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J. Intell.
Volume 14
Issue 8
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J. Intell., Volume 14, Issue 8 (August 2026) – 39 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Can we trust our creative insights? While a large body of research suggests that Aha! moments predict accuracy on convergent problems, the present research tests if the diagnostic role of insight extends to divergent problems, which have many solutions and no immediate standard of accuracy. Study 1 reanalyzes daily diary data from professional writers and physicists, used as real-world proxies for divergent and convergent domains, while Study 2 explores the association between insight intensity and idea quality on laboratory measures of convergent and divergent thinking. Across studies, we find converging evidence of an Aha! glow in divergent contexts, by which strong insights bias perceptions of idea quality. Nonetheless, insights may retain an adaptive value in divergent contexts by motivating sustained engagement in creative endeavors. View this paper
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27 pages, 6809 KB  
Article
Beyond Static Snapshots: Assessing Critical Thinking Ability Through Iterative Argumentation Processes
by Liming Jiang, Fang Luo and Xuetao Tian
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080190 - 19 Aug 2026
Viewed by 284
Abstract
In an era of information explosion and overload, individuals face a constant influx of mixed-quality, contradictory data. Navigating this complex landscape requires critical thinking, which enables individuals to dynamically adjust their reasoning and refine judgments. Consequently, accurately measuring this dynamic ability is essential. [...] Read more.
In an era of information explosion and overload, individuals face a constant influx of mixed-quality, contradictory data. Navigating this complex landscape requires critical thinking, which enables individuals to dynamically adjust their reasoning and refine judgments. Consequently, accurately measuring this dynamic ability is essential. However, existing assessments predominantly focus on single-round argumentation and fail to capture the iterative process, potentially yielding unrepresentative evaluations of real-world performance. To address this gap, this study develops the Iterative Argumentation Task (IAT), a novel assessment tool that presents participants with a sequence of interrelated passages simulating real-world information flow. By capturing the process of evaluation, position changes, and argument revisions, the IAT evaluates three ability dimensions: single-round argument analysis, inter-argument relationship analysis, and argument integration. We recruited 355 undergraduates to validate the IAT. Confirmatory factor analysis provided evidence for the proposed measurement structure. Furthermore, correlations with established critical thinking and reasoning tests demonstrated convergent and discriminant validity, respectively. Moreover, performance differences between the undergraduates and 33 debaters established known-groups validity. Finally, latent profile analysis identified four distinct profiles across the IAT dimensions. Together, these findings establish the IAT as a theoretically sound and practically effective tool for assessing critical thinking. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Contributions to the Measurement of Intelligence)
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15 pages, 1456 KB  
Systematic Review
Artificial Intelligence in Informal Digital Learning of English: A Systematic Review of Engagement Mechanisms and Learning Processes in Intelligent Learning Systems
by Lihang Guan and Qingbo Yang
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080189 - 18 Aug 2026
Viewed by 398
Abstract
Artificial intelligence (AI) creates personalized, interactive, and low-risk learning opportunities for informal digital learning of English (IDLE). However, effective AI tools do not necessarily lead learners to engage autonomously or productively. Guided by the person–behavior–environment framework of social cognitive theory, this systematic review [...] Read more.
Artificial intelligence (AI) creates personalized, interactive, and low-risk learning opportunities for informal digital learning of English (IDLE). However, effective AI tools do not necessarily lead learners to engage autonomously or productively. Guided by the person–behavior–environment framework of social cognitive theory, this systematic review synthesized 58 empirical studies published in SSCI-indexed journals between 2020 and 2025 to examine how AI affordances are translated into learning behaviors and intelligence-related processes in AI-mediated IDLE. Speech recognition, natural language processing, and personalized feedback were the most frequently investigated affordances, providing opportunities to observe, imitate, and adapt authentic language use. Engagement was mediated primarily by emotional, motivational, and self-belief mechanisms. These mechanisms could facilitate or hinder engagement depending on technological accuracy, perceived human responsiveness, learner goals, and proficiency-task alignment. From an intelligence perspective, the findings illustrate how learners evaluate AI-generated information, regulate affect and motivation, calibrate self-perceptions, and adapt learning behaviors. Thus, AI-mediated IDLE may serve as a site for activating adaptive intelligence and learner self-regulation through context-sensitive evaluation, regulation, and behavioral adaptation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Informal Digital Language Learning as a Site for Activating and Developing Intelligence)
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18 pages, 1472 KB  
Article
Self-Efficacy as a Common Pathway: How Non-Cognitive Individual Differences Shape Academic Procrastination
by Şule Betül Tosuntaş
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080188 - 17 Aug 2026
Viewed by 302
Abstract
Academic procrastination is a widespread self-regulatory failure among university students and a costly one for both academic achievement and psychological well-being. In this study, procrastination was examined within the framework of non-cognitive individual differences. The model tested here posits that perfectionism and locus [...] Read more.
Academic procrastination is a widespread self-regulatory failure among university students and a costly one for both academic achievement and psychological well-being. In this study, procrastination was examined within the framework of non-cognitive individual differences. The model tested here posits that perfectionism and locus of control affect procrastination through negative automatic thoughts and general self-efficacy. These variable-centered analyses were then complemented with a person-centered approach in order to capture distinct risk profiles. Cross-sectional data were collected from 1003 Turkish university students (71.5% women; Mage = 21.93 years) and analyzed with structural equation modeling, latent profile analysis (LPA), and random forest regression. The structural model accounted for 62% of variance in procrastination (CFI = 0.958, RMSEA = 0.074). Based on these results, general self-efficacy was identified as a common pathway through which distal non-cognitive influences converge on procrastination. The direct effect of automatic thoughts was non-significant, whereas the indirect effect through self-efficacy was strong (indirect effect = 0.51, 95% CI [0.44, 0.58]). LPA identified three profiles: adaptive, average, and vulnerable; the vulnerable profile showed markedly higher procrastination than the adaptive profile (d = 1.21). Random forest analysis indicated no meaningful nonlinearity, with self-efficacy as the dominant predictor. These findings suggest that interventions may benefit from prioritizing general self-efficacy beliefs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intelligent Mind in Action: Perspectives on Self-Regulation, Metacognition, and Emotion in Cognitive Performance)
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21 pages, 2382 KB  
Article
Virtual Reality-Based Orienteering Training Improves Spatial Memory in College Students with Operationally Defined DTD-like Navigational Difficulties: fNIRS Correlates of Training-Related Cortical Adaptation
by Yang Liu, Heying Liu and Pengyang Kang
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080187 - 16 Aug 2026
Viewed by 228
Abstract
Background: Developmental topographical disorientation (DTD)-like navigational difficulties can impair everyday orientation and spatial information processing. Objective: We examined whether 8-week virtual reality (VR) orienteering training improves performance on a laboratory spatial memory task in college students with operationally defined DTD-like navigational difficulties and [...] Read more.
Background: Developmental topographical disorientation (DTD)-like navigational difficulties can impair everyday orientation and spatial information processing. Objective: We examined whether 8-week virtual reality (VR) orienteering training improves performance on a laboratory spatial memory task in college students with operationally defined DTD-like navigational difficulties and examined task-related cortical changes. Methods: In a randomized controlled trial, 96 students were assigned to VR orienteering, VR exercise, or control groups (n = 32/group). The exercise groups trained twice weekly for 45 min for 8 weeks at moderate intensity (64–76% HRmax). Before and after the intervention, all participants completed a delayed visuospatial recognition task designed to assess spatial-memory-related processing, while functional near-infrared spectroscopy measured hemodynamic changes in prefrontal and sensorimotor cortices. The post-test session was conducted 48 h after the final scheduled session, with no immediate post-exercise assessment. Results: VR orienteering produced greater improvement in spatial-memory-task accuracy and reaction time than the other groups. After BH-FDR correction across eight ROIs, training-specific reductions in task-related activation were observed in the right primary motor cortex and left frontopolar area. Within the VR orienteering group, pre-to-post change in left orbitofrontal activation was negatively associated with change in spatial-memory-task accuracy, Pearson r(30) = −0.819, 95% CI [−0.908, −0.658], p < 0.001, R2 = 0.670; the association remained significant after eight-ROI BH-FDR correction (adjusted p < 0.001). Conclusions: VR orienteering improved performance on the laboratory spatial memory task and was accompanied by reduced task-related cortical recruitment. Greater reductions in L-OFC activation were linked to greater improvements in accuracy, identifying L-OFC activation change as a neural correlate of training-related spatial-memory improvement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Intelligence: Cognitive, Emotional, and Neural Mechanisms)
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16 pages, 1440 KB  
Article
Enhancing Human Cognitive Performance Through Physical Activity: Effect of Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity on Executive Function in Chinese Adolescents
by Yuan Liu, Chenyang Zhao, Zheping Gu, Hong Jun, Yanyan Hu, He Liu and Xiaojian Yin
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080186 - 12 Aug 2026
Viewed by 449
Abstract
Executive function (EF) is a core component of human cognitive performance. This study investigated whether increasing the duration of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) could enhance this critical cognitive ability in Chinese adolescents. Adolescents (13.4 ± 0.5 years) from two secondary schools in Jiangsu [...] Read more.
Executive function (EF) is a core component of human cognitive performance. This study investigated whether increasing the duration of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) could enhance this critical cognitive ability in Chinese adolescents. Adolescents (13.4 ± 0.5 years) from two secondary schools in Jiangsu Province were recruited, screened, and individually randomized into an intervention group (n = 101) and a control group (n = 105); after three withdrawals, the final analytical sample comprised 98 and 105 participants, respectively. EF was compared using independent and paired sample t-tests, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), and effect size tests. Post-intervention, adolescents in the intervention group showed a significantly longer daily MVPA duration than the control group (mean difference 25.16 min, p < 0.05). As an exploratory analysis, sex-stratified ANCOVAs were conducted. After adjusting for pre-intervention inhibition control reaction times (RTs), ANCOVA revealed that boys in the intervention group had a lower mean inhibition control RT (1.03 ms lower than controls, p < 0.05). With pre-intervention 2-back RTs as a covariate, ANCOVA indicated significant reductions in mean 2-back RTs for intervention group boys (191.09 ms lower, p < 0.05) and girls (175.62 ms lower, p < 0.05). After adjusting for pre-intervention cognitive flexibility RTs, boys in the intervention group also exhibited a significantly lower mean cognitive flexibility RT (102.7 ms lower, p < 0.05). In conclusion, a combined aerobic and resistance (HIIT) exercise intervention effectively increased adolescents’ physical activity time, and concurrent improvements were observed in key components of human cognitive performance—specifically inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility in boys and working memory in girls. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Intelligence: Cognitive, Emotional, and Neural Mechanisms)
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18 pages, 994 KB  
Article
Generative AI as an External Cognitive Tool: Cognitive Dependence, AI Literacy, and Perceived Academic Creativity
by Wenzhang Li, Weida Zhang, Mengling Li and Yi Zhang
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080185 - 11 Aug 2026
Viewed by 497
Abstract
Generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) provides a new context for examining how external intelligent systems are associated with human cognitive agency and perceived creative intellectual functioning. Drawing on cognitive offloading theory and AI literacy research, this cross-sectional study tested a moderated mediation model linking [...] Read more.
Generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) provides a new context for examining how external intelligent systems are associated with human cognitive agency and perceived creative intellectual functioning. Drawing on cognitive offloading theory and AI literacy research, this cross-sectional study tested a moderated mediation model linking GenAI use intensity, GenAI cognitive dependence, AI literacy, and perceived academic creativity. Survey data were collected from 936 undergraduates at six universities in China. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the empirical distinctiveness of the four focal constructs, and latent structural equation modeling was used to examine the hypothesized associations. GenAI use intensity showed a positive direct association with perceived academic creativity and a positive association with GenAI cognitive dependence; cognitive dependence was negatively associated with perceived academic creativity. The standardized direct and indirect associations operated in opposite directions, leaving a small model-implied net association (β ≈ 0.040). AI literacy was negatively associated with cognitive dependence and positively associated with perceived academic creativity. The use-dependence association was weaker at higher levels of AI literacy, and the negative indirect association through dependence was correspondingly smaller. These cross-sectional results are interpreted as associations and do not establish temporal or causal ordering. Full article
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27 pages, 1694 KB  
Article
Emotional–Social Intelligence Profiles and Adaptive Professional Functioning Among Teachers: A Person-Centered Analysis of School Climate Perception and Conflict Handling
by László Balázs
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080184 - 10 Aug 2026
Viewed by 356
Abstract
Research exploring the relationship between emotional intelligence and workplace outcomes is predominantly variable-centered and treats the dimensions of emotional–social competencies as separate from one another, thereby losing sight of the intra-individual interplay of these competencies and the potential heterogeneity of their effects. This [...] Read more.
Research exploring the relationship between emotional intelligence and workplace outcomes is predominantly variable-centered and treats the dimensions of emotional–social competencies as separate from one another, thereby losing sight of the intra-individual interplay of these competencies and the potential heterogeneity of their effects. This study examines teachers’ emotional–social intelligence using a person-centered approach. Using a sample of 587 Hungarian teachers from 26 public education institutions, we conducted latent profile analysis based on Bar-On’s five composites and then used unbiased three-step procedures (BCH; categorical BCH) to examine the antecedents of profile membership, as well as perceptions of school organizational climate and dominant conflict management style. Four distinct profiles emerged, primarily differing at the global level—a uniformly low profile (12%), a medium-low profile (25%), a dominant, balanced medium-high profile (53%), and a uniformly high profile (9%). Participants with higher profiles perceived the school’s organizational climate as more supportive (η2 = 0.07) and exhibited more adaptive conflict management patterns (less avoidance, more problem-solving; χ2(12) = 37.24, p < .001). A compositional (log-ratio) reanalysis of the complete conflict-mode profiles, reported as the primary conflict analysis, showed that the relative weight of problem-solving rises across profiles and plateaus between the modal and the highest profile, that avoidance declines with profile elevation, and that an apparent surplus of accommodating in the highest profile was an artifact of dominant-style coding rather than an indication of a broader repertoire. At the same time, profile membership was essentially independent of job position, career stage, and gender, and the relationships with outcomes were of modest to moderate strength. The results extend person-centered, profile-based intelligence research to the emotional–social domain and identify promising directions for research on teacher professional development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Influence of Emotional Intelligence on Individual Development)
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17 pages, 924 KB  
Article
A Quadratic Bifactor Hierarchical Model for Jointly Modelling the Nonlinear Relationship Between Response Accuracy and Response Time in Cognitive Testing
by Xiaojun Guo, Xiaohua He, Xiaoyun Bai and Juan Yan
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080183 - 8 Aug 2026
Viewed by 335
Abstract
In computerized assessments, response accuracy and response time together reflect how examinees engage with test items. Existing joint models typically assume a linear relationship between these two outcomes, yet empirical observations often reveal more complex patterns. This study proposes a Quadratic Bifactor Hierarchical [...] Read more.
In computerized assessments, response accuracy and response time together reflect how examinees engage with test items. Existing joint models typically assume a linear relationship between these two outcomes, yet empirical observations often reveal more complex patterns. This study proposes a Quadratic Bifactor Hierarchical Model (QBi-HM) that captures nonlinear speed–accuracy dependencies through a shared general factor with quadratic terms, while preserving separate ability and speed components. Simulation results across sample sizes (N = 1000, 1500, 3000) and test lengths (m = 30, 60) demonstrated that QBi-HM recovered parameters accurately under both linear and nonlinear conditions, whereas the conventional linear bifactor model produced biased estimates when nonlinearity was present. An empirical application to PISA 2012 computer-based mathematics data (N = 1527 examinees from four economies, m = 10 items) showed that QBi-HM achieved superior model fit (AIC = 41,825.190, BIC = 42,251.675, SABIC = 41,997.535) compared with Bi-HM (AIC = 41,969.750, BIC = 42,289.613, SABIC = 42,099.099) and revealed an inverted U-shaped speed-accuracy pattern. These findings may suggest that modeling nonlinear dependencies can improve the precision of ability estimation in large-scale assessments and inform item design by identifying task features that elicit distinct response processes. The QBi-HM framework offers a flexible tool for researchers and practitioners seeking to leverage response time data to better understand test-taking behavior. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Contributions to the Measurement of Intelligence)
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17 pages, 915 KB  
Article
Is It Mine or Not Mine? Cognitive Offloading to Generative AI and Concern over the Erosion of Cognitive Ownership
by Jing Su, Zhuo Wang, Zhen Qiang and Zhonghou Wang
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080182 - 7 Aug 2026
Viewed by 763
Abstract
Cognitive offloading—delegating cognitive work to external tools—is basic to human cognition, but generative AI (GenAI) amplifies it radically: entire cognitive products can now be produced on request. This sharpens a question about agency over one’s own thinking: when cognition is habitually offloaded, does [...] Read more.
Cognitive offloading—delegating cognitive work to external tools—is basic to human cognition, but generative AI (GenAI) amplifies it radically: entire cognitive products can now be produced on request. This sharpens a question about agency over one’s own thinking: when cognition is habitually offloaded, does its product still feel like one’s own? We surveyed 239 pre-service teachers, operationalizing the felt loss of cognitive ownership as concern over the erosion of teaching-design subjectivity (TSC)—the metacognitive appraisal that AI-assisted work is not genuinely one’s own and that independent capacity is declining. Guided by the Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model, we tested whether AI anxiety/fear of missing out (affective) and impulsivity (self-regulatory) relate to this concern through behavioral GenAI dependency—habitual offloading. In a structural equation model with bias-corrected bootstrapping, dependency strongly predicted TSC and partially mediated the effect of AI anxiety; impulsivity raised dependency but showed a suppression pattern (a positive indirect effect offset by a null total effect), and the model explained 35% of the variance in the concern. Habitual offloading—that is, GenAI dependency—rather than generic AI use, accompanies the metacognitive loss of cognitive ownership. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Digital Technology and Human Development: Risks, Resilience, and Inequalities)
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31 pages, 1732 KB  
Systematic Review
Teacher-Mediated Digital Game-Based Learning and Children’s Emotional Intelligence in Inclusive Classrooms: A Systematic Review and Critical Narrative Synthesis
by Funda Uğurlu and Filiz Evran Acar
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080181 - 7 Aug 2026
Viewed by 406
Abstract
Digital game-based learning is increasingly used to support children’s engagement, interaction, and social–emotional development. However, its contribution to emotional intelligence, particularly in inclusive classroom contexts, remains theoretically underdeveloped and methodologically fragmented. This systematic review and critical narrative synthesis examines how teacher- or facilitator-mediated [...] Read more.
Digital game-based learning is increasingly used to support children’s engagement, interaction, and social–emotional development. However, its contribution to emotional intelligence, particularly in inclusive classroom contexts, remains theoretically underdeveloped and methodologically fragmented. This systematic review and critical narrative synthesis examines how teacher- or facilitator-mediated digital games address children’s emotional intelligence and related social–emotional outcomes in inclusive educational contexts. Following PRISMA 2020 reporting guidance, the review examined peer-reviewed articles indexed in Web of Science and Scopus between 2015 and 2026. After screening 347 unique records and assessing 31 full-text reports, 14 studies were included in the final synthesis. The review focused on four interrelated areas: the emotional and social–emotional outcomes addressed in digital game-based studies; the roles of teachers or facilitators in structuring, mediating, and debriefing game-based activities; the inclusive classroom conditions that support equitable participation and emotional safety; and the risks, limitations, or implementation challenges associated with classroom use. The findings suggest that digital games may become educationally meaningful when they are linked to explicit emotional learning goals, embedded in structured classroom or school-based activities, supported by teacher or facilitator mediation, and followed by reflection or debriefing. Based on the synthesis, the review proposes a teacher-mediated inclusive digital game-based emotional learning framework consisting of seven dimensions: emotional learning target, game selection and pedagogical fit, teacher mediation, inclusive participation, classroom interaction, reflective debriefing, and risk monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Children’s Emotional Intelligence: Digital Games, Technologies and Practical Applications)
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16 pages, 2357 KB  
Article
Learning Potential as a Dynamic Component of Academic Intelligence: An fNIRS-Based Dynamic Assessment Study of English Reading Comprehension
by Jingying Chen, Yijia Zheng, Yuetong Li, Xiaodi Liu and Rui Li
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080180 - 6 Aug 2026
Viewed by 360
Abstract
Foreign language reading comprehension is a critical indicator of university students’ academic cognitive ability and global competence, yet effectively assessing their latent learning potential remains a major challenge. Therefore, from a neurocognitive perspective, this study combined functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) with dynamic assessment [...] Read more.
Foreign language reading comprehension is a critical indicator of university students’ academic cognitive ability and global competence, yet effectively assessing their latent learning potential remains a major challenge. Therefore, from a neurocognitive perspective, this study combined functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) with dynamic assessment (DA) to investigate the activation characteristics of the left frontal and temporal regions in non-English majors during reading tasks across two difficulty levels (CET-4/CET-6) and two assessment conditions (static/dynamic testing). The results showed that reading tasks activated the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and middle temporal gyrus. Compared with CET-4, the more difficult CET-6 task showed a broader descriptive cortical activation pattern. Notably, mediated prompts were associated with different behavioral and activation-frequency patterns across task difficulty levels: in the CET-4 task, dynamic assessment showed higher normalized activation-frequency values than static assessment in areas corresponding to the middle and inferior frontal gyrus, accompanied by rising prompt scores; however, the CET-6 task exhibited the opposite pattern. These findings suggest that mediated prompts may be more effective in stimulating learning potential when task difficulty aligns with the learner’s zone of proximal development. Overall, by considering behavioral dynamic-assessment indicators in foreign-language reading together with fNIRS-based cortical activation patterns, this exploratory study offers preliminary insights into learning potential, personalized instructional interventions, and academic cognitive assessment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Foundations of Language Comprehension and Production)
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30 pages, 3301 KB  
Article
Bridging Cognitive Architecture and Developmental Measurement for Artificial General Intelligence
by Yuqiu Fu, Yuxi Wang, Hongzhao Xie, Shiyun Zhao, Mingyuan Liu, Yujie Lu, Xinyi He, Zhenku Cheng, Yujia Peng and Zhenliang Zhang
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080179 - 5 Aug 2026
Viewed by 542
Abstract
Current artificial intelligence evaluation often relies on static benchmarks and task-specific performance metrics, which are useful for system comparison but limited in assessing developmental progression, cognitive architecture, adaptive transfer, and real-world applicability. Building on developmental approaches to AGI testing, including our earlier conceptual [...] Read more.
Current artificial intelligence evaluation often relies on static benchmarks and task-specific performance metrics, which are useful for system comparison but limited in assessing developmental progression, cognitive architecture, adaptive transfer, and real-world applicability. Building on developmental approaches to AGI testing, including our earlier conceptual proposal, this article develops an operational formulation of the General–Specialized–Applicable (GSA) framework for artificial general intelligence (AGI) evaluation. The framework organizes evidence into three non-interchangeable stages: the General stage, which assesses foundational capacities for open-ended generalization, value-oriented regulation, and autonomy; the Specialized stage, which evaluates stable domain-specific competence; and the Applicable stage, which examines whether such competence can be deployed safely and robustly in realistic environments. The article further introduces a dynamic task-generation pipeline and a provisional operational rubric for interpreting stage-specific evidence. An illustrative case study using household tasks in a simulated embodied environment illustrates how GSA can provide diagnostic information beyond aggregate benchmark scores by identifying capability gaps in current multimodal large language model (MLLM) agents. Rather than offering a final universal standard, the GSA framework provides an evaluation-oriented structure for connecting benchmark performance with architectural readiness, specialization, and deployment-level applicability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances of Intelligence Measurement in the AI Era: Theory, Methods and Applications)
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23 pages, 1229 KB  
Article
Explaining Individual Differences in Metacognitive Monitoring: A Multilevel Analysis of Person-Level Predictors Across Academic Assessments
by Jinjushang Chen, Qian Zhang, Yue Yin, Jeannine E. Turner, Liang Luo and Chunliang Yang
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080178 - 3 Aug 2026
Viewed by 383
Abstract
Metacognitive monitoring, students’ evaluations of their own performance, is central to self-regulated learning but often misaligns with actual performance. While situational factors have been studied extensively, less is known about how learning-related beliefs and motivational dispositions—hereafter termed learning-related attributes—relate to individual differences in [...] Read more.
Metacognitive monitoring, students’ evaluations of their own performance, is central to self-regulated learning but often misaligns with actual performance. While situational factors have been studied extensively, less is known about how learning-related beliefs and motivational dispositions—hereafter termed learning-related attributes—relate to individual differences in metacognitive monitoring. This study examined how these learning attributes, alongside cognitive and demographic variables, were associated with students’ general confidence and resolution. Data were drawn from 3946 Chinese sixth-grade students who completed academic assessments in the verbal and mathematical domains, provided post-test performance estimates, and completed questionnaires measuring their learning attributes and demographic characteristics. We conducted multilevel analyses with a random-intercept–random-slope specification and identified several learning attributes as significant predictors of metacognitive monitoring, primarily in terms of general confidence. Adding learning-related attributes after the cognitive and demographic blocks increased marginal R2, primarily for general confidence; this order-dependent increment was not interpreted as evidence that the block is inherently more important. The findings extend existing accounts of metacognitive monitoring by suggesting that students’ general confidence is associated with non-cognitive learning attributes—and may thus be partly separable from cognitive ability—whereas their resolution is comparatively less strongly associated with these attributes. Theoretical as well as practical implications are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Theoretical Contributions to Intelligence)
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19 pages, 8158 KB  
Systematic Review
Effects of Traditional and Technology-Based Exercise Interventions on Cognitive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
by Jingzhan Ren, Xiaotong Du, Wei Wang, Sijing Fan, Han Wang, Gongxing Fang, Yuan Li, Ruilong Wang, Hegui Bao, Chenyu Zhang, Ruohan Zhu, Xinming Ye and Wen Fang
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080177 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 447
Abstract
Background: As population aging accelerates, pharmacological treatments provide limited benefits for cognitive decline. Exercise and technology-assisted exercise have thus emerged as important non-pharmacological approaches for supporting cognitive health in older adults. However, comparative evidence on the relative effectiveness of different intervention modalities across [...] Read more.
Background: As population aging accelerates, pharmacological treatments provide limited benefits for cognitive decline. Exercise and technology-assisted exercise have thus emerged as important non-pharmacological approaches for supporting cognitive health in older adults. However, comparative evidence on the relative effectiveness of different intervention modalities across cognitive outcomes remains limited. Objective: This study used a network meta-analysis to systematically compare and rank the effects of traditional and non-traditional exercise interventions on cognitive function in older adults. Methods: This systematic review and network meta-analysis was registered on PROSPERO (CRD420261278685). PubMed, Embase, the Cochrane Library, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched from inception to May 2026. Randomized controlled trials enrolling participants aged 60 years or older were included. Interventions comprised aerobic, resistance, mind–body, finger, and multicomponent exercise, as well as virtual reality-based interventions, artificial intelligence-assisted exercise, and wearable exoskeleton training. Primary outcomes included global cognition, executive function, memory, attention, and activities of daily living. A random effects network meta-analysis was applied to estimate standardized mean differences with 95 percent confidence intervals, and intervention rankings were derived using SUCRA values. Results: A total of 70 randomized controlled trials involving 5573 older adults were included. All active interventions demonstrated overall cognitive benefits compared with usual care or non-active control conditions. Mind–body exercise showed the highest probability of improving global cognitive performance. Virtual reality-based interventions were particularly effective for executive function, memory, and activities of daily living, while artificial intelligence-assisted exercise showed favorable rankings for attention outcomes. Mind–body exercise showed favorable effects on global cognition, whereas several technology-assisted interventions ranked highly for selected cognitive and functional outcomes. Conclusions: Both traditional and non non-traditional exercise interventions improve cognitive function in older adults, although their effects differ across cognitive domains. Technology-assisted approaches appear more effective for enhancing specific cognitive functions, while traditional interventions such as mind–body exercise are more advantageous for preserving overall cognitive performance. These findings highlight the potential value of stage specific and combined intervention strategies for promoting cognitive health in aging populations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Intelligence: Cognitive, Emotional, and Neural Mechanisms)
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31 pages, 985 KB  
Article
Self-Reports of Past Malevolent Behavior and Narcissism as Predictors of Malevolent Creativity on a Real-World Ideation Task
by Natalie A. Ceballos, Ruby N. Sweet and Carmen E. Westerberg
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080176 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 541
Abstract
Creativity has a dark side—malevolent creativity (MC), which is the application of original ideas to purposely harm others; i.e., creative problem-solving with malicious intent. Here, the influence of past MC behavior on MC ideation was examined while controlling for other individual-level factors relevant [...] Read more.
Creativity has a dark side—malevolent creativity (MC), which is the application of original ideas to purposely harm others; i.e., creative problem-solving with malicious intent. Here, the influence of past MC behavior on MC ideation was examined while controlling for other individual-level factors relevant to the AMORAL model of MC. College undergraduates (N = 276 initially recruited; N = 248 final sample analyzed; 82% female) were surveyed on demographics, self-perception of problem-solving potential (SP-PSP), dark triad traits, and past MC behavior, and completed an adapted Malevolent Creativity Task (MCT), generating revenge ideas to an unfair scenario. Sequential regression models were used to predict MCT outcomes (fluency index, malevolence index, and composite score), incrementally controlling for age, sex, SP-PSP, dark triad traits, past MC behavior, and provocation level. In the final model, SP-PSP significantly predicted the MCT fluency index (R2 = 0.065). Past MC behavior significantly increased the R2 of the MCT malevolence index; the final model was significant (R2 = 0.084). Past MC behavior and narcissism significantly predicted the MCT composite score (R2 = 0.091). These findings align with and extend previous research linking past MC behavior to MC ideation by highlighting unique and incremental impacts of SP-PSP, narcissism, past MC behavior, and provocation on MC ideation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metacognition of Insight and Creative Cognition)
15 pages, 793 KB  
Article
Media Multitasking and Cognitive Abilities: A Multi-Domain Assessment of Attention, Working Memory, Convergent Associative Thinking, and Fluid Reasoning
by Tindara Caprì
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080175 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 441
Abstract
The present study addressed a timely and important issue in cognitive and media psychology about the relationship between media multitasking and cognition. This study examined attention control, working memory, convergent associative thinking, and fluid reasoning, examining multiple functions within the same analytical framework [...] Read more.
The present study addressed a timely and important issue in cognitive and media psychology about the relationship between media multitasking and cognition. This study examined attention control, working memory, convergent associative thinking, and fluid reasoning, examining multiple functions within the same analytical framework and moving beyond the narrow focus on single cognitive domains that characterizes much prior research. The main aim was to deepen the understanding of the associations of media multitasking with these core domains of human cognition. A total of 214 healthy young adults (18–30 years) completed the Short Media Multitasking Questionnaire, Raven’s Progressive Matrices, the Digit Span Test, the Trail-Making Test, and the Remote Associates Task. Multivariate general linear models and subsequent regression analyses were performed while controlling for age and gender. The results did not reveal a significant overall association between media multitasking and the combined cognitive outcomes. At the univariate level, higher media multitasking scores were associated with lower performance on the Remote Associates Task, although the observed effect size was small. Given the cross-sectional design and reliance on self-reported media multitasking, longitudinal studies employing objective measures of media multitasking use are needed to clarify the robustness and directionality of these associations. Full article
19 pages, 827 KB  
Article
Students’ Inhibition, Cognitive Flexibility, and Performance Calibration Across Command, Practice, and Self-Check Teaching Styles in Physical Education: An Exploratory Field Study
by Athanasios Kolovelonis and Ioannis Syrmpas
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080174 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 479
Abstract
This exploratory study examined students’ acute responses in soccer performance, executive functions, and calibration accuracy to a single soccer session delivered using three different teaching styles (i.e., command, practice, and self-check) in physical education. One hundred and forty-seven students of four elementary schools [...] Read more.
This exploratory study examined students’ acute responses in soccer performance, executive functions, and calibration accuracy to a single soccer session delivered using three different teaching styles (i.e., command, practice, and self-check) in physical education. One hundred and forty-seven students of four elementary schools attending four fifth-grade (80 students) and four sixth-grade (67 students) classes participated in the study. Two classes (one fifth- and one sixth-grade) from each elementary school were randomly assigned to one of the four groups of the study (i.e., self-check style, command style, practice style, and control group). Students in all experimental groups were taught the soccer-passing skill in a single 45 min session using identical activities and drills but different teaching styles. Control-group students attended a classroom-based session on the ancient Olympic Games. Students were pre- and post-tested in soccer-pass performance, estimation of soccer-pass performance, and design fluency test. Students in the self-check group demonstrated more favorable changes in inhibition and cognitive flexibility than students in the command- and practice-style groups, whereas students in the practice group also showed improvements in cognitive flexibility over time. No differences between groups were found in calibration accuracy. For soccer performance, although students in the self-check group improved from pre- to post-test, nonsignificant differences between groups were observed. The findings reflected students’ immediate responses under different instructional conditions during a single soccer session, rather than outcomes of the longitudinal learning process. These results are discussed in relation to the cognitive and metacognitive aspects of learning and performing sports skills in physical education, with particular emphasis on how students responded to different teaching styles. Full article
18 pages, 1073 KB  
Article
Screening for High Intellectual Ability: Validation of the SACI Protocol and Implications for Inclusive Education in Primary Settings
by Ioseba Iraurgi, Miryam Martínez-Izaguirre and Alexander Álvarez-González
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080173 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 406
Abstract
Guaranteeing high-quality, equitable, and inclusive basic education requires upholding the right of all students to reach their full potential and ensuring their well-being. Students with High Intellectual Ability (HIA) represent a vulnerable group that is often under-identified in schools, a fact that hinders [...] Read more.
Guaranteeing high-quality, equitable, and inclusive basic education requires upholding the right of all students to reach their full potential and ensuring their well-being. Students with High Intellectual Ability (HIA) represent a vulnerable group that is often under-identified in schools, a fact that hinders the personalization of their education and the ability to meet their specific needs. In 2019, as part of its plan to address the educational needs of this group, the Department of Education of the Basque Government prioritized the design and validation of a screening protocol to support the identification of students with HIA. This article presents a study on the validity and reliability of the High Intellectual Ability Screening Protocol (SACI, by its Spanish acronym), applicable in Primary Education. A two-phase controlled screening design was employed, involving the random assignment of participants and the use of specific statistical techniques to evaluate the psychometric soundness of the measure. The results provide highly promising evidence, supporting the conclusion that the SACI protocol is a valid and reliable screening instrument for use with Primary Education students in the Basque Autonomous Community. Full article
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16 pages, 883 KB  
Article
The Unique Contribution of Digital Maturity in the AI Era: Psychometric Validation, Predictive Ability and Latent Profile Analysis Among Chinese Primary Students
by Meng Sun and Jiutong Luo
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080172 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 384
Abstract
With the widespread use of digital technologies, it has become increasingly important to understand how children adapt to digital environments. However, limited research has examined digital maturity among children beyond digital access and familiarity with technologies, particularly in non-Western contexts. Building on recent [...] Read more.
With the widespread use of digital technologies, it has become increasingly important to understand how children adapt to digital environments. However, limited research has examined digital maturity among children beyond digital access and familiarity with technologies, particularly in non-Western contexts. Building on recent work on digital maturity, the present study aimed to validate the Digital Maturity Inventory (DIMI) among Chinese primary school students and to identify their latent profiles. A sample of 434 students (221 girls; Meanage = 10.68, SD = 0.86) completed the DIMI for validation analyses, and an additional sample was simultaneously recruited, resulting in a total sample of 1026 students (500 girls; Meanage = 10.38, SD = 1.09), for latent profile analysis. The findings demonstrated that the DIMI exhibited satisfactory psychometric properties in the Chinese context. Moreover, digital maturity, in addition to digital native, emerged as a unique and significant predictor of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy. Three distinct subgroups of students with heterogeneous patterns of digital maturity were also revealed: an unbalanced low group, an inconsistent medium group, and a relatively high group. These findings not only support the cross-cultural applicability of DIMI, but also demonstrate its relevance to children’s AI-related competencies. The implications of this study were also discussed. Full article
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30 pages, 7802 KB  
Article
Cognitive Processes of Probabilistic Prediction in Reading: Language Model Surprisal Across Model Sizes, Token Granularity, and Reading Paradigms
by Shuting Liu and Yong Mei
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080171 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 477
Abstract
Surprisal, the negative log probability of a word given its context, is the dominant computational metric for quantifying reading difficulty and a common item difficulty estimator in reading research. Yet how the language model family, surprisal granularity, and corpus type jointly shape the [...] Read more.
Surprisal, the negative log probability of a word given its context, is the dominant computational metric for quantifying reading difficulty and a common item difficulty estimator in reading research. Yet how the language model family, surprisal granularity, and corpus type jointly shape the surprisal–reading time link remains unclear. We conducted a secondary analysis of two public English reading corpora: the Natural Stories Corpus (self-paced reading, 181 readers) and the Provo Corpus (eye tracking with cloze norms). Surprisal was computed from GPT 2 (Small, XL), Llama 2 (7B, 13B), and Llama 3 (8B), together with a 5-gram baseline and human cloze norms. Linear mixed-effects models tested the baseline contribution of neural surprisal, inverse scaling within model families, word-level versus sub-word aggregation, and the linking function shape. Neural surprisal contributed reliable variance above a strong baseline in both corpora. A clear inverse scaling pattern emerged: GPT 2 Small produced the largest fit improvements, exceeding GPT 2 XL, Llama 2 13B, and Llama 3 8B. Word-level aggregation outperformed sub-word aggregation, especially for measures of early lexical access. Non-parametric analyses supported an approximately linear linking function, and cloze norms carried information not fully captured by neural surprisal. These findings show that larger models are not automatically better cognitive models of reading and that surprisal granularity is not a neutral analytic choice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)
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33 pages, 1273 KB  
Article
Enhancing Higher-Order Cognitive Abilities Through AI-Powered Smart Assistants: Implications for Digital Entrepreneurship and Future Problem-Solving in Higher Education
by Ahmed Sadek Abdelmagid, Naif Mohammed Yahya Jabli and Adel Ibrahim Qahmash
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080170 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 529
Abstract
Higher education is undergoing a rapid transformation driven by advancements in artificial intelligence (AI), creating new opportunities to support the development of higher-order cognitive skills through carefully designed learning environments. This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of an educational program that integrates [...] Read more.
Higher education is undergoing a rapid transformation driven by advancements in artificial intelligence (AI), creating new opportunities to support the development of higher-order cognitive skills through carefully designed learning environments. This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of an educational program that integrates AI-powered intelligent assistants into a structured e-learning environment to support the development of digital entrepreneurship and future-oriented problem-solving skills among graduate students. A quasi-experimental design was used with 82 graduate students, randomly assigned to two groups: an experimental group (n = 41) and a control group (n = 41). Both groups studied the same educational content and completed identical learning activities; however, the experimental group participated in a structured learning framework that included AI-powered intelligent assistants, guided learning activities, and instructor facilitation, while the control group completed the same activities without AI support. The educational program comprised five modules focusing on chatbot design, intelligent platform development, digital content production, educational data analysis, and future-oriented problem-solving. Learning outcomes were assessed using a Digital Entrepreneurship Product Rating Scale and a Future-Oriented Problem-Solving Scale, which measures skills in visualization, prediction, foresight, and planning. The results revealed statistically significant differences favoring the experimental group on both outcome scales, with large effect sizes. These findings suggest that integrating AI-powered intelligent assistants within a structured learning framework may support the development of digital entrepreneurship and future-oriented problem-solving skills among graduate students. This study contributes empirical evidence to the potential educational value of integrating AI-powered intelligent assistants with pedagogically designed learning activities to foster higher-level cognitive development in higher education. Full article
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23 pages, 5613 KB  
Article
Development and Validation of a Multimodal Emotion Recognition Ability Test Based on the Chinese Cultural Context
by Xiaoming Song, Jinmei Leng, Xia Wu, Sheng Yang and Fang Luo
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080169 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 382
Abstract
Emotion recognition is essential for social adaptation and mental health. However, existing measures still rely on limited stimulus materials or simplified task formats, which restricts ecological validity. The present study aimed to construct a localized multimodal emotion expression database in the Chinese context [...] Read more.
Emotion recognition is essential for social adaptation and mental health. However, existing measures still rely on limited stimulus materials or simplified task formats, which restricts ecological validity. The present study aimed to construct a localized multimodal emotion expression database in the Chinese context and to develop a multimodal emotion recognition ability test integrating emotion category and intensity recognition. In Study 1, a multimodal emotion expression database was established through actor performances, expert evaluation, and participant validation. The final database contained 2160 videos representing six basic emotions, five levels of emotional intensity, and two expression modes (vocal and non-vocal). In Study 2, 90 videos were selected under three recognition conditions (vocal-expression, muted vocal-expression, and muted non-vocal-expression). An integrated scoring approach combining emotion category and intensity was used to develop the test. A total of 236 valid participants completed the test. The results indicated that, after 61 video clips were retained, the test demonstrated good reliability and item discrimination. Evidence for criterion-related validity and construct validity was also obtained. Overall, the findings suggest that the present measure is a reliable and valid tool for assessing multimodal emotion recognition ability in the Chinese cultural context and offers the first empirical evidence that integrating category and intensity recognition can better capture the multidimensional nature of this ability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emotions, Well-Being and Intelligence: Assessment, Interventions and Professional Development)
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15 pages, 983 KB  
Article
The Impact of Generative AI Dependence on University Students’ Creativity: The Mediating Role of Critical Thinking and the Moderating Role of Thinking Orientation
by Fang Yuan, Chunlei Liu and Jiaqin Yang
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080168 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 741
Abstract
The rapid proliferation of generative artificial intelligence (AI) has raised concerns about its impact on creativity, yet mechanisms and boundary conditions remain underexplored. Using one survey and two experiments, we investigated how AI dependence affects university students’ creativity. Study 1 (cross-sectional) found AI [...] Read more.
The rapid proliferation of generative artificial intelligence (AI) has raised concerns about its impact on creativity, yet mechanisms and boundary conditions remain underexplored. Using one survey and two experiments, we investigated how AI dependence affects university students’ creativity. Study 1 (cross-sectional) found AI dependence was negatively related to creativity, fully mediated by critical thinking. Study 2 (between-subjects experiment) experimentally demonstrated that high AI dependence was associated with lower creativity than low dependence, with critical thinking again mediating. Study 3 employed a 2 × 2 design with thinking orientation as a moderator in a first-stage moderated mediation model. Thinking orientation moderated the “AI dependence → critical thinking → creativity” pathway: the indirect effect was significant under an outcome-oriented condition but non-significant under a process-oriented condition; the index of moderated mediation was 0.22. These findings indicate that critical thinking is a central pathway through which AI dependence undermines creativity, and process-oriented thinking buffers this negative impact by safeguarding critical thinking. The study provides theoretical foundations and intervention directions for the judicious use of AI in education. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances of AI in Talent Development: Synergies Between Creativity, Cognitive Intelligence, and Socio-Emotional Growth)
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16 pages, 1058 KB  
Article
Motivational Underpinnings of Fluid Reasoning: The Fit Between Motivational Orientation and Task Demands in Promoting Psychological Flow
by Alessio Tesi
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080167 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 345
Abstract
The present study examined how different combinations of promotion and prevention focus are associated with the experience of flow during fluid reasoning tasks of different difficulty, and whether flow is in turn associated with fluid intelligence assessed through a fluid reasoning task. Promotion [...] Read more.
The present study examined how different combinations of promotion and prevention focus are associated with the experience of flow during fluid reasoning tasks of different difficulty, and whether flow is in turn associated with fluid intelligence assessed through a fluid reasoning task. Promotion focus reflects a self-regulatory orientation toward ideals, advancement, and gains, whereas prevention focus reflects an orientation toward duties, security, and non-losses. A total of 242 participants completed self-report measures of regulatory focus and task-related flow, along with a fluid reasoning task. One group completed a lower-demanding version of the task (N = 136), whereas the other completed a higher-demanding version (N = 106). A three-way moderated mediation analysis was conducted to test the indirect association between a promotion focus and fluid reasoning, mediated by flow, at the conditional level of high versus low levels of prevention for each difficulty condition. The results showed that, in the lower-demanding condition, promotion focus was more strongly positively associated with flow when prevention focus was low rather than high. In the higher-demanding condition, promotion focus was more strongly positively associated with flow when prevention focus was high rather than low. Across both conditions, higher flow was associated with better performance in the fluid reasoning task. Overall, the findings suggest that different motivational configurations may be differentially compatible with fluid reasoning task demands, and that flow may represent one process through which motivational orientations are associated with fluid intelligence. Full article
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17 pages, 1025 KB  
Article
Beyond the Total Score: Revealing Cognitive Heterogeneity in High Ability Through Latent Profile Analysis
by Norah Almulhim, Abdullah M. Aljughaiman and Fahad S. Alfaiz
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080166 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 396
Abstract
This study examined whether a single total-score cutoff in the Mawhiba Multiple Cognitive Aptitude Test (MMCAT) may conceal meaningful cognitive profile differences between students across four domains: mental flexibility, verbal reasoning and reading comprehension, mathematical–spatial reasoning, and scientific–mechanical reasoning. Archival score data from [...] Read more.
This study examined whether a single total-score cutoff in the Mawhiba Multiple Cognitive Aptitude Test (MMCAT) may conceal meaningful cognitive profile differences between students across four domains: mental flexibility, verbal reasoning and reading comprehension, mathematical–spatial reasoning, and scientific–mechanical reasoning. Archival score data from 5146 school-nominated students across three assessment levels in Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia, were analyzed. Latent profile models were estimated separately for each assessment level. A three-profile solution was retained for Levels 1 and 2, and a four-profile solution for Level 3. The retained profiles differed mainly in the overall performance level rather than the profile shape. The operational cutoff of 1540 captured globally high-performing profiles at considerably higher rates than adjacent middle-range profiles, and the identified groups remained internally heterogeneous across all levels. The findings indicate that the current identification rule effectively captures broad, high-level performance, yet it does not represent all adjacent cognitive profiles equally. This has implications for identification policy and educational programming for gifted students. Full article
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14 pages, 1494 KB  
Article
Executive Function and Language Expression in Preschool Children: A Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Study
by Jin-Long Liang, Chin-Hsuan Hsieh, Lung-An Shen, Hsin-Chen Lu, Ho-Tang Wu and Xin-Ling Cui
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080165 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 325
Abstract
This study examined longitudinal between-child and within-child associations between executive function (EF) and language expression (LE) in preschool children. Data were drawn from four waves of the Kids in Taiwan: National Longitudinal Study of Child Development and Care at 36, 48, 60, and [...] Read more.
This study examined longitudinal between-child and within-child associations between executive function (EF) and language expression (LE) in preschool children. Data were drawn from four waves of the Kids in Taiwan: National Longitudinal Study of Child Development and Care at 36, 48, 60, and 72 months (N = 1694). Longitudinal measurement invariance was examined before estimating a random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM), which separated stable between-child differences from within-child temporal fluctuations. EF and LE showed temporal continuity and positive concurrent associations. At the within-child level, occasions on which children displayed stronger LE than their own typical level consistently preceded relatively stronger EF one year later, whereas the reverse pathway was not consistently supported. These findings refine language-based accounts of self-regulation by suggesting that children’s everyday use of language to answer, explain, clarify, and organize information may be relevant to subsequent regulatory functioning. Practically, language-supported activities involving rule explanation, self-guidance, and reflective dialogue may be useful components of early EF support, although causal conclusions are not warranted from this observational study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)
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14 pages, 766 KB  
Article
Neuropsychological Predictors of Treatment Dropout Among Intimate Partner Violence Perpetrators
by Ángel Romero-Martínez, Carolina Sarrate-Costa, Marisol Lila and Luis Moya-Albiol
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080164 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 310
Abstract
Background: The interplay between intervention dropout and increased recidivism among men convicted of intimate partner violence (IPV) underscores the need for a model that investigates the underlying variables associated with IPV perpetrator dropout. While sociodemographic factors are traditional predictors of dropout, the [...] Read more.
Background: The interplay between intervention dropout and increased recidivism among men convicted of intimate partner violence (IPV) underscores the need for a model that investigates the underlying variables associated with IPV perpetrator dropout. While sociodemographic factors are traditional predictors of dropout, the potential role of cognitive functioning remains insufficiently researched. This study examined whether certain neuropsychological domains, previously signaled by the scientific literature, including general intelligence, cognitive flexibility, planning abilities, verbal fluency, attention, and working memory, were associated with treatment attrition among IPV perpetrators. Methods: Participants (n = 309) underwent a comprehensive neuropsychological battery (K-BIT, WCST, BADS, CPT-III, and WAIS-III) prior to a court-mandated program. Results: The final regression model indicated that higher perseverative errors (WCST), lower nonverbal IQ, impaired planning abilities (Key Search Test), and a higher number of omissions in the CPT-III were significantly associated with dropout while controlling for alcohol misuse and sociodemographic variables. The overall predictive power of the neuropsychological model was moderate, offering a valuable, although complementary, framework to traditional models that only focus on sociodemographic variables. Conclusions: Early screening of neuropsychological variables could potentially help predict which individuals are at high risk of dropout. While these observational findings require external validation, integrating cognitive considerations into intervention planning warrants further investigation to understand their association with treatment adherence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)
18 pages, 823 KB  
Article
Divergent Thinking in Early Childhood: Dimensions That Support Pre-Literacy Skills
by Claudia Flores, Débora Areces, Celestino Rodríguez and Inés López-Manrique
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080163 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 358
Abstract
Divergent thinking is a key educational skill associated with cognitive and pre-literacy abilities. However, the limited research conducted with preschool populations makes it difficult to draw firm conclusions and to inform curriculum changes at early ages. This study aimed to (1) examine sex [...] Read more.
Divergent thinking is a key educational skill associated with cognitive and pre-literacy abilities. However, the limited research conducted with preschool populations makes it difficult to draw firm conclusions and to inform curriculum changes at early ages. This study aimed to (1) examine sex and school grade differences in divergent thinking at this stage, and (2) analyze the explanatory power of creative variables for preliteracy skills in second-cycle preschool students. A total of 80 children aged 3 to 5 years (M = 4.44; SD = 0.57) participated in this study. They completed an ad hoc figurative drawing test based on widely used instruments created for older age groups. More specifically, this test assessed fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.89). Additionally, the AEI-R battery was administered to evaluate cognitive and pre-literacy skills. Multivariate analyses revealed only limited sex-related differences in divergent thinking variables, while no statistically significant differences emerged by grade level. Furthermore, hierarchical regression analysis indicated that creative elaboration offered incremental explanatory power, contributing uniquely and significantly to the variance in pre-literacy skills. Overall, these findings suggest associations between specific dimensions of divergent thinking and cognitive and pre-literacy variables in early childhood. Full article
25 pages, 2565 KB  
Article
Cognitive Modifiability of Mental Rotation: Effects of Mediation, Sex, and Working Memory Among Third-Grade Students
by David Tzuriel and Ravit Hozez Sagi
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080162 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 321
Abstract
The present study examined the effects of a brief motoric mediation intervention, delivered within a dynamic assessment (DA) framework, on mental rotation (MR) performance among third-grade children. The study also investigated the roles of sex and spatial working memory (SWM). Participants completed two [...] Read more.
The present study examined the effects of a brief motoric mediation intervention, delivered within a dynamic assessment (DA) framework, on mental rotation (MR) performance among third-grade children. The study also investigated the roles of sex and spatial working memory (SWM). Participants completed two MR tasks, a Windows Mental Rotation (WMR) test and the Seria-Think–MR (STI-MR) test, assessing generalization. Each task was administered before and after a single mediation session. Four major findings emerged. (a) Children who received individualized motoric mediation demonstrated significantly greater MR gains than control children on both tasks. (b) The intervention produced a generalization effect, with improvements observed even on the structurally distinct STI-MR task. (c) No significant sex differences or sex-related interactions were found. (d) The positive pre-intervention correlation between SWM and WMR weakened after mediation, suggesting reduced reliance on WM resources following the acquisition of more efficient MR strategies. Across both tasks, a consistent Degree of Rotation × Time interaction indicated disproportionately larger gains at higher rotation angles, and children showed evidence of strategic reframing, particularly in interpreting 270° rotations as equivalent to 90° in the opposite direction. These findings support the theoretical framework of Structural Cognitive Modifiability and highlight the potential of motoric mediation to foster flexible spatial strategies. The results also underscore the educational value of integrating spatially rich, hands-on activities into early curricula and demonstrate the diagnostic utility of DA for identifying children’s learning potential. Implications, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Approaches to Improving Intelligence)
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23 pages, 1657 KB  
Article
Comparing Aha! Moments in Problem Solving and Generative Ideation
by Visheeta J. Chandolia, Matthew A. Kidd, Morgan S. Paladino and Steven M. Smith
J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080161 - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 498
Abstract
Responses that come to mind as aha! moments occur suddenly, rapidly, and without deliberate intention. Aha! moments are typically associated with insight, the sudden realization of a problem’s solution, and have recently been reported in generative tasks, including divergent thinking and category generation. [...] Read more.
Responses that come to mind as aha! moments occur suddenly, rapidly, and without deliberate intention. Aha! moments are typically associated with insight, the sudden realization of a problem’s solution, and have recently been reported in generative tasks, including divergent thinking and category generation. The present experiment compared the frequency and strength of aha! moments for responses in verbal problem solving (Compound Remote Associates and Polysemous Associates Test problems) with responses in ad hoc and taxonomic category generation. Comparisons were made using a two-step procedure in which each response was first reported as an aha! or non-aha! response, and, for aha! responses, rated in subjective strength. No difference in aha! strength was found between problem solutions and category responses, regardless of which task was given first, nor did aha! strength differ between ad hoc and taxonomic category members. In generative tasks, aha! strength, pre-response pause time, and response novelty increased over time during generation. Although fewer responses occurred over time, later responses were increasingly likely to be aha! responses. These results support the use of aha! reports during idea generation and link such reports to retrieval dynamics seen in many generative tasks, including divergent thinking. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metacognition of Insight and Creative Cognition)
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