Across Languages and Borders: Empirical Advances in Family Language Policy Research

This Special Issue is closely linked to the international conference Research on Social and Affective Factors in Home Language Maintenance and Development (#HOLM2023), which was held at Tallinn University, Estonia, from 14 to 16 December 2023. Organized by the AILA Research Network (ReN) on Social and Affective Factors in Home Language Maintenance and Development, HOLM 2023 served as an interdisciplinary forum for scholars investigating the multilayered dynamics of multilingualism within family settings. The conference emphasized the social and emotional dimensions of home language practices, encompassing themes such as Family Language Policy (FLP), digital literacies, translanguaging, bilingual socialization, and the roles of educators and parents in language development. Many contributions from #HOLM2023 have been developed into scholarly articles featured in the current Special Issue, as well as in two additional Special Issues (see Zabrodskaja et al., 2025; Zabrodskaja, forthcoming). These publications collectively advance the field by providing empirical insights and theoretical frameworks that illuminate the complex interplay between language practices, identity formation, and emotional well-being in multilingual families. By bridging conference discussions with peer-reviewed scholarship, this Special Issue not only disseminates cutting-edge research but also fosters ongoing dialogue among academics, educators, and policymakers dedicated to supporting linguistic diversity and heritage language maintenance in an increasingly globalized world.

This Special Issue makes a significant contribution to the fields of (family) language policy and multilingualism. It addresses the complex dynamics of language maintenance, transmission, and identity construction within multilingual families—an area of growing importance in today’s globalized and migratory world. Its strength lies in a timely, theoretically grounded, and empirically robust examination of FLP, exploring both explicit policies and implicit practices shaping language use in the home. By illuminating how families manage intergenerational language choices and cultural affiliations, the Special Issue advances current debates on language shift and retention. Its interdisciplinary approach—drawing from sociolinguistics, anthropology, education, psychology, and migration studies—offers a nuanced understanding of how micro-level language decisions intersect with broader ideologies and institutional frameworks. The inclusion of studies from diverse sociocultural and linguistic contexts—including Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Israel, Italy, Kazakhstan, Namibia, Norway, Spain, Sweden, the United Arab Emirates, and diasporic communities speaking Albanian, Arabic, English, Hebrew, Latvian, Lithuanian, Polish, and Russian—highlights both the universality and diversity of multilingual family experiences. This wide scope enhances the empirical foundation of FLP research and provides comparative insights essential for theory-building and policy development. Ultimately, the Special Issue contributes meaningfully to scholarly conversations on minority language sustainability, identity negotiation, and the complex links between family, language, and belonging.

The contributions in this Special Issue deepen both empirical insight into and theoretical understanding of FLP. Drawing on a wide range of qualitative and quantitative methodologies, the studies offer detailed accounts of how multilingual families negotiate language practices, allocate linguistic resources, and handle intergenerational transmission in varied sociocultural settings. These findings enhance our evidence-based understanding of FLP by revealing the situated, everyday decision-making processes within families—moving beyond abstract models to highlight real-life complexities. The articles also challenge and extend existing theoretical frameworks by introducing innovative concepts that capture the fluid, hybrid, and evolving nature of family language practices. Importantly, the research has practical relevance: it informs language education policies and community-based initiatives that support multilingual families. By advocating for culturally responsive, context-sensitive, and flexible approaches to language policy, this Special Issue offers valuable guidance for inclusive and effective planning. It stands as a vital resource for scholars, educators, and policymakers alike, enriching our grasp of the dynamic relationship between family language practices, identity formation, and language maintenance.

The practical implications of this Special Issue are far-reaching and directly relevant to both policy and practice. The findings inform the development of language policies that not only support bilingual education but also promote the intergenerational transmission and preservation of home languages. They offer concrete guidance for the training of parents, educators, and community workers in fostering supportive environments for bilingual and multilingual development. Additionally, the research highlights the importance of targeted services for multilingual families to address challenges related to language maintenance, integration, and educational equity. In the sphere of education, these insights can inform culturally responsive curricula that recognize and valorize linguistic diversity, while also supporting heritage language retention. The role of community networks—both formal and informal—in sustaining minority languages and promoting intercultural understanding emerges as another key area for policy innovation and support. Finally, this Special Issue lays important groundwork for future research, especially with regard to the long-term cognitive, socio-emotional, and identity-related impacts of bilingual upbringing across diverse cultural and migratory contexts.

The articles in this Special Issue are organized thematically—progressing from education and language policy in schools, to early childhood multilingual practices, to FLP and heritage language maintenance, and finally to youth identity and sociolinguistic dynamics—creating a coherent structure that reflects the complex and interconnected dimensions of multilingualism. The articles in the education and language policy in schools section examine how educators and early learning initiatives respond to the challenges of monolingual education policies in multilingual contexts, highlighting the use of heteroglossic and inclusive practices—from classroom translanguaging in Namibia and Finland to family literacy programs in Abu Dhabi—to promote equitable learning and linguistic diversity.

Set explores how Namibia’s English-only education policy clashes with the country’s multilingual classroom realities. Through a case study of a bilingual teacher, she shows how educators use heteroglossic practices—blending multiple languages—to support student learning. Her study highlights the limitations of monolingual policies and calls for more inclusive approaches that reflect linguistic diversity and promote educational equity. It reveals that despite the official policy enforcing English as the sole medium of instruction from Grade 4 onwards, teachers often resort to heteroglossic practices—such as code-switching and translanguaging—to bridge linguistic gaps and facilitate comprehension in science education. These practices not only aid in meaning-making but also challenge the monoglossic ideology embedded in the Namibian Language in Education Policy, highlighting the need for more inclusive language policies that recognize and utilize the multilingual realities of classrooms. By documenting these classroom interactions, the research underscores the importance of flexible pedagogical approaches that leverage students’ linguistic repertoires, advocating for systemic changes to support linguistic justice in education.

Protassova and Silkin look at how early childhood educators support families who speak multiple languages. They focus on the ways teachers handle the challenges and opportunities that come with linguistic diversity in preschool settings. Their study explores the various methods teachers use to create welcoming and inclusive classrooms that value and encourage the use of different languages. It also considers the role of school policies and teacher training in meeting the needs of multilingual children and their families. The results emphasize how crucial it is for educators to be knowledgeable and prepared to work effectively in diverse linguistic environments. Their study also reveals that educators employ translanguaging strategies to facilitate communication and language development among children and parents, fostering an environment where both Finnish and Russian languages are valued. Additionally, it highlights that play without a common language enables children to engage and communicate with peers across linguistic boundaries, promoting social integration and mutual understanding in multilingual settings.

Gallagher, Dillon, Habak, Saqr, and AlRamamneh investigate an initiative aimed at promoting early literacy and enhancing father–child relationships in Abu Dhabi. Recognizing that shared reading between adults and children is not a widespread practice in the UAE, the project encouraged Emirati fathers to engage in interactive reading sessions with their kindergarten-aged children at home. Eighty fathers participated in workshops where they received guidance on interactive reading techniques and were provided with culturally appropriate books in both Arabic and English. The study utilized surveys, focus groups, and field notes to assess the program’s effectiveness, identifying both the benefits and challenges of implementing such initiatives in multilingual settings. The authors recommend strategies for similar programs, emphasizing the importance of accessible information for parents, modeling interactive reading practices, and supplying linguistically and culturally relevant reading materials.

The Multilingual Practices in Early Childhood and Institutional Settings section examines how families and communities negotiate bilingualism and language ideologies across diverse sociocultural contexts. It explores parental efforts to implement English immersion in monolingual Spanish-speaking households, the fluid blending of Albanian and Italian among immigrant speakers, and the complex language attitudes of second-generation Arabic speakers in Italy. Together, these studies highlight the interplay between identity, practicality, and linguistic inclusion.

Relaño-Pastor investigates how monolingual Spanish families in Castilla-La Mancha implement English immersion strategies within their homes. It explores the interplay between English language ideologies, language socialization practices, and emotional investments in shaping FLPs. The research highlights the agency of parents, particularly mothers, in creating English-rich environments at home, encompassing both practical aspects and emotional labor. The findings underscore the significance of parental involvement and emotional commitment in fostering bilingualism and language maintenance. The study also reveals that families’ English immersion efforts are deeply influenced by their own language-learning histories and aspirations for professional advancement, which shape their emotional investments in their children’s bilingual development. Additionally, it highlights the tensions and dilemmas parents face as they grapple with the challenges of implementing English immersion in monolingual households, often balancing their desires for linguistic capital with the practical realities of daily life.

Cocchi and Pierantozzi explore how members of the Albanian immigrant community in Italy use their heritage language, particularly focusing on how they mix Albanian and Italian within noun phrases (known as Determiner Phrases or DPs). The researchers used both sociolinguistic and grammatical approaches to understand when and why people switch between the two languages, how fluent they are in each, and how they feel about mixing languages. A key part of the study looked at whether it is socially and grammatically acceptable to combine an Italian article with an Albanian noun or vice versa. The study offers valuable insights into how bilingual individuals shift between two languages and how these practices reflect their evolving linguistic identities, thereby contributing to broader discussions on language use within immigrant communities.

Abdelsayed and Bellinzona examine the language attitudes of second-generation Arabic speakers in Italy, focusing on their perceptions of Italian, Standard Arabic (SA), and Arabic Dialects (DAs). The research reveals that while Italian is valued for its utility in social integration and daily communication, DA holds cultural significance within families and communities. SA, despite being less commonly used in everyday life, is respected for its role in formal and religious contexts. The findings highlight the complex interplay of these languages in shaping the identities and experiences of second-generation Arabic speakers in Italy. The study also highlights that Arabic dialects, while central to familial and cultural identity, often face marginalization in formal education settings and encounter social stigma. Furthermore, the authors advocate for educational reforms that treat Standard Arabic and Arabic dialects equitably, supporting their role in fostering inclusive and comprehensive linguistic–cultural integration.

The FLP and Heritage Language Maintenance section brings together studies that examine how immigrant and diaspora families actively negotiate the transmission of heritage languages across generations—highlighting the roles of parents (especially mothers), children’s agency, cultural engagement, digital communication, and the complex emotional and practical challenges involved in sustaining linguistic ties in diverse sociopolitical contexts.

Zabrodskaja, Meir, Karpava, Ritter, and Ringblom examine how the pandemic affected language use in Russian-speaking families across Cyprus, Estonia, Germany, Israel, and Sweden. Based on 50 interviews, their study shows that both parents and children played active roles in maintaining heritage and societal languages. Their study highlights how family language practices adapt during crises, emphasizing social and emotional factors in language transmission. Their study further reveals that the pandemic conditions provided children with new opportunities to exercise agency in their language and literacy choices, including increased communication with extended family members. This shift facilitated new sources of linguistic input, highlighting the active role of children as agents in shaping FLPs. Additionally, their research underscores the influence of extended family and social networks in maintaining heritage language practices during the pandemic.

Ramonienė and Ramonaitė explore how mothers influence the preservation of the Lithuanian language among families living outside Lithuania. They apply theories about family language practices to analyze data gathered between 2011 and 2017. Their research shows that children with Lithuanian mothers are more likely to identify with Lithuanian culture, learn the language as their first, speak it more often at home, and develop better language skills. These children also tend to have more favorable views about the Lithuanian language. However, when it comes to emotional attachment to the language, the ethnic background of the parents does not seem to make a big difference. Overall, the study highlights the significant role mothers play in maintaining a heritage language in immigrant families and points out the challenges they face in relation to this important responsibility.

Bloch investigates how Generation 1.5 parents—individuals who immigrated during their childhood or adolescence—manage multilingualism within their families in Finland. Focusing on Russian–Hebrew bilingual households, the research explores the strategies these parents employ to maintain their heritage languages while integrating into Finnish society. Through semi-structured interviews, the study examines aspects such as parental involvement, home environments, future planning, and the challenges faced in preserving Hebrew and Russian languages. The findings highlight the dynamic nature of language management in transnational families and the agency of Generation 1.5 parents in shaping their children’s linguistic identities. The study also reveals that Generation 1.5 parents often grapple with personal challenges, such as time constraints and retrospective regrets about not initiating heritage language instruction earlier, which impact their ability to maintain Russian and Hebrew language skills within the family.

Jakubek-Głąb investigates how Polish families in Finland maintain and transmit their heritage language across generation and examines the role of family dynamics, cultural practices, and societal factors in shaping language use within these households. The study highlights the strategies employed by Polish parents to foster Polish language proficiency in their children, despite the dominance of Finnish and Swedish in the broader societal context. The findings underscore the importance of family-centered language policies and cultural engagement in sustaining heritage languages in diaspora communities. The study also emphasizes the pivotal role of shared cultural practices—such as traditions, values, and identities—in reinforcing Polish language use within families, thereby enhancing its sustainability in the diaspora context. Moreover, it identifies effective strategies and interventions that can bolster the long-term vitality of the Polish language among diaspora communities.

Martena and Burr examine the challenges Latvian diaspora families face in maintaining Latvian as a heritage language. They highlight how parents use different strategies to encourage their children to speak Latvian, but strict enforcement can lead to conflict, while lack of rules risks language loss. The study shows that Latvian holds strong emotional and identity value for parents, but less so for children, who often prefer the dominant societal languages around them. Digital communication tools help maintain family connections but also present challenges, especially between children and grandparents. Their research emphasizes that language transmission is closely tied to family identity and cultural belonging, and that changes in family dynamics and social environment impact language use. Lastly, it contrasts with the older Baltic diaspora’s collective commitment to language preservation with the newer diaspora’s more individual focus on identity rather than proficiency.

The Identity, Language, and Sociolinguistic Dynamics in Youth section features a study which investigates how young people in multilingual Kazakhstan negotiate hybrid ethno-linguistic identities amid the tension between state-promoted Kazakh and the continued dominance of Russian in urban and academic spheres, shaped by family language practices and broader sociopolitical influences.

Using sociolinguistic methods and empirical data, Zharkynbekova, Ayupova, Galiyeva, Shakhputova, and Zabrodskaja look at how language skills, cultural heritage, and social factors influence young people’s sense of identity. Their research sheds light on the complex relationships between language, ethnicity, and identity, showing how these elements interact and evolve among youth in a multilingual environment. Their study also reveals that despite state-led efforts to elevate the status of the Kazakh language, many young people continue to cope with a complex linguistic landscape where Russian remains dominant in urban and academic settings. This duality fosters a hybrid ethno-linguistic identity among students, shaped by both official language policies and the practical realities of daily communication. Furthermore, their research highlights that family language practices and educational environments play pivotal roles in influencing language preferences and identity formation among Kazakhstani youth.

While this Special Issue provides a rich and multifaceted exploration of FLP and multilingualism across diverse contexts, several limitations warrant acknowledgment. First, despite the broad scope of geographic representation, key global regions—such as the Americas, Sub-Saharan Africa (beyond Namibia), and large parts of Asia—remain underrepresented. This limits the universality and comparative potential of the findings. Second, although the contributions are interdisciplinary, there is a relative predominance of qualitative approaches, which may constrain the generalizability of results. Quantitative and longitudinal studies, which are essential for tracking long-term outcomes in language maintenance and identity development, are notably scarce. Moreover, the focus on parental and educator perspectives, while valuable, often eclipses the voices and agency of children and adolescents—actors whose role in shaping family language practices deserves closer examination. Methodologically, reliance on self-reported data and case studies introduces potential subjectivity and selection biases, underscoring the need for triangulated and diversified approaches. Finally, while digital practices are briefly addressed, the rapidly evolving digital landscape and its influence on home language use remain insufficiently explored. These limitations not only highlight current gaps but also point to promising avenues for future research.

Building on the insights and findings presented in this Special Issue, future research on FLP and multilingualism should move in several critical directions. First, there is an urgent need for more longitudinal and mixed-methods studies to capture the dynamic, evolving nature of language practices, intergenerational transmission, and identity formation. Such approaches can better reflect the complex trajectories of multilingual families as they respond to shifting sociopolitical, educational, and technological contexts. Second, greater emphasis should be placed on the perspectives and agency of children and adolescents. Investigating how young multilinguals negotiate their linguistic environments—particularly in transnational and digitally mediated settings—would enrich our understanding of how language practices are shaped from within families rather than imposed upon them. Third, to broaden the global relevance of the field, research must expand to include currently underrepresented regions and languages, especially from the Americas, Sub-Saharan Africa, and South and Southeast Asia. Comparative studies across diverse political, migratory, and educational landscapes would strengthen theory-building and enhance policy applicability. Fourth, the role of digital technologies and media ecologies in home language practices should be examined more systematically. As families increasingly rely on digital platforms to maintain linguistic and familial ties—especially across borders—understanding how these tools mediate language use, learning, and identity becomes essential. Fifth, interdisciplinary collaboration should be further encouraged. Connecting FLP research with fields such as public health, mental health, and digital humanities can illuminate the broader socio-emotional and well-being impacts of multilingual family life, contributing to more integrated and responsive policy frameworks. Finally, future research should focus more explicitly on evaluating the impact of interventions and policy implementations. Studies that assess the effectiveness of community programs, educator training, and institutional planning in real-world contexts can translate theoretical insights into actionable strategies that support multilingual families and heritage language sustainability. By addressing these areas, the field can evolve in ways that are empirically robust, socially inclusive, and globally relevant—ensuring that FLP research continues to inform and empower families, educators, and policymakers in our increasingly interconnected and multilingual world.