Languages, Volume 10, Issue 5 (May 2025) – 31 articles

This paper offers a detailed description of the left periphery of embedded clauses in Vietnamese. Five kinds of pre-subject constituent are considered in isolation, and in interaction with one another: subordinating conjunctions; embedded topics; fronted quantifier expressions; fronted adverbials, and the Vietnamese equivalent of English why (Italian perché). A systematic comparison is made with the functional sequence of Italian, proposed in the cartographic literature. Whilst largely consistent with the Italian pattern, our findings diverge in certain respects, especially in suggesting a modification of previous treatments of the *‘why-to’ constraint observed in English and a number of other varieties. Full article

Reading comprehension in Chinese as a second language (L2 Chinese) presents unique challenges due to the language’s logographic writing system. Analysis of oral reading miscues reveals specific patterns in L2 learners’ reading processes and comprehension difficulties. Despite established theoretical frameworks for miscue analysis in alphabetic languages, empirical research on miscues in logographic systems such as Chinese remains limited, particularly regarding their relationship with reading comprehension. This study investigates the relationship between oral reading miscues and literal comprehension of Chinese texts among L2 Chinese learners. Sixty-six intermediate-level Chinese learners from U.S. universities participated in the study. Oral reading and sentence-level translation tasks were administered to examine miscues and assess comprehension. Through analyzing the oral reading data, we identified 14 types of oral reading miscues, and they were categorized into four categories: orthographic, syntactic, semantic, and word processing miscues. Results showed strong negative correlations between oral reading miscues and comprehension. Orthographic, syntactic, and semantic miscues were negatively correlated with reading comprehension performance, while word processing miscues showed no significant correlation with comprehension. The findings reveal the complex relationship between character recognition, word processing behaviors, and comprehension in L2 Chinese reading, and suggest a need for a nuanced approach to oral reading error correction in L2 Chinese reading instruction. Based on the findings, pedagogical implications for effective reading instruction and reading assessment in L2 Chinese classrooms are discussed. Full article

Several studies emphasize that the limited representation of Afro-Latinx communities in Spanish language curricula affects students’ understanding of the diversity in Spanish-speaking societies. However, research has yet to evaluate the impact of a curricular intervention incorporating an Afro-Latinx module into an L2 Spanish language course. The present study addresses two research questions: (1) what the changes in knowledge after implementing an Afro-Latinx module in an L2 Spanish language course are, and (2) how the module impacts students’ understanding of language variation and diversity in Afro-descendant communities. Guided by Critical Race Theory, Critical Language Awareness, and Raciolinguistics, this mixed methods study analyzed pre- and post-tests alongside journal reflections completed by 50 college students. The findings demonstrated significant improvements in students’ knowledge, indicating a strong association between the intervention and the observed increase in knowledge regarding the representation of Afro-Latinx communities. It also deepened students’ understanding of language variation within Afro-descendant communities and illustrated the role of language in deconstructing social hierarchies and enabling collective memory, resistance, and empowerment. Full article

Despite its demographic relevance, Spanish as an Immigrant Minority Language (IML) remains understudied in Europe. In Brussels, approximately 46,500 residents have Hispanic heritage, but their linguistic practices have largely remained unexplored in sociolinguistic research. This paper presents a pilot study on the language practices of the Hispanic communities in the city in order to assess language maintenance and vitality. Through an online survey among 125 adults with Hispanic heritage in Brussels, primarily first-generation immigrants, a highly multilingual sample was revealed, with most participants competent in at least four languages. While Spanish usage declines across generations, language competence remains high, with 60% of third-generation speakers still considering it one of their dominant languages. Findings challenge traditional minority–majority language maintenance perspectives, advocating for a multilingual approach to linguistic vitality. Patterns of language transmission, home language use, and integration highlight the communities’ adaptability while maintaining a connection to Spanish. Results point to unexplored sociolinguistic phenomena within the language minority, underscoring the need for further research on the Hispanic communities in Brussels. Full article

This study examined the pragmatic competence and awareness of L2 learners of English, with a focus on their request strategies in L2 English, levels of (in)directness, request perspective, internal and external modifications, and the impact of tasks. The participants comprised 80 Cypriot Greek (CG) undergraduate students. The pragmatic tests were designed based on Speech Act Theory and included discourse completion tasks (DCTs) and multiple-choice questionnaires (MCQs). Additionally, a role-play and an interview task were employed to assess L2 learners’ pragmatic competence in oral discourse. The tasks featured four conditions related to power and social distance: [+social distance, status equals], [−social distance, status equals], [+social distance, hearer dominance], and [−social distance, hearer dominance]. Overall, the results indicated that L2 learners of English tended to prefer conventionally indirect requests, suggesting that L1 linguistic and cultural backgrounds influence expressions of politeness. Face-threatening situations with a high degree of imposition elicited more conventionally indirect requests. Data analysis revealed contextual variation but not a clear task effect. Factors such as social distance, hearer dominance, power, familiarity, and imposition impacted the degree of (in)directness, request perspective, and both internal and external modifications. Full article

In this article, I respond to six peer commentaries of my essay in Languages 2024, containing an update of BLC Theory. I address the following issues: embedding BLC Theory in more than one metatheory; the match between the theory and usage-based models; the importance of processing pressures; the distinction between BLC and ELC; the study of heritage languages; the roles of cognitive factors in L1 and L2 attainment. Full article

We examine variable first-person singular subject pronoun expression in Spanish learner data to investigate the effects of study abroad in Mexico and Spain on the acquisition of sociolinguistic variation. In addition to exploring pre- and post-study abroad effects, this work considers whether such impacts wane over time after the study abroad experience. We include in the analyses novel usage-based factors estimating lexically specific usage patterns. We conduct a mixed-effects linear regression model predicting overt yo (‘I’) expression. Results indicate that overt yo expression is more likely after studying abroad (compared to pre-study abroad). Additionally, learners acquire a usage-based pattern of variation evident after the study abroad experience. This effect is not just apparent immediately after studying abroad, but it persists in data collected after a time delay. Full article

This study investigates how sociolinguistically informed instruction and virtual exchanges affect the use of the second-person singular pronouns (usted, tú, and vos) by adult second language learners of Spanish enrolled in a third-semester course at a four-year college. The results from written contextualized tasks and oral discourse completion tasks show that participants who engaged in virtual exchanges with native speakers from Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador (experimental group) significantly improved their use of vos compared to those who did not participate in these exchanges (control group). Both groups increased their use of tú and vos over time, with notable differences between written and oral tasks. These findings provide empirical support for incorporating virtual exchanges into language learning curricula, demonstrating their effectiveness in teaching regional dialectal features such as voseo. Additionally, by focusing on the often-overlooked regionally variable pronoun vos, this study enriches the existing literature on Spanish language instruction and opens new avenues for research on dialectal variation and sociolinguistically informed pedagogy. Full article

Over the past 20 years, researchers have shown increasing interest in social network analysis to understand second language acquisition (SLA), especially in a study abroad (SA) context. To date, few longitudinal studies have examined the joint evolution of the learners’ sociolinguistic competence and socialisation during the SA. By shifting the focus from a global view of the study abroad context to a deep analysis of the composition and structure of each learner’ social networks in the host country, we aim to provide a better understanding of the development of sociolinguistic competence in SLA (Gautier & Chevrot, 2015). We apply the sociological concept of a social network to sociolinguistics. To explore the sociolinguistic competence of 29 learners, we focus on two well-described sociolinguistic variables in French: the optional liaison and the negative ne. We also gathered data on their social networks and provided a deep analysis of each participant’s network. We implemented a quantitative approach to analyse and depict the social networks of the learners. Statistically significant relationships were found between changes in the learners’ personal network and their use of the two sociolinguistic variables. The development of L2-oriented social networks (in terms of size, speaking time, and frequency) over nine months of the SA helps learners to reduce their use of standard variants. Conversely, the development of L1-oriented social networks during the SA is associated with greater use of standard variants. Full article

Previous studies have found that second language learners can acquire sociolinguistic variation. However, there is a lack of studies that examine the L2 acquisition of second-person singular forms of address (2PS) in Spanish, especially in the immersion context of study abroad. The current study examines the acquisition of Spanish 2PS by seven adults learning Spanish in Medellin, Colombia. Participants completed an oral discourse completion task and a matched guise task to measure language perceptions toward each 2PS. Learners’ results are compared to findings from 38 native Spanish speakers from Medellin. Learners produced very few instances of the local variant vos and overproduced tú, differing greatly from native speakers. Two factors were found to significantly condition 2PS usage for learners: speaker gender and interlocutor relationship. Findings show that although learners perceive vos to a somewhat native-like extent and the role that it plays in the local variety, learners do not actually use it. Full article

Learning a language means both mastering the grammatical structures and using contextually appropriate language, or developing sociolinguistic competence, which has been examined by measuring the native-like patterns of sociolinguistic variables. This study investigates subject personal pronoun expression (SPE) variation in Mandarin by young adult and child heritage language learners (or Chinese Heritage Language, CHL) and explores the development of sociolinguistic competence. With data collected from 15 young adults and 27 children, regression analyses show that internal linguistic constraints, psychophysiological constraints, and social constraints all significantly affect SPE variation in CHL. Overall, CHL children used fewer subject pronouns than young adults. The use of pronouns in both child language and young adult speech is constrained by similar factors. However, the difference in SPE patterns between the two groups was not statistically significant. This suggests that children may have already established some adult-like variation patterns, but these are not further developed until early adulthood. By exploring the development of sociolinguistic competence, this research contributes to the current understanding of how sociolinguistic variables are acquired and employed in heritage language at different developmental stages. Full article

For heritage speakers (HSs), expectations of influence from the community’s dominant language are pervasive. An alternative account for heritage language variability is that HSs are demonstrating sociolinguistic competence: HSs may either initiate or carry forward a pattern of variation from the homeland variety. We illustrate the importance of this consideration, querying whether /u/-fronting in Heritage Korean is best interpreted as influence from Toronto English, where /u/-fronting also occurs, or a continuation of an ongoing vowel shift in Homeland (Seoul) Korean that also involves /ɨ/-fronting and /o/-fronting. How can patterns of social embedding untangle this question that is central to better understanding sociolinguistic competence in HSs? For Korean vowels produced in sociolinguistic interviews by Heritage (8 adult immigrants, 8 adult children of immigrants) and 10 Homeland adults, F1 and F2 were measured (13,232 tokens of /o/, 6810 tokens of /u/, and 20,637 tokens of /ɨ/), normalized and subjected to linear regression. Models predict effects of gender, age, orientation toward Korean language and culture, the speaker’s average F2 for the other shifting vowels, and duration. These models highlight HS’s sociolinguistic competence: Heritage speakers share linguistic and social patterns with Homeland Korean speakers that are absent in English. Additionally, heritage speakers lack the effects of factors attested in the English change. Full article

Subject pronoun expression (SPE) has been widely studied as a sociolinguistic variable across a range of languages. However, previous research has primarily focused on production, leaving the perception of subject pronouns largely unexplored. The perception of sociolinguistic variants not only reflects unconscious judgments towards linguistic features but also unveils the social meanings associated with these features. This study explores the perception of SPE in Mandarin by native and non-native listeners. 262 participants (185 native and 77 non-native) were recruited for Mandarin SPE perception tasks in which participants needed to rate the appropriate use of SPE in given contexts. Mixed-effects regression models reveal that native and non-native Mandarin listeners shared similar perception patterns of SPE. SPE rate serves as a significant structural constraint for both native and non-native perception. However, these two groups differ in that person of the subject and L2 experience play a key role in native perception, whereas non-native listeners demonstrated greater sensitivity to gender as a social factor. To what extent production and perception may interact is further discussed. This study contributes to the current understanding of sociolinguistics and second language acquisition by providing empirical evidence of SPE perception, adopting innovative approaches to examine variation perception, addressing the differences between native and non-native patterns of perceptual variation, and exploring the connection between variation production and perception. Full article

Recent studies on agglutinative languages, such as Japanese, Finnish, and Turkish, have reported case marking deficits in children with developmental language disorder.In this study, we investigate case marking in bilingual children speaking Turkish as a heritage language in Germany in comparison to those in France and the U.S. and late successive bilinguals in Germany. The research focuses on the potential use of case marking to identify developmental language disorder in Turkish as a heritage language. In this study, we compare data obtained from 73 children with and without developmental language disorder (age 5;1–11;6) that speak Turkish as a heritage language to those obtained from 10 late successive bilinguals (age range 7;12–12;2) in Germany, France, and the U.S., analyzing case marking and the possessive markers included in genitive–possessive constructions and using both standard and heritage Turkish as reference varieties. The results show that the groups differ significantly (p < 0.05) regarding the use of case and possessive markers. Current first language use is the leading predictor of performance in case marker production in the TEDİL when using heritage Turkish as the reference variety in scoring. The results demonstrate that children with developmental language disorder that speak heritage Turkish produce fewer case markers and show higher rates of omission and substitution errors, particularly in accusative/dative and genitive markers, thus confirming the results of previous research. The omission of possessive and genitive markers in simpler structures may serve as a clinical marker of developmental language disorder, allowing for children with typical language development that speak heritage Turkish to be distinguished from those with a developmental language disorder. Full article

This study investigates the complex dynamics of Kazakh–English bilingualism, the influence of technology on language promotion, and regional variations in language attitudes across Kazakhstan. Using a structured online survey, data were collected from 1000 respondents representing all regions of the country, providing insights into language competence, daily communication preferences, attitudes toward bilingualism, and the role of technology in language development. Quantitative analysis, including descriptive statistics, cross-tabulation, and Chi-square tests, was conducted to identify significant trends and patterns. The findings highlight Kazakhstan’s evolving language environment, where bilingualism and multilingualism thrive alongside initiatives to strengthen Kazakh language use through technological advancements. This study underscores the need for balanced language policies that embrace linguistic diversity while fostering the development of the national language in an increasingly globalized world. Full article

This study explores rhythm metrics as a sociolinguistic marker in Philippine English (PhE), addressing gaps in understanding rhythmic variation in Southeast Asian Englishes. It aims to uncover how rhythmic patterns reflect sociolectal identities within a multilingual context. Using acoustic data from 30 participants in Manila, rhythm metrics (%V, ΔV, ΔC, nPVI, and rPVI) were analyzed to examine rhythmic tendencies. The findings reveal distinct patterns: PhE acrolect aligns with stress-timed rhythms of general American English, PhE basilect reflects syllable-timed features similar to Spanish, and PhE mesolect occupies a hybrid position blending elements of both. By emphasizing rhythm as a key identifier of sociolectal variation, this study advances the understanding of linguistic diversity in World Englishes and provides a novel framework for exploring identity in multilingual settings. Full article

This commentary critically engages with Hulstijn’s revised Basic Language Cognition (BLC) Theory, which aims to enhance explanatory power and falsifiability regarding individual differences (IDs) in language proficiency across native and non-native speakers. While commending BLC Theory’s emphasis on separating oral and written language cognition, we raise two key concerns. First, we question the theory’s exclusive alignment with usage-based approaches, arguing that its core constructs are, in principle, compatible with multiple meta-theoretical frameworks, including generative ones. As such, BLC Theory should remain neutral to maximize its cross-paradigmatic utility. Second, we address the theory’s treatment of heritage speaker bilinguals (HSs), particularly the implication that they may not typically acquire BLC. We contend that this position overlooks robust empirical evidence demonstrating that HSs develop systematic, rule-governed grammars influenced by their individual input and usage conditions. Moreover, we highlight how IDs among HSs can provide a valuable testing ground for BLC Theory, particularly regarding the role of input and literacy. We conclude that embracing theory neutrality and integrating diverse speaker data—especially from heritage bilinguals—can enhance BLC Theory’s generalizability, empirical relevance, and theoretical utility across language acquisition research. Full article

Hulstijn’s BLC Theory proposes a dissociation between cognitive individual differences and two types of cognition—the cognition of oral language and the cognition of written language. Specifically, cognitive IDs are expected to affect the acquisition of reading and writing skills in both native and non-native speakers, but not the acquisition of speech comprehension and speech production in either native or non-native speakers. This commentary will discuss the potential and the limitations of these predictions and will suggest directions for future empirical research in the context of BLC Theory. Full article

While speakers of German have adopted many loanwords from other languages throughout history, recent diversification of language use in Germany is mainly driven by the global mobility of English. Previous research has therefore focused on various domains in which English linguistic resources are used, particularly in traditional media and social media communication. Furthermore, many studies on social media communication have also examined English language internet memes more broadly. Despite this plethora of research, little attention has been paid to how English is used in internet memes and reels produced by professional journalists in Germany. Playing a significant role in communication amongst young people, internet memes and reels are used by many German youth media organisations. In particular for youth radio stations in Germany, which have become multimedia outlets, online communication via Instagram is vital for their audience interaction. This paper examines the use of English linguistic resources in a professionally produced Instagram corpus of internet meme and reel captions produced by journalists working for one of the largest youth radio stations in Germany. Data for the analysis of Instagram content were collected as part of the larger ethnographic research project CIDoRA (funded by the European Union). For this project, a mixed methods approach was applied. Methods of data collection and analysis include linguistic ethnography both at the youth radio station and on the station’s Instagram profile page, informal interviews and 20 semi-structured interviews with journalists, and a quantitative and qualitative analysis of 980 meme and reel captions produced for the station’s Instagram profile. Since the youth radio station’s Instagram profile functions as a means of the station’s online self-advertisement, the analysis of this article also draws on a previous study by the researcher. This study analysed possible facilitating factors for the use of catachrestic and non-catachrestic anglicisms in radio station imaging (radio self-advertisement) of six German adult contemporary radio stations. The article therefore includes an analysis of the possible facilitating factors lexical field, brevity of expression, diachronic development of the pragmatic value of lexical items and semantic reasons for the use of English in Instagram content. It thereby explores the differences in anglicism use between these two media formats (radio broadcasting and social media communication) and whether possible facilitating factors for the use of English in adult contemporary radio station imaging are also facilitating factors for the use of English in meme and reel captions produced by the youth radio station. Full article

In his update on Basic Language Cognition (BLC), Hulstijn formulates a number of predictions derived from BLC Theory, and explains how BLC differs from Extended Language Cognition (ELC). BLC is used to refer to an individual’s capacity to process spoken language productively and receptively in everyday life, while ELC is defined as control of the written standard language, as taught in school. In the literature on heritage speakers, so far surprisingly little attention has been paid to the differences between BLC and ELC, despite the relevance of the distinction between oral and written language for our understanding of heritage speakers’ language profiles. In this commentary, I argue that BLC Theory can be used to inform studies of heritage languages, and conversely, how insights from heritage languages can be used to develop BLC Theory further. By way of example, I revisit some of the literature on subordination in Turkish as a heritage language. I also point to issues that need to be clarified and future directions in the study of these phenomena. Full article

Although verb clusters in Continental West Germanic varieties are a well-researched topic, their derivation and the possible functions of their variants are still not yet fully understood. Both issues are discussed in the present paper, which is based on the translations of 46 English, Spanish, or Portuguese stimulus sentences by 321 North and South American speakers of Mennonite Low German. In order to analyze the variation in clause-final two-verb clusters, we focus on three structural factors, namely (i) the auxiliary verb, (ii) the structural link between the auxiliary verb and the main verb, and (iii) the type of the subordinate clause in which the cluster occurs. Regarding the first and the second factor, we will employ the cartographic approach in order to explain the impact of different auxiliary verbs. Regarding the third factor, it is somewhat surprising that the potential effect of the subordinate clause on the distribution of different cluster variants has received little attention in the research literature. Clause type will be shown to have such an effect and, therefore, we will assume that the speakers of MLG use different variants deliberately to indicate different degrees of clausal integration. Full article

This paper presents findings from an interview study of practices of home language socialization and maintenance of German among German-speaking migrants in northern Finland. The focus of the analysis was on the importance of the minority language German in families, the role of the regional varieties of German, different ways of socializing children with German, and informal and formal means of German language development and instruction reported by nine German-speaking parents and two bilingual teenagers in semi-structured interviews. Thematic analyses of the data showed that there are different beliefs and practices about home language acquisition and maintenance and language socialization in the family, but also similar challenges. The place of residence did indeed play an important role, as home language instruction was rarely offered, and contact with other German-speaking or multilingual families was often very limited. Some children therefore attend German-as-a-foreign-language classes at school, which was perceived as a challenge by some of the interviewees. Nevertheless, inclusive solutions could help multilingual children, even in rural regions, maintain and develop their home language. Full article

The present study aimed to enhance the understanding of the spelling processes used by young German-speaking learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). Specifically, we sought to (1) compare the children’s accuracy in spelling English real words versus pseudowords to elucidate the role of lexical and sublexical knowledge, and (2) determine which cognitive (phonological awareness, phonological short-term memory, working memory, nonverbal intelligence) and linguistic skills (English receptive grammar and vocabulary) underlie learners’ spelling abilities and misspellings (phonological and orthographic). We followed participants (N = 101) for two years, from the beginning of grade 3 to the end of grade 4. Cognitive skills and linguistic abilities were determined using standardized assessment procedures. Our results indicate that the learners in our study demonstrated greater accuracy in spelling English real words compared to pseudowords. English grammar knowledge significantly predicted real word and pseudoword spelling accuracy, as well as the number of phonological errors, which was the predominant error category. English vocabulary knowledge was a predictor for real word spelling, while nonverbal intelligence predicted pseudoword spelling accuracy. Phonological short-term memory positively predicted the number of orthographic errors (phonologically plausible misspellings but lacking orthographic conventions). Full article

The present cross-sectional study assessed the role of multimodal cues in marking focus types during early childhood, focusing on prosodic prominence, gesture presence, and gestural prominence. A total of 116 Catalan-speaking three-, four- and five-year-olds participated in a semi-controlled interactive task eliciting words in three focus conditions: information, contrastive, and corrective. The data were coded manually using holistic assessments for all three measures. The results indicated, first, that children’s prosodic and gestural behavior was key in marking corrective focus. A significant tendency to use more gestures and increase both prosodic and gestural prominence was found in the corrective focus condition across the three age groups. Second, a developmental difference emerged in the acquisition of contrastive focus. Three-year-olds relied solely on gesture presence to encode contrastive focus, being unable to differentiate it prosodically from information focus. In turn, four- and five-year-olds used both gestures and prosody, with contrastive focus not only receiving more gestures than information focus but also increased prosodic prominence. This finding shows that gesture presence is a precursor to prosodic prominence in marking contrastive focus in Catalan, thus supporting the idea that gesture production can bootstrap the expression of focus type distinctions. Full article

The present paper addresses the aspectual categories of modern Bulgarian: viewpoint aspect (imperfective vs. perfective), temporal aspect (imperfect vs. aorist), and perfect aspect. More precisely, it concerns their morphological encoding, hierarchical relation, semantic contributions, and interaction. Within a compositional interval-relational framework, the study puts forward a synthesis of existing accounts so as to capture the Bulgarian aspect system as a whole. Among other things, it reveals that ‘aorist’ is a largely illusional grammatical entity, and demonstrates how an interval-relational analysis of the perfect can solve some puzzles associated with the so-called evidential moods. Full article

This study investigates the development of the lateral fricatives and affricates, to which we jointly refer as ‘lateral obstruents’, in Nguni (S40) languages of Southern Africa. These lateral obstruents, which include /ɬ, ⁿɬ, ɮ, ⁿɮ, k͡ʟ̝̊/, are rare in the Bantu language family, and are not reconstructed for Proto-Bantu. Lateral obstruents are also rare cross-linguistically. They do occur, however, in four sub-branches of Southern Bantu: Shona, Sotho-Tswana, Nguni, and Tsonga. In this paper, we study how Southern Bantu could have acquired such a large inventory of cross-linguistically rare phonemes by investigating their development in Nguni languages, a large but closely related cluster of languages in which lateral obstruents are very frequent. We analyze published data from nine Nguni languages, including languages for which the only available descriptions are dated or of limited scope, in which case we carefully assess the data and their analysis. On the basis of this large database, we show which lateral obstruents are used in Nguni, and the vocabulary in which they occur. Applying the Comparative Method, we show that alveolar lateral obstruents can be reconstructed to Proto-Nguni, where they are the regular reflex of Proto-Bantu palatals *c and *j. The velar lateral affricate, in contrast, cannot be reconstructed to Proto-Nguni, and finds its origin in loanwords, for example, from Khoe languages, where it is used as a click replacement strategy. As a result, we conclude that both inheritance and contact played a role in the development of lateral obstruents in Nguni, likely combined in the case of alveolar lateral obstruents. In order to better understand the contact history, we evaluate existing hypothesized contact scenarios to account for the presence of lateral obstruents in Southern Bantu or Nguni. Given that alveolar lateral obstruents result from a regular sound change, contact does not seem to be as prominent in the development of lateral obstruents as has been proposed before in the literature. This study lays the groundwork for future research into lateral obstruents in Southern Bantu. Full article

In linguistically diverse and multilingual South African communities, it is common to use non-standard language varieties (NSLVs), often called mixed languages, as lingua franca. These NSLVs are primarily spoken in black townships throughout South Africa. Previous studies show that the discursive production of oral narratives impacts the development and use of higher-order language processing, as they require the knowledge, language skills and abilities to produce coherent discourse. The main focus of the existing literature in oral narrative is mostly on standard languages. In this study, we explore how speakers of Sepitori, a non-standard language variety (NSLV), produce an oral narrative compared to Sesotho, a standard language. The current study investigates the oral narrative production of a total number of 20 participants who are adult speakers of Sesotho and Sepitori (ten from each language). The Sesotho speakers were bilingual speakers of English and Sesotho. The Sepitori speakers were multilingual speakers of English, Sesotho, Zulu and other languages spoken in the Mamelodi township. This study used a mixed methodology of quantitative and qualitative analysis. Narratives were annotated for language complexity in the macro- and microstructure elements: the length and type of clause, pragmatic acts, referential lexical choices and code-switched words. Sepitori speakers produced narratives characterised by interactive clauses unrelated to the narrative level and with a greater range of lexical referents, showcasing more individual linguistic variation. Sesotho speakers produced a more sequential oral narrative in line with story schema with fewer interjections to the researcher. In an increasingly linguistically heterogeneous South Africa, more research is required to gain insights into how multilingual individuals develop and refine their narrative skills, emphasising the much-needed focus on NSLV from a psycholinguistic perspective, which may ultimately inform tools of assessment for multilingual children and adults in social, clinical and academic contexts. Full article

This article aims to increase our understanding of the syntax of manner modification by examining it from the perspective of the syntax of anaphoric dependencies. It is proposed that the two grammatical dependencies share certain abstract formal properties and are governed by the same type of principle governing the computational system of human language. Building on the so-called IDI constraint (Inability to Distinguish Indistinguishables), it is proposed that the Computational system of Human Language (C_HL) is unable to distinguish two predicates—for example, a verbal predicate and an adjectival one—if they are in a local domain. Specifically, an adjectival predicate (e.g., quick) cannot merge directly with a verbal predicate (e.g., walk). The C_HL can only deal with two predicates if their linguistic environment allows them to be distinguished as different occurrences. This formal distinctness can be achieved by means of various licensing strategies, including so-called protection, which is a formal strategy that turns the modifier (e.g., quick) into a more complex syntactic object (e.g., quick+-ly). It is shown that the various morpho-syntactic implementations of the protection strategy are quite similar for Rreflexivization and for Manner Modification: (grammaticalized) body nouns, doubling pronouns, and adpositional material can be used for making the dependent element (i.e., the anaphor; the manner modifier) more complex. It is further proposed that superficially bare manner modifiers (e.g., fast) are actually complex syntactic objects, where the complexity comes from the (hidden) presence of a silent element. Full article

While it has been pointed out that identity is complex, unfixed and intersectional in nature, many studies tend to be restricted by their very conceptualisation of identity, which projects a sense of purism and essentialism rooted in Global North epistemologies. In this article, we consider the concept of (diasporic) identity and discuss how labels and categories of identity often prescribed to a community can and should be deconstructed for social justice purposes. We demonstrate this by examining the translanguaging practices of six Malaysian and Singaporean speakers of English in relation to their identity perception and construction. Although these multilingual speakers seemed to regard their use of multiple languages as fixed and bounded, they all showed, to varying degrees, a flexible languaging approach. The findings also suggested a defiance of expected categories of identity defined by the Global North, such as racialised language use and diasporic identity. We suggest that these prescriptive named categories are not useful in describing identities and question the labels and categories used to construct ‘identity’. We conclude by arguing for an ‘oceanic’ approach to identity, one that emphasises the fluidity, interconnectedness and boundless potential of identity to challenge oppressive structures and contribute to a more just and equitable world. Full article