p < 0.001) with small-to-medium effects. The lower proficiency students demonstrated the largest gains. The correlation between L2 perception and listening comprehension was observed both in pre- (r = 0.427 **) and posttests (r = 0.479 ***). Findings underscore the importance of integrating explicit phonetic instruction with HVPT to enhance L2 listening skills among EFL learners. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue L2 Speech Perception and Production in the Globalized World)

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24 pages, 531 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Linguistic Contact, Transcoding and Performativity: Linguistic and Cultural Integration of Italian Immigrants in the Río de la Plata

by Virginia Sciutto

Languages 2025, 10(6), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060121 - 26 May 2025

Viewed by 428

Abstract

From the late 19th to the early 20th century, Argentina experienced a wave of mass migration due to political, economic, and social instability in Europe. This study examines how idiomatic expressions in Argentine Spanish incorporate Italianisms and Rioplatense slang (lunfardismos), focusing on linguistic [...] Read more.

From the late 19th to the early 20th century, Argentina experienced a wave of mass migration due to political, economic, and social instability in Europe. This study examines how idiomatic expressions in Argentine Spanish incorporate Italianisms and Rioplatense slang (lunfardismos), focusing on linguistic contact, transcoding, and performativity. The integration of these lexical and phraseological elements occurred through direct borrowings, phraseological calques, and neological formations influenced by both languages, shaped by continuous interactions between immigrant and local communities. Based on a corpus of 179 phraseological units (PUs) from the Diccionario fraseológico del habla argentina. Frases, dichos y locuciones (DiFHA), compiled by Barcia and Pauer, the study analyzes semantic and structural changes resulting from this exchange. The findings highlight linguistic contact, reflecting the interaction between Italian and Rioplatense Spanish; transcoding, illustrating the adaptation of linguistic elements to a new sociocultural context; and performativity, demonstrating how these expressions acquire distinct meanings in daily communication. By examining these phraseological units, the research reveals how language embodies Argentina’s migratory and cultural history, showing how linguistic contact enriches communication and identity through the interaction of different communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Linguistic Boundaries: From the Acquisition of Languages to Multilingual Practices)

21 pages, 313 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Well, If You Talk to Me in Norwegian, I Won’t Answer You: Language Policies and Practices in Latvian Diasporic Families

by Sanita Martena and Solvita Burr

Languages 2025, 10(6), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060120 - 26 May 2025

Viewed by 263

Abstract

The article explores the concept of family language policy in relation to heritage languages and child agency in the context of Latvian as a heritage language. Its aim is to find out what role Latvian may have in relation to other languages within [...] Read more.

The article explores the concept of family language policy in relation to heritage languages and child agency in the context of Latvian as a heritage language. Its aim is to find out what role Latvian may have in relation to other languages within the core families in the diaspora, as well as in communication with their extended families in Latvia. For this, we investigate which language beliefs and attitudes underlie those language practices and examine children’s engagement in family language management. Our research is based on 20 in-depth interviews collected in 2023. Respondents were recruited through the distance online learning program “Latvian as a foreign language teacher” created for the Latvian diaspora and through Saturday (community) schools. The main research questions are as follows: What role does Latvian have in relation to other languages in Latvian diasporic families, and how do language practices reflect beliefs and attitudes of the parents? Which languages and which communication channels are used by diasporic families in communication with their (extended) families in Latvia? What impact do children have on family language policies? Our data show a huge diversity in family language practices, switching between two and more languages depending on communicative situations, the age of children, their language proficiency, and the communication channels. Family members flexibly use their languages to participate in family life and to achieve interactional goals, not always focusing just on particular language use. Heritage language transmission correlates with family language planning and consequent language use. On the other hand, language is tightly tied to the relationships and emotions of family members. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Policy and Practice in Multilingual Families)

24 pages, 4815 KiB

Open AccessReview

From Theoretical Framework to Empirical Investigation: A Bibliometric Analysis of Research Evolution and Emerging Trends in Polarity Sensitivity Studies Between 1980 and 2023

by Lingda Kong, Yi Li, Yanting Sun, Yong Jiang and Xiaoming Jiang

Languages 2025, 10(6), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060119 - 26 May 2025

Viewed by 412

Abstract

This study provides a bibliometric analysis of polarity sensitivity research from 1980 to 2023, examining intellectual structure, collaboration patterns, and emerging trends. Analysing 835 documents using Bibliometrix (V.4.1.0), CiteSpace (V.6.1.R6), and VOSviewer (V1.6.18), we identify three evolutionary phases: (1) foundational [...] Read more.

This study provides a bibliometric analysis of polarity sensitivity research from 1980 to 2023, examining intellectual structure, collaboration patterns, and emerging trends. Analysing 835 documents using Bibliometrix (V.4.1.0), CiteSpace (V.6.1.R6), and VOSviewer (V1.6.18), we identify three evolutionary phases: (1) foundational theoretical development (1980–2000), transitioning from syntactic to semantic-based theories; (2) methodological diversification (2000–2010), incorporating cognitive–pragmatic frameworks and corpus-based studies; and (3) contemporary integration (2010–2023), marked by multidisciplinary approaches. Co-citation analysis reveals three intellectual clusters centred on formal semantics, pragmatic approaches, and minimalist frameworks. Geographic analysis shows the United States as the leading contributor, followed by Germany and the United Kingdom. Collaboration network analysis underscores intensive transatlantic exchanges and emerging computational contributions from Asia. Keyword co-occurrence analysis (165 terms) demonstrates theoretical sophistication and empirical integration, with growing interest in neurocognitive approaches, cross-linguistic variations, and interface phenomena. Challenges include reconciling universal principles with language-specific variations and integrating processing models with formal theories. Promising research directions involve the combination of computational modelling, diachronic studies, and applications in language teaching and natural language processing. This study maps the intellectual landscape of polarity sensitivity research while suggesting future directions toward unified theories that address universal and language-specific patterns. Full article

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31 pages, 2742 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inherently Long Consonants in Contemporary Italian Varieties: Regional Variation and Orthographic Effects

by Paolo Mairano, Rosalba Nodari, Fabio Ardolino, Valentina De Iacovo and Daniela Mereu

Languages 2025, 10(6), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060118 - 23 May 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 552

Abstract

In this article, we analyse durational variation for inherently long consonants in Italian. Productions by 40 speakers of four regional varieties were elicited via a read-aloud task containing target words with inherently long consonants in the post-consonantal vs. intervocalic position. The analysis of [...] Read more.

In this article, we analyse durational variation for inherently long consonants in Italian. Productions by 40 speakers of four regional varieties were elicited via a read-aloud task containing target words with inherently long consonants in the post-consonantal vs. intervocalic position. The analysis of acoustic durations revealed variation. Overall, we found that /ts/, /dz/ and /ʎ/ were considerably longer intervocalically than post-consonantally, although by smaller ratios than those reported in the literature for contrastive geminates; the effect was smaller for /ʃ/ and barely detectable for /ɲ/. We also detected a trend to lengthen /dz/ and /ʃ/ after a morphemic boundary. In terms of regional variation, north-eastern speakers were found to diverge from the others, with shorter durations and less consistent durational patterns. Additionally, we verified the existence of lengthening induced by double letters for /ts/ (vizi—vizzi) and /dz/ (Gaza—gazza), and only found it for /dz/, particularly for north-eastern speakers. We argue that this may originally have been an orthographic effect due to the acquisition of Italian at school via the written form by past generations, which has been lost for /ts/ but preserved for /dz/ under the influence of loanwords spelled with <z> and pronounced as short intervocalically. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Speech Variation in Contemporary Italian)

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