Pathogens

1 pages, 122 KiB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Mo, J.; Mo, J. Infectious Laryngotracheitis Virus and Avian Metapneumovirus: A Comprehensive Review. Pathogens 2025, 14, 55

by Jongsuk Mo and Jongseo Mo

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 497; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050497 - 19 May 2025

Abstract

There was an error in the original publication [...] Full article

29 pages, 730 KiB

Open AccessReview

Antimicrobial Resistant Staphylococcus spp., Escherichia coli, and Salmonella spp. in Food Handlers: A Global Review of Persistence, Transmission, and Mitigation Challenges

by Gustavo Guimarães Fernandes Viana, Marita Vedovelli Cardozo, Juliano Gonçalves Pereira and Gabriel Augusto Marques Rossi

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 496; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050496 - 18 May 2025

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance in foodborne pathogens represents a critical global health challenge, with food handlers serving as key contributors in their transmission. This comprehensive review synthesizes evidence on the prevalence, transmission dynamics, and antimicrobial resistance patterns of three major pathogens, Staphylococcus spp., Escherichia coli [...] Read more.

Antimicrobial resistance in foodborne pathogens represents a critical global health challenge, with food handlers serving as key contributors in their transmission. This comprehensive review synthesizes evidence on the prevalence, transmission dynamics, and antimicrobial resistance patterns of three major pathogens, Staphylococcus spp., Escherichia coli, and Salmonella spp., among food handlers worldwide. Analysis of studies across diverse geographical regions reveals considerable variation in colonization rates, with Staphylococcus spp. prevalence ranging from 19.5% to 95.0%, Escherichia coli from 2.8% to 89.3%, and Salmonella spp. from 0.07% to 9.1%. Resistance profiles demonstrate alarming trends, including widespread β-lactam resistance and emerging resistance to last-resort antibiotics like carbapenems. Particularly concerning is the high occurrence of multidrug resistant (MDR) strains and extended spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) producers in low- and middle-income countries. This review identified inadequate handwashing, poor hygiene infrastructure, and asymptomatic carriage as critical factors facilitating the transmission of antimicrobial resistant strains. These findings underscore the urgent need for enhanced surveillance systems, targeted decolonization strategies, improved hygiene protocols, and food handler education to mitigate the spread of resistant pathogens through the food chain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Foodborne Pathogens: The Antimicrobial Resistance from Farm to Fork)

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17 pages, 2051 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Repellent Activity of DEET Combined with Botanical Compounds Against Amblyomma sculptum Nymphs: Laboratory and Field Evaluations

by Mayara Macêdo Barrozo, Haile Dean Figueiredo Chagas, Gabrielly Bernardes Rodrigues Damaceno, Emilly Faria Santos, Rafael Assunção Carvalho, Isabela Santos Silva, Francisca Letícia Vale, Lainny Jordana Martins Pereira e Sousa, Hermes Ribeiro Luz, Lorena Lopes Ferreira and Caio Monteiro

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 495; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050495 - 17 May 2025

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Abstract

This study evaluated the repellent activity of DEET, eugenol, methyl eugenol, 1,8-cineole, and their combinations against Amblyomma sculptum nymphs through laboratory and field tests. Initially, the botanical compounds were tested individually in Petri dish assays to assess repellent activity over various intervals (1 [...] Read more.

This study evaluated the repellent activity of DEET, eugenol, methyl eugenol, 1,8-cineole, and their combinations against Amblyomma sculptum nymphs through laboratory and field tests. Initially, the botanical compounds were tested individually in Petri dish assays to assess repellent activity over various intervals (1 min to 168 h) at concentrations of 2%. Eugenol and methyl eugenol exhibited the highest average repellent percentages (60 to 90%), with significant effects (p < 0.05) across most evaluation periods, in contrast to 1,8-cineole. Therefore, eugenol and methyl eugenol were selected for combination testing with DEET. The combinations of 7% DEET + 1% eugenol and 7% DEET + 2% methyl eugenol showed the best results, with average repellent efficacy exceeding 85%. The first combination was selected for field evaluation. In this test, volunteers wore treated socks and walked for two hours in a naturally infested area. A significant reduction (p < 0.05) in the number of ticks recovered from the socks was observed in the 7% DEET and 7% DEET + 1% eugenol treatments, with efficacies of 82.5% and 88.5%, respectively, after 120 min. Isolated eugenol showed limited field efficacy, with significant repellent activity (p < 0.05) lasting only 20 min. The results highlight the potential of eugenol and methyl eugenol as repellent compounds, especially when combined with DEET. The field study confirmed the efficacy of the 7% DEET + 1% eugenol. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vector Control and Parasitic Infection in Animals)

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14 pages, 1712 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bacterial Acute Otitis Media Complicated with Otorrhea in a Children’s Hospital in the Era of Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccines

by Irene Tzovara, Anastasios Doudoulakakis, Georgios Kalogeras, Emmanouil Koutouzis, Charilaos Dellis, Sophia Pasparakis, Marietta Charakida, Evangelia Lebessi, Elisavet Bozavoutoglou, Michael Tsakanikos, Vassiliki Syriopoulou and Maria Tsolia

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 494; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050494 - 17 May 2025

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Abstract

Acute otitis media (AOM) is a common disease among children and can be complicated by otorrhea (AOMO). In 2010, the 13-valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV13) replaced the 7-valent vaccine (PCV7) in Greece. We aimed to describe the microbiological profile of bacterial ΑOMO among [...] Read more.

Acute otitis media (AOM) is a common disease among children and can be complicated by otorrhea (AOMO). In 2010, the 13-valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV13) replaced the 7-valent vaccine (PCV7) in Greece. We aimed to describe the microbiological profile of bacterial ΑOMO among children younger than 16 years across the two PCV periods in a tertiary children’s hospital. Middle ear fluid cultures from 2418 children with AOMO were collected from 2007 to 2022. Otopathogens were isolated and tested for antimicrobial susceptibility. Data were compared between the PCV7- (2007–2011) and PCV13-period (2012–2019). The most common otopathogen over the 16-year period was S. pyogenes (35.4%), followed by H. influenzae (33.8%), S. pneumoniae (26.6%), and M. catarrhalis (4.1%). Pneumococcal resistance to cefotaxime and clindamycin significantly increased from 2% to 4.5% (p = 0.019) and 16.1% to 22.8% (p = 0.039), respectively. Resistance of H. influenzae to ampicillin increased from 6.3% to 13.9% (p < 0.001). A significant reduction in cotrimoxazole-resistant S. pneumoniae from 31% to 22.4% (p = 0.012), and in clindamycin-resistant and erythromycin-resistant S pyogenes, from 17.4% to 9.3% and 21.4% to 10.8%, respectively (p ≤ 0.001), was observed. During 2013–2022, 38 S. pneumoniae serotypes were identified among 250 isolates. Serotype 3 (27.2%) and 19A (13.2%) prevailed, followed by 19F (7%). The most common causes after the shift to PCV13 are S. pyogenes and H. influenzae. However, S. pneumoniae remains an important otopathogen with significant antimicrobial resistance. Serotype 3 was mostly detected, followed by 19A. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acute Respiratory Infections: Diagnosis, Treatment, Complications and Prevention)

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17 pages, 358 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Respiratory and Influenza Viruses Circulating in Kazakhstan During 2018–2024

by Tatyana Glebova, Nailya Klivleyeva, Assem Baimukhametova, Galina Lukmanova, Nurbol Saktaganov, Nuray Ongarbayeva, Baiken Baimakhanova, Gulmira Kassymova, Madisha Sagatova, Almagul Rachimbayeva, Nazgul Zhanuzakova, Tatyana Naidenova, Nigina Rakhmonova and Richard Webby

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 493; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050493 - 16 May 2025

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Abstract

Respiratory tract infections cause serious morbidity and mortality and are a major public health problem. The objective of our study was detection of the prevalence of viral respiratory diseases in the territory of Kazakhstan during the epidemic period of 2018–2024. The presence of [...] Read more.

Respiratory tract infections cause serious morbidity and mortality and are a major public health problem. The objective of our study was detection of the prevalence of viral respiratory diseases in the territory of Kazakhstan during the epidemic period of 2018–2024. The presence of respiratory viruses in nasopharyngeal swabs was analyzed using real-time polymerase chain reaction. The level of specific antibodies in the blood serum was determined by hemagglutination inhibition assay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In rtRT-PCR, patients were diagnosed with non-influenza viral respiratory tract infections as well as influenza viruses A(H1N1), A(H3N2), and B. Antibodies were detected against A(H1N1)pdm09, influenza A(H3N2), and influenza B viruses and with simultaneous detection of both viruses. The circulation of influenza A(H3N2) viruses belonging to the 3C.2a1b.2a.2a.3a.1 clade was confirmed by whole-genome sequencing. According to the results, in the period 2018–2024, the spread of influenza A and B viruses and non-influenza respiratory tract infections was observed. The data of this study confirm the role of known causative agents of epidemic infection and indicate the need to continue monitoring their spread in Kazakhstan, which may add to the general quality of the health system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)

16 pages, 294 KiB

Open AccessReview

Methods of Controlling Microbial Contamination of Food

by Renata Urban-Chmiel, Jacek Osek and Kinga Wieczorek

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 492; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050492 - 16 May 2025

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Abstract

The rapid growth of world population and increase in living standards have led to an increase in the demand for high-quality, safe food. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that by 2050 the demand for food will increase [...] Read more.

The rapid growth of world population and increase in living standards have led to an increase in the demand for high-quality, safe food. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that by 2050 the demand for food will increase by 60%, and production of animal protein will increase by 1.7% a year, with meat production to increase by nearly 70%, dairy products by 55%, and aquaculture by as much as 90%. Microbial contamination of food is a significant problem for the accessibility of safe food which does not pose a threat to the life and health of consumers. Campylobacter, Salmonella, and Yersinia are responsible for thousands of food-borne infections in humans. Currently, numerous programs are being developed to combat pathogenic bacteria in the food supply chain, especially at the primary production stage. These approaches include physical, chemical, biological, and other strategies and methods used to inhibit the bacterial growth of bacteria or completely eliminate the pathogens from the food chain. Therefore, an extremely important goal is to provide safe food and control its quality by eliminating pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms. However, the use of chemicals in food preservation has negative effects for both the consumption values of food and the natural environment. Therefore, it seems absolutely necessary to implement measures utilizing the most environmentally friendly and effective techniques for controlling microbial contamination in food. There is a great need to develop ecological methods in food production which guarantee adequate safety. One of these methods is the use of bacteriophages (bacterial viruses) naturally occurring in the environment. Given the above, the aim of this study was to present the most natural, ecological, and alternative methods of food preservation with regard to the most common foodborne zoonotic bacteria. We also present methods for reducing the occurrence of microbial contamination in food, thus to produce maximally safe food for consumers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology and Molecular Pathogenesis of Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence for Foodborne Pathogens: 2nd Edition)

17 pages, 1417 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Validation of a High-Throughput Microfluidic Real-Time PCR for the Detection of Vector-Borne Agents in Wild Birds from the Brazilian Pantanal

by Amir Salvador Alabí Córdova, João Batista Pinho, Amanda Garcia Pereira, Clémence Galon, Tiago Valadares Ferreira, Lorena Freitas das Neves, Gabrielly de Oliveira Lopes, Rosangela Zacarias Machado, Sara Moutailler and Marcos Rogério André

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 491; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050491 - 16 May 2025

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Abstract

Despite numerous studies on haemosporidians in wild birds from Brazil, the presence of other vector-borne agents (VBA) such as Anaplasma spp., Bartonella spp., and Onchocercidae filariids in avian hosts remains largely unknown. The low occurrence of these VBAs might be due to the [...] Read more.

Despite numerous studies on haemosporidians in wild birds from Brazil, the presence of other vector-borne agents (VBA) such as Anaplasma spp., Bartonella spp., and Onchocercidae filariids in avian hosts remains largely unknown. The low occurrence of these VBAs might be due to the low sensitivity of traditional molecular techniques. The microfluidic real-time PCR assay, known for its high sensitivity, has emerged as a promising method to detect and study the occurrence and diversity of VBAs in both arthropod vectors and vertebrate hosts. To validate previously and standardize newly designed microfluidic real-time PCR protocols, selected positive avian blood DNA samples for Anaplasma spp., Bartonella spp., haemosporidians, and filariids were used. The molecular occurrence rates for the selected VBAs were 18.2% for Anaplasma spp., 0.36% for Bartonella spp., 6.2% for Plasmodium spp., 4.7% for Haemoproteus spp., and 6.5% for Onchocercidae filariids. The Plasmodium spp. cytB sequence detected in a Volatinia jacarina clustered with Plasmodium tejerai, whereas the Haemoproteus spp. cytB sequence detected in a Columbina squamata clustered with Haemoproteus columbae. While Onchocercidae filariid cox-1 sequences were detected in specimens of Ramphocelus carbo, Turdus amaurocalinus and Synallaxis albilora grouped with Aproctella spp., one sequence detected in R. carbo was ancestral to the clade comprising Splendidofilaria spp. and Eufilaria spp. High-throughput microfluidic real-time PCR assay can be used for screening VBAs in avian hosts from South America, but new primers/probe sets should be designed for VBA genotypes present in Brazil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vector Control and Parasitic Infection in Animals)

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15 pages, 5060 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Fusarium Head Blight Resistance Through a Genome-Wide Association Study in CIMMYT and South Asian Wheat Germplasm

by Rupsanatan Mandal, Xinyao He, Gyanendra Pratap Singh, Muhammad Rezaul Kabir, Arun Kumar Joshi and Pawan Kumar Singh

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 490; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050490 - 16 May 2025

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Abstract

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is an important disease throughout the world due to its strong association with yield reduction, quality deterioration, and mycotoxin contamination in wheat. The use of FHB-resistant genotypes in wheat production can significantly reduce damage. The current study screened a [...] Read more.

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is an important disease throughout the world due to its strong association with yield reduction, quality deterioration, and mycotoxin contamination in wheat. The use of FHB-resistant genotypes in wheat production can significantly reduce damage. The current study screened a panel of bread wheat from CIMMYT and South Asian countries for FHB resistance to identify promising genotypes useful for wheat breeding and to map the associated genomic regions and linked molecular markers through a genome-wide association study (GWAS). Spray-inoculated field experiments were conducted at CIMMYT, Mexico, over three years, and a wide range of phenotypic variations was observed. Four lines, CIM-39, CIM-29, CIM-9, and CIM-3, exhibited consistent resistance across experiments, with FHB indices ranging from 6.5 to 8.1. Genotyping was conducted using the Illumina Infinium 15 K Bead Chip, and 11,184 high-quality SNP markers were obtained and used for GWAS. Nineteen significant marker-trait associations (MTAs) were detected, among which MTAs at Ra_c58315_265 on 1A and Tdurum_contig102328_129 and Ku_c20136_198 on 7B showed reproducible results, with phenotypic effects on FHB resistance of 6.05%, 3.54%, and 3.92%, respectively. Several genes associated with disease resistance were found near the significant SNPs. The identified resistant genotypes and markers may be useful in future marker-assisted breeding in wheat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Fusarium: 2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 1897 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Detection of Encephalitozoon cuniculi in Migratory Waterfowl of the Genus Anser (Anseriformes: Anatidae) in Poland

by Piotr Solarczyk, Agnieszka Perec-Matysiak, Agnieszka Wojtkowiak-Giera and Mike Heddergott

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 489; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050489 - 16 May 2025

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Abstract

Microsporidiosis is a zoonotic disease that derives from disparate sources. Most of the microsporidial agents are host-specific but some are capable of interspecies transmission, causing disease in various animals including humans. Human microsporidiosis may be caused by 17 species, with Encephalitozoon cuniculi, [...] Read more.

Microsporidiosis is a zoonotic disease that derives from disparate sources. Most of the microsporidial agents are host-specific but some are capable of interspecies transmission, causing disease in various animals including humans. Human microsporidiosis may be caused by 17 species, with Encephalitozoon cuniculi, E. intestinalis and E. hellem mostly being responsible for human infections worldwide. Wildlife and migratory waterfowl can serve as reservoirs of these human-infectious agents and play a significant role in disseminating these pathogens into the environment. The aim of the study was to detect E. cuniculi, E. intestinalis and E. hellem in wild, migratory greater white-fronted geese (Anser albifrons) and other Anatidae members in feacal samples obtained in north-western Poland, using a molecular method. We collected 189 fecal droppings from Anatidae species (75 samples from greater white-fronted geese and 114 from other Anser spp.) during autumn migration. New species specific primers for PCR amplification were used to amplify a fragment of the small subunit ribosomal (SSU) rRNA of E. cuniculi, E. intestinalis and E. hellem. All fecal droppings were negative for E. intestinalis and E. hellem whereas E cuniculi was detected in 6 of 189 fecal samples (3.2%; 95% CI: 1.3–6.3%). In total, 1 of 75 tested fecal samples of greater white-fronted geese was positive (1.3%; 95% CI: 0.08–5.7%) while 5 of 114 (4.4%; 95% CI: 1.6–9.1%) tested fecal samples without exact species affiliation (only Anser sp.) were also positive. The phylogenetic analysis placed the sequences obtained from the birds’ droppings in the clade E. cuniculi from various rodents, wild carnivores and humans. Our results provide the first description of the occurrence and genotyping of the microsporidian E. cuniculi in greater white-fronted geese and in other members of the Anserinae Subfamily. Our findings support the results of other authors that E. cuniculi may originate from diverse sources, including common waterfowl. Our results are important in a One Health context, as wild migrating waterfowl may disseminate this zoonotic agent in remote regions through their migratory behaviour. These species should be considered significant sources of zoonotic pathogens, potentially hazardous to domestic and farmed animals as well as humans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens of Wild Birds: Prevalence, Molecular and Morphological Characterization)

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13 pages, 2372 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Reactivation of Latent Tuberculosis Following COVID-19 and Epstein-Barr Virus Coinfection: A Case Report

by Iryna Halabitska, Pavlo Petakh, Valentyn Oksenych and Oleksandr Kamyshnyi

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 488; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050488 - 16 May 2025

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Abstract

Background: This case is unique in demonstrating the reactivation of latent tuberculosis (TB) following co-infection with SARS-CoV-2 and Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) in an otherwise healthy young adult. It highlights a rare clinical scenario in which viral immune dysregulation likely facilitated TB progression. To [...] Read more.

Background: This case is unique in demonstrating the reactivation of latent tuberculosis (TB) following co-infection with SARS-CoV-2 and Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) in an otherwise healthy young adult. It highlights a rare clinical scenario in which viral immune dysregulation likely facilitated TB progression. To date, few reports have explored the complex interplay between COVID-19, EBV reactivation, and TB in a single patient, particularly with isolated extrapulmonary involvement. Case Presentation: A 24-year-old woman presented with persistent low-grade fever, fatigue, night sweats, unintentional weight loss, and progressive cervical and supraclavicular lymphadenopathy. These symptoms emerged shortly after a moderate COVID-19 infection. Laboratory studies revealed elevated inflammatory markers and pronounced lymphopenia. EBV reactivation was confirmed via serology and PCR. Despite antiviral therapy, symptoms persisted, and imaging revealed necrotic lymphadenopathy. Tuberculous lymphadenitis was diagnosed through fine-needle aspiration cytology and PCR detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The patient was treated with a standard anti-tuberculosis regimen, resulting in clinical, radiological, and immunological improvement. Conclusions: This case underscores the importance of considering latent TB reactivation in patients with persistent lymphadenopathy and recent viral infections, particularly in regions with high TB prevalence. It also emphasizes the need for thorough immunological and microbiological assessment in complex post-viral syndromes. The main clinical takeaway is that COVID-19 and EBV co-infection may create a permissive environment for TB reactivation through immune system compromise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Herpesvirus Latency and Reactivation)

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13 pages, 230 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic and Antigenic Diversity of Neisseria meningitidis Serogroup B Strains in Vietnam

by Trieu Phi Long, Vo Viet Cuong, Bui Thi Lan Anh, Trinh Van Toan, Vu Thi Loan, Pham Viet Hung, Le Thi Lan Anh, Nguyen Ngoc Tan, Luong Thi Mo, Le Van Khanh and Hoang Van Tong

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 487; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050487 - 15 May 2025

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Abstract

Background: Neisseria meningitidis (N. meningitidis) is a leading cause of acute meningitis and is classified into 13 serogroups, six of which are predominantly associated with invasive meningococcal disease. This study aimed to investigate the genotype, subgenotype, and antigenic profiles of N. [...] Read more.

Background: Neisseria meningitidis (N. meningitidis) is a leading cause of acute meningitis and is classified into 13 serogroups, six of which are predominantly associated with invasive meningococcal disease. This study aimed to investigate the genotype, subgenotype, and antigenic profiles of N. meningitidis serogroup B strains isolated in Vietnam. Methods: Genotyping was performed on 106 N. meningitidis strains isolated from clinical samples from Vietnamese patients and nasopharyngeal swabs of healthy adolescents between 2019 and 2024. The genetic profiles, including the porA, porB, fetA, fHbp, abcZ, adk, aroE, fumC, gdh, pdhC, and pgm genes, were analyzed using Sanger sequencing and bioinformatic methods. Results: We found that 84.9% of the strains carried VR3 families 36 or 35-1, with VR1, VR2, and VR3 families 22-25, 14, and 36 being the most prevalent. Among the 106 serogroup B isolates, 20 variants of the porB allele 3 were identified, with porB 3-1212 being the most frequent (30.2%). Dominant PorB variable loops included L1.6, L4.5, L5.7, L6.6, and L7.13. fHbp variant group 2 was predominant (104/106 strains), and 12 FetA allele variants were identified, with F1-7 being the most common (47.2%). Three clonal complexes were identified, and clonal complex ST-32 was the most predominant. Fifty-five strains (51.9%) belonged to sequence types that have not yet been assigned to any clonal complexes, and 15 strains (14.1%) with allelic profiles were not assigned to STs. The 3-253 and 3-1212 alleles of porB, the F1-7 variant of FetA, the ST-44 and ST-1576 sequence types, and the ST-41/44 complex were observed more frequently in patients compared to asymptomatic carriers, suggesting their association with more virulence. Conclusions: This study showed a high genetic and antigenic diversity of N. meningitidis serogroup B isolates in Vietnam, with VR3 family 36 most common and porB 3-1212 as the predominant allele. fHbp variant group 2 and FetA allele F1-7 were most frequent. ST-32 was the dominant clonal complex, though many strains remained unassigned, highlighting the need for ongoing molecular surveillance. Full article

13 pages, 1789 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic Epidemiology and Resistance Investigations of Clinical Yeasts in Alexandria, Egypt

by Bram Spruijtenburg, Carolina Melchior do Prado, Mats van Kempen, Sherine M. Shawky, Jacques F. Meis, Vânia Aparecida Vicente, Flavio Queiroz-Telles, Theun de Groot, Mohammed A. El-Kholy and Eelco F. J. Meijer

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 486; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050486 - 15 May 2025

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Abstract

Yeast bloodstream infections lead to high mortality and morbidity and are mostly observed in immunocompromised patients. In Africa, only a few studies have characterized clinical yeasts. To increase insight into yeast resistance and transmission in Africa, we identified various yeasts from Alexandria, Egypt [...] Read more.

Yeast bloodstream infections lead to high mortality and morbidity and are mostly observed in immunocompromised patients. In Africa, only a few studies have characterized clinical yeasts. To increase insight into yeast resistance and transmission in Africa, we identified various yeasts from Alexandria, Egypt and performed antifungal susceptibility testing (AFST) and genotyping. A total of 1307 single isolates from unique patients, recovered from different anatomical sites including the bloodstream, retrieved from a reference laboratory in Alexandria, Egypt were studied. All isolates were identified with MALDI-TOF MS, while some were initially identified with a Vitek 2 Compact system. Short tandem repeat (STR) genotyping was performed for the most common species, and AFST was performed with microbroth dilution. Among bloodstream isolates (n = 71), C. albicans was the most common etiological agent, followed by C. tropicalis and C. parapsilosis. Comparison of yeast identification methods demonstrated that 22% of isolates were incorrectly identified with the Vitek 2 Compact system compared to MALDI-TOF MS. Multiple rare yeasts showed reduced antifungal susceptibility. STR genotyping demonstrated potential events of nosocomial transmission with N. glabratus and C. parapsilosis. Moreover, an azole-resistant C. tropicalis clade identified earlier in Alexandria was still present. To conclude, clinical yeasts in Alexandria, Egypt, are overall susceptible common species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology and Molecular Detection of Emerging Fungal Pathogens)

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25 pages, 12805 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From the Gut to the Brain: Transcriptomic Insights into Neonatal Meningitis Escherichia coli Across Diverse Host Niches

by Lekshmi K. Edison and Subhashinie Kariyawasam

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 485; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050485 - 15 May 2025

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Abstract

Neonatal Meningitis-causing Escherichia coli (NMEC) is the leading cause of neonatal meningitis and exhibits remarkable adaptability to diverse host environments. Understanding its transcriptional responses across different host niches is crucial for deciphering pathogenesis and identifying potential therapeutic targets. We performed a comparative transcriptomic [...] Read more.

Neonatal Meningitis-causing Escherichia coli (NMEC) is the leading cause of neonatal meningitis and exhibits remarkable adaptability to diverse host environments. Understanding its transcriptional responses across different host niches is crucial for deciphering pathogenesis and identifying potential therapeutic targets. We performed a comparative transcriptomic analysis of NMEC RS218, the prototype strain of NMEC, under four distinct host-mimicking conditions: colonic fluid (CF), serum (S), human brain endothelial cells (HBECs), and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Differential gene expression analysis was conducted to assess metabolic shifts, virulence factor regulation, and niche-specific adaptation strategies, in which RS218 demonstrated niche-specific transcriptional reprogramming. In CF, genes associated with biofilm formation, motility, efflux pumps, and cell division regulation were upregulated, aiding gut colonization. The serum environment triggered the expression of siderophore-mediated iron acquisition, enterobactin biosynthesis, and heme utilization genes, facilitating immune evasion and bacterial persistence. In HBECs, NMEC upregulated genes linked to nucleoside metabolism, membrane remodeling, pilus organization, and blood–brain barrier (BBB) traversal. In CSF, genes related to oxidative stress resistance, chemotaxis, DNA repair, biofilm formation, and amino acid biosynthesis were enriched, reflecting NMEC’s adaptive mechanisms for survival under nutrient-depleted conditions. Energy-intensive pathways were consistently downregulated across all niches, highlighting the need for an energy conservation strategy. This study provides novel insights into NMEC’s adaptive strategies across different host environments, emphasizing its metabolic flexibility, virulence regulation, and immune evasion mechanisms, offering potential targets for therapeutic intervention. Full article

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27 pages, 3928 KiB

Open AccessArticle

3,3′-((3-Hydroxyphenyl)azanediyl)dipropionic Acid Derivatives as a Promising Scaffold Against Drug-Resistant Pathogens and Chemotherapy-Resistant Cancer

by Povilas Kavaliauskas, Waldo Acevedo, Eglė Mickevičiūtė, Ramunė Grigalevičiūtė, Birutė Grybaitė, Birutė Sapijanskaitė-Banevič, Guoda Pranaitytė, Vidmantas Petraitis, Rūta Petraitienė and Vytautas Mickevičius

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050484 - 15 May 2025

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Abstract

The synthesis and antimicrobial and anticancer activity of 3,3′-((3-hydroxyphenyl)azanediyl)dipropionic acid derivatives (2–25) against drug-resistant bacterial pathogens and FaDu head and neck cancer cells were investigated. The derivatives were synthesized through various methods, including esterification, hydrazinolysis, and condensation reactions. The [...] Read more.

The synthesis and antimicrobial and anticancer activity of 3,3′-((3-hydroxyphenyl)azanediyl)dipropionic acid derivatives (2–25) against drug-resistant bacterial pathogens and FaDu head and neck cancer cells were investigated. The derivatives were synthesized through various methods, including esterification, hydrazinolysis, and condensation reactions. The compounds demonstrated structure-dependent antimicrobial activity, predominantly targeting Gram-positive pathogens. Compounds containing 4-nitrophenyl, 1-naphthyl, and 5-nitro-2-thienyl groups exhibited enhanced activity against S. aureus and E. faecalis. Additionally, compounds 5, 6, and 25 showed antiproliferative activity in cisplatin-resistant FaDu cells at low micromolar concentrations. The in silico modeling revealed that compound 25 interacts with the HER-2 and c-MET proteins. These compounds also induced significant oxidative stress in FaDu cells and demonstrated low cytotoxic activity in non-cancerous HEK293 cells. These results highlight the potential of N-aryl-substituted β-amino acid derivatives as promising scaffolds for the further development of novel amino acid-based antimicrobial and anticancer agents targeting drug-resistant pathogens and cancers. Full article

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16 pages, 493 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enterococcus faecium as an Emerging Pathogen: Molecular Epidemiology and Antimicrobial Resistance in Clinical Strains

by Adele Lombardi, Giancarlo Ripabelli, Michela Lucia Sammarco and Manuela Tamburro

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050483 - 15 May 2025

Viewed by 153

Abstract

Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium represents an emerging threat in healthcare settings. The aim of this study was to investigate biomolecular characteristics of 31 E. faecium isolates from patients in two hospitals of Molise region, central Italy. Particularly, antimicrobial resistance profiles and prevalence of resistance [...] Read more.

Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium represents an emerging threat in healthcare settings. The aim of this study was to investigate biomolecular characteristics of 31 E. faecium isolates from patients in two hospitals of Molise region, central Italy. Particularly, antimicrobial resistance profiles and prevalence of resistance and virulence genes were analyzed, as well as the clonal relationships and sequence types (STs). Antimicrobial susceptibility and genes associated with resistance and virulence were evaluated using automated system and PCR assays, respectively. SmaI-based pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and multilocus sequence typing were performed following standardized protocols. All strains exhibited resistance to vancomycin and teicoplanin, and high rates were detected for other antibiotics, except for linezolid. PFGE identified 18 clusters and 26 pulsotypes (Simpson’s index, 0.98). ST80, ST1478, and ST2164 were identified, with ST80 as the most frequent (77.4%). The resistance genes vanA, aac(6′)-Ie-aph(2″)-Ia, aph(3′)-IIIa, and ermB were detected in 90.3%, 93.6%, 93.6%, and 90.3% of the strains, respectively, while the esp gene was prevalent (61.3%) amongst virulence genes. The study findings highlight the predominance of multidrug-resistant clones and virulence determinants among E. faecium strains circulating in the regional hospitals, reinforcing the urgency of implementing targeted molecular surveillance and robust antimicrobial stewardship strategies to contain their spread. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Progress on Bacterial Antimicrobial Resistance)

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5 pages, 173 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases

by Ricardo Pereira Igreja, Priscila Marques de Macedo and Maria Cristina Schneider

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050482 - 15 May 2025

Viewed by 157

Abstract

The vision that everything is connected in this world is not new [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases)

11 pages, 3241 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Malaria Digital Archives in Myanmar Through Official Development Assistance and Their Narrative Review

by Koji Kanda

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 481; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050481 - 14 May 2025

Viewed by 105

Abstract

The Myanmar government aims to eliminate malaria by 2030, but comprehensive summaries of its malaria control efforts are scarce. To support this goal, a literature review and long-term document preservation are essential. This study collected academic papers, master’s and doctoral theses, and policy [...] Read more.

The Myanmar government aims to eliminate malaria by 2030, but comprehensive summaries of its malaria control efforts are scarce. To support this goal, a literature review and long-term document preservation are essential. This study collected academic papers, master’s and doctoral theses, and policy documents on malaria control in Myanmar and its surrounding regions, published between 1950 and 2016 through Official Development Assistance. The documents were sourced from online databases, medical universities, and research institutions in Yangon. They were categorized by region and WHO-defined malaria control activity areas and archived digitally at the Ministry of Health. A total of 1107 relevant papers were identified, with 818 collected. Epidemiology-related studies accounted for 40%, followed by drug resistance, surveillance, and treatment. Recent years have seen a rise in genetic and molecular epidemiology research. Full-text analysis revealed significant malaria research in border regions, particularly near the borders of Thailand and China. This study highlights the progress and historical trends in Myanmar’s efforts to control malaria. The archive created will be a valuable resource for future policy planning and implementation efforts aimed at achieving malaria elimination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Parasitic Pathogens)

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26 pages, 1078 KiB

Open AccessReview

Rotavirus Infections: Pathophysiology, Symptoms, and Vaccination

by Karolina Pawłuszkiewicz, Piotr Józef Ryglowski, Natalia Idzik, Katarzyna Błaszczyszyn, Emilia Kucharczyk, Dagmara Gaweł-Dąbrowska, Marta Siczek, Jarosław Widelski and Emil Paluch

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 480; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050480 - 14 May 2025

Viewed by 160

Abstract

Rotavirus (RV) is the most common cause of severe acute gastroenteritis (AGE) in children under five years of age. This review summarizes current knowledge on RV infections, with a particular focus on viral structure, pathophysiological mechanisms, and age-dependent clinical presentation. Special attention is [...] Read more.

Rotavirus (RV) is the most common cause of severe acute gastroenteritis (AGE) in children under five years of age. This review summarizes current knowledge on RV infections, with a particular focus on viral structure, pathophysiological mechanisms, and age-dependent clinical presentation. Special attention is given to systemic manifestations, including central nervous system involvement, autoimmune responses such as type 1 diabetes and celiac disease, and rare associations with biliary atresia. The mechanisms of RV-induced diarrhea and vomiting are discussed in detail. Clinical severity scoring systems—such as the Vesikari and Clark scales—and dehydration assessment tools—the Clinical Dehydration Scale (CDS) and the Dehydration: Assessing Kids Accurately (DHAKA) score—are compared. The review highlights differences in disease course between children under and over five years, emphasizing that RV is not limited to early childhood. A major section addresses the global effectiveness of vaccination programs, their role in reducing disease burden, coverage challenges, and decreased efficacy in low-income countries. Particular focus is placed on high-risk groups, including preterm and immunocompromised infants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)

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17 pages, 4719 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Head and Neck Tuberculosis: A Rare Diagnosis and the Role of Surgical Biopsy and Histopathological Evaluation in Extrapulmonary Disease

by Carmen Aurelia Mogoantă, Andrei Osman, Alina-Maria Georgescu, Alexandra Maria Mitroi, Constantin Ioan Busuioc, Ionuţ Tănase, Ramona Cioboată, Ilona Mihaela Liliac, Ovidiu Lucian Cimpeanu and Mircea Sorin Ciolofan

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 479; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050479 - 14 May 2025

Viewed by 130

Abstract

(1) Background: Extrapulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB) of the head and neck is a rare but difficult diagnosis due to mostly absent pulmonary involvement and high clinical resemblance to neoplastic or chronic inflammatory conditions. This diagnosis still poses a challenge for otorhinolaryngologists, due to non-specific [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Extrapulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB) of the head and neck is a rare but difficult diagnosis due to mostly absent pulmonary involvement and high clinical resemblance to neoplastic or chronic inflammatory conditions. This diagnosis still poses a challenge for otorhinolaryngologists, due to non-specific symptoms and the low index of suspicion in non-endemic regions. (2) Methods: This study presents a retrospective review of nine cases of head and neck EPTB diagnosed at two regional hospitals in southern Romania. Patients presented with pharyngeal, laryngeal, or cervical lymph node involvement. All cases underwent surgical biopsies for histopathological and microbiological confirmation, followed by standard anti-tubercular therapy. (3) Results: In all nine cases, surgical biopsies were essential for the accurate diagnosis and excluded malignancy or other granulomatous diseases. Diagnostic delays were observed due to atypical clinical presentations. Integration of biopsy findings with anti-tubercular treatment resulted in favorable disease control and clinical recovery. (4) Conclusions: Head and neck EPTB requires a high index of suspicion and clinical discernment. Surgical biopsy remains a critical diagnostic tool in practice and should be considered early in the diagnostic process when encountering atypical lesions. A timely use improves diagnostic accuracy, may eliminate delays, ensures patient safety, and improves therapeutic outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers on the Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)

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17 pages, 3975 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Orientia tsutsugamushi Modulates RIPK3 Cellular Levels but Does Not Inhibit Necroptosis

by Thomas E. Siff, Paige E. Allen, David L. Armistead, Jason R. Hunt, Steven J. Rolland, Hervé Agaisse and Jason A. Carlyon

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050478 - 14 May 2025

Viewed by 139

Abstract

Scrub typhus is an emerging chigger-borne disease caused by the obligate intracellular bacterium Orientia tsutsugamushi. Necroptosis is a form of programmed cell death (PCD) mediated by RIPK3 (serine/threonine kinase receptor interacting protein 3) and its downstream effector MLKL (mixed-lineage kinase domain-like). While [...] Read more.

Scrub typhus is an emerging chigger-borne disease caused by the obligate intracellular bacterium Orientia tsutsugamushi. Necroptosis is a form of programmed cell death (PCD) mediated by RIPK3 (serine/threonine kinase receptor interacting protein 3) and its downstream effector MLKL (mixed-lineage kinase domain-like). While O. tsutsugamushi modulates apoptosis, another form of PCD, its interplay with necroptosis is unknown. Much of Orientia pathobiology is linked to its ankyrin repeat (AR)-containing effectors (Anks). Two of these, Ank1 and Ank6, share similarities with the cowpox AR protein, vIRD (viral inducer of RIPK3 degradation) that prevents necroptosis. Here, we show that Ank1 and Ank6 reduce RIPK3 cellular levels although not as robustly as and mechanistically distinct from vIRD. Orientia infection lowers RIPK3 amounts and does not elicit necroptosis in endothelial cells. In HeLa cells ectopically expressing RIPK3, Orientia fails to inhibit RIPK3 and MLKL phosphorylation as well as cell death. MLKL colocalization with Orientia or Listeria monocytogenes, another intracytoplasmic pathogen, was not observed. Thus, O. tsutsugamushi reduces cellular levels of RIPK3 and does not elicit necroptosis but cannot inhibit this PCD pathway once it is induced. This study is a first step toward understanding how the relationship between Orientia and necroptosis contributes to scrub typhus pathogenesis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases—2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 3237 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Novel Gene-Specific Markers for Differentiating Various Pathogenic Campylobacter Species Using a Pangenome Analysis Approach

by Emmanuel Kuufire, Kingsley E. Bentum, Rejoice Nyarku, Viona Osei, Asmaa Elrefaey, Tyric James, Yilkal Woube, Raphael Folitse, Temesgen Samuel and Woubit Abebe

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050477 - 14 May 2025

Viewed by 203

Abstract

Campylobacter spp. are the causative agents of campylobacteriosis, a major foodborne illness globally, with millions of cases reported annually. These pathogens pose significant risks to both human and animal health. Conventional culture-based diagnostic methods are labor-intensive and time-consuming, underscoring the need for more [...] Read more.

Campylobacter spp. are the causative agents of campylobacteriosis, a major foodborne illness globally, with millions of cases reported annually. These pathogens pose significant risks to both human and animal health. Conventional culture-based diagnostic methods are labor-intensive and time-consuming, underscoring the need for more efficient molecular detection strategies. This study employed a pangenomic analysis to identify novel gene-specific markers for pathogenic Campylobacter species and subspecies, laying the groundwork for their application in diverse diagnostic assays. A curated dataset of 105 high-quality genomes, representing 33 species and 9 subspecies, was analyzed using the Roary ILP Bacterial Annotation Pipeline. The results revealed substantial genomic diversity within the genus, with core gene counts varying across different nucleotide identity thresholds. Ribosomal genes such as rpsL, rpsJ, rpsS, rpmA, rpsK, rpsU, rpsG, rpmH, and rpsZ were consistently identified in the core genome, whereas accessory genes exhibited marked variability. This study uncovered novel and highly specific genetic markers for various Campylobacter species, including petB, clpX, and carB for C. coli; hypothetical proteins for C. jejuni and C. fetus; porA2 for C. lari; and mdtJ for C. upsaliensis. These markers demonstrated a specificity of at least 90% with minimal cross-reactivity with non-target organisms. The findings underscore the genomic heterogeneity within Campylobacter and provide essential genetic targets for the enhanced molecular detection of its pathogenic species, subspecies, and biovars. Full article

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13 pages, 1052 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular and Genetic Analysis of the Increased Number of Genes for Trypanosoma cruzi Microtubule Associated Proteins in the Class Kinetoplastida

by Martin A. Winkler and Alfred A. Pan

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050476 - 14 May 2025

Viewed by 200

Abstract

Trypanosoma cruzi GenBank^® M21331 encodes for Antigen 36 (Ag 36), which is a tandemly repeated T. cruzi antigen. GenBank M21331 has a gene sequence similarity to human immune genes IFN-α, IFN-β, and IFN-γ, as well as to human TRIM genes. A BLAST-p [...] Read more.

Trypanosoma cruzi GenBank^® M21331 encodes for Antigen 36 (Ag 36), which is a tandemly repeated T. cruzi antigen. GenBank M21331 has a gene sequence similarity to human immune genes IFN-α, IFN-β, and IFN-γ, as well as to human TRIM genes. A BLAST-p search revealed that T. cruzi GenBank M21331 had seven gene sequences homologous to microtubule-associated protein (MAP) genes with a 100% amino acid sequence identity. There are 36 genes in the T. cruzi genome with >94% identity to GenBank M21331, and these genes encode proteins ranging in size from 38 to 2011 amino acids in length, the largest containing 20, 25, and 30 repeats of the Ag 36 thirty-eight-amino-acid-sequence motif. The purpose of this study was to perform a genetic and molecular comparative analysis of T. cruzi GenBank M21331 to determine if this gene sequence is unique to the T. cruzi clade, present in the T. brucei clade, and/or exists in other trypanosomatids. There are seven homologous genes to GenBank M21331 in T. cruzi, but only one homolog found of this gene in T. brucei. The MAP genes in T. cruzi appear to have expanded at least eleven-fold in number compared to similar MAP genes in T. brucei. The DNA sequences and functions of these MAP genes in their respective species and clades will be discussed and are a fascinating area for further scientific study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetics and Molecular Evolution of Parasitic Protozoa)

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17 pages, 4767 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Microbiome Characterization of Edible Visceral Organs and Fresh Meat During Production in a Pig Processing Facility in Thailand

by Jutamat Klinsoda, Alongkot Boonsoongnern, Narut Thanantong, Tanyanant Kaminsonsakul, Khemmapas Treesuwan, Sudsai Trevanich and Barbara U. Metzler-Zebeli

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 475; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050475 - 14 May 2025

Viewed by 277

Abstract

Besides meat, pig organs are traditionally consumed in Asia. However, they can be a source of food poisoning. Less is known about the microbiome associated with different organ meats and the inter-animal variation in the microbiomes of organs. The aim of this pilot [...] Read more.

Besides meat, pig organs are traditionally consumed in Asia. However, they can be a source of food poisoning. Less is known about the microbiome associated with different organ meats and the inter-animal variation in the microbiomes of organs. The aim of this pilot study was to characterize and compare the bacterial composition in fresh pig meat and organs (i.e., tonsils, lungs, and spleen) and blood from several carcasses using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing as a screening method. We also investigated how closely the bacterial composition of the meat and organ samples was related to the gut bacterial community and the bacterial communities on the hands of the workers at different positions during meat processing. Meat, organ, blood, and gut (cecum and feces) samples were collected from 12 carcasses in two batches (n = 6/batch), along with swab samples (n = 4/batch) from the hands of the workers at different positions along the processing chain, from which DNA was extracted. The results for the bacterial diversity showed that each sample type (meat, organ, and blood) comprised a unique taxonomic composition (p < 0.05). Moreover, the data confirmed great inter-animal and batch variation for the meat, organs, and blood, which is helpful information for implementing strategies to enhance hygiene measures at pig farms and slaughterhouses, and hence food safety and quality. The genera associated with food safety and spoilage, such as Anoxybacillus, Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, Campylobacter, and Streptococcus, were also different between the meat, organs, and blood. The bacterial communities in the gut samples distinctly clustered from communities in the pig organs and meat, whereas some overlaps in community clusters between lung, meat, and hand samples existed. This study demonstrates that the spleen, tonsils, and lungs contained more bacterial genera that comprise pathogenic strains than meat cuts, supporting the need to monitor their microbiome composition as potential contamination sources for food safety and spoilage reasons. Full article

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10 pages, 1307 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Cardiac Device-Related Infective Endocarditis Caused by Salmonella Infantis—Case Report and Review of Clinical and Epidemiologic Implications

by Kristína Doležalová, Lubomír Soják, Annamária Grigláková, Ján Jurenka, Martin Sedlák, Lucia Horniaková, Peter Kromka, Mária Szántová and Peter Sabaka

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 474; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050474 - 14 May 2025

Viewed by 181

Abstract

Background: Salmonella enterica serovar Infantis (S. Infantis) is a widespread pathogen in agriculture, causing epidemics in chicken flocks. Despite being primarily an animal pathogen, it may pose significant health risks to immunocompromised individuals. Methods: This report describes the first known case of [...] Read more.

Background: Salmonella enterica serovar Infantis (S. Infantis) is a widespread pathogen in agriculture, causing epidemics in chicken flocks. Despite being primarily an animal pathogen, it may pose significant health risks to immunocompromised individuals. Methods: This report describes the first known case of cardiac device-related infective endocarditis (CDRIE) attributed to S. Infantis, highlighting its emerging pathogenic potential. It also reviews the literature for microbiologic and epidemiologic perspectives. Results: A 61-year-old male with a history of high-grade multiple myeloma presented with nonspecific symptoms, including low-grade fever and exertional dyspnoea. Blood cultures identified a pure culture of S. Infantis, and transoesophageal echocardiography revealed vegetations on pacing leads. Following pacemaker extraction and appropriate antimicrobial therapy, the patient’s condition temporary improved, but later deteriorated due to the progression of underlying malignancy. Conclusions: This case underscores the importance of considering S. Infantis in the differential diagnosis of endocarditis in immunocompromised patients, along with the critical need for stringent food safety measures to mitigate infection risks from contaminated poultry products. Full article

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12 pages, 2463 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simultaneous Detection of Classical and African Swine Fever Viruses by Duplex Taqman Real-Time PCR Assay in Pigs Infected with Both Diseases

by Liani Coronado, Adriana Muñoz-Aguilera, Miaomiao Wang, Iván Muñoz, Cristina Riquelme, Saray Heredia, Katarzyna Stępniewska, Carmina Gallardo and Llilianne Ganges

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050473 - 13 May 2025

Viewed by 116

Abstract

The increasing spread of African swine fever (ASF) in recent years and the presence of classical swine fever (CSF) subclinical forms in endemic countries suggests that the possibility of coinfection with ASF virus (ASFV) and CSF virus (CSFV) in pigs cannot be ruled [...] Read more.

The increasing spread of African swine fever (ASF) in recent years and the presence of classical swine fever (CSF) subclinical forms in endemic countries suggests that the possibility of coinfection with ASF virus (ASFV) and CSF virus (CSFV) in pigs cannot be ruled out in areas where both diseases are prevalent. Thus, rapid and reliable diagnosis through molecular testing is essential for the timely implementation of control measures to prevent the spread of these devastating swine diseases. Here, we have coupled two of the most validated PCR assays for the detection of CSFV and ASFV in a single reaction tube. The combination of the two tests for the detection of two target nucleic acids did not affect the analytical sensitivity, and the duplex RT-qPCR assay was comparable with the standard molecular techniques. The detection limits for CSFV RNA and ASFV DNA were 0.12 TCID₅₀/reaction and 0.25 TCID₅₀/reaction, respectively. The test showed high repeatability and reproducibility, the coefficient of variation was below 2%, and excellent performance was demonstrated in clinical samples. The duplex assay shows great potential to become a robust diagnostic tool for the rapid and reliable detection and differentiation of CSFV and ASFV in areas where both viruses may be circulating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)

25 pages, 386 KiB

Open AccessReview

Targeting Autophagy as a Strategy for Developing New Host-Directed Therapeutics Against Nontuberculous Mycobacteria

by Jia Wang and Sunhee Lee

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050472 - 13 May 2025

Viewed by 271

Abstract

Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTMs) are increasingly being recognized as opportunistic pathogens in clinical practice because of their innate resistance to antimicrobial treatment and the widespread increase in multidrug-resistant strains on a global scale. NTMs pose a tremendous infection management challenge, especially in individuals with [...] Read more.

Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTMs) are increasingly being recognized as opportunistic pathogens in clinical practice because of their innate resistance to antimicrobial treatment and the widespread increase in multidrug-resistant strains on a global scale. NTMs pose a tremendous infection management challenge, especially in individuals with pre-existing lung conditions, as well as those who are immunocompromised. NTMs’ capability to evade or suppress the immune responses of their host is a key feature that makes them a cause of persistent chronic infection. Autophagy, an essential cellular defense mechanism that delivers and breaks down intracellular materials in lysosomes, protects the host from mycobacterial infection. Initial studies have revealed encouraging therapeutic strategies that augment endogenous autophagic mechanisms or block harmful host responses, thus having the potential to decrease intracellular mycobacterial infection, including that caused by multidrug-resistant strains. This review discusses how NTMs can evade autophagic mechanisms and considers the possibilities of using autophagy-inducing agents to develop novel therapeutic strategies to combat NTM infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Re-Emerging Bacterial Infections)

20 pages, 3859 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cryo-Electron Microscopy of BfpB Reveals a Type IVb Secretin Multimer Adapted to Accommodate the Exceptionally Wide Bundle-Forming Pilus

by Janay I. Little, Pradip Kumar Singh, Montserrat Samsó and Michael S. Donnenberg

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050471 - 13 May 2025

Viewed by 201

Abstract

Type IV pili (T4Ps) are multifunctional surface fibers essential for bacterial motility, adhesion, and virulence, found across Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and archaea. Detailed descriptions of T4P structural biology are allowing progress in understanding T4P biogenesis. Secretins, large outer membrane channels, are crucial [...] Read more.

Type IV pili (T4Ps) are multifunctional surface fibers essential for bacterial motility, adhesion, and virulence, found across Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and archaea. Detailed descriptions of T4P structural biology are allowing progress in understanding T4P biogenesis. Secretins, large outer membrane channels, are crucial for T4P extrusion in Gram-negative bacteria. Using cryo-EM and AlphaFold, we modeled the structure of BfpB, the secretin of the Bundle-Forming Pilus (BFP) of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli. BfpB exhibits a unique 17-fold symmetry, correlating with the thicker BFP filaments, and diverging from the 12–15 subunits typical of T4P, type 2 secretion (T2S), and type 3 secretion (T3S) systems. Additionally, we identified an extended β-hairpin loop in the N3 domain, resembling features of distantly related T3SS secretins, and an N-terminal helix where a C-terminal S-domain is seen in some T2S and T3S secretins. These findings reveal evolutionary parallels and structural adaptations in secretins, highlighting the link between oligomerization and pilus structure. This work advances our understanding of T4P biogenesis, secretin evolution, and bacterial secretion systems, offering insights into pathogenic diversity and future research directions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Biology Applied in the Study of Pathogenic Bacteria)

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15 pages, 2010 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Association Between IL-28B (rs8099917) and IL-28B (rs12979860) with Predisposition to Diseases Related to the HTLV-1: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Naomi Cuenca, Damarys Cordero and Brenda López-Ulloa

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050470 - 13 May 2025

Viewed by 238

Abstract

This research addresses IL-28B gene polymorphisms (rs12979860 and rs8099917) to determine their association with HTLV-1-related diseases; it aims to compare genotypic frequencies to identify predisposition or protection, considering population, disease, and controls. Given HTLV-1’s impact on immunity, this study seeks biomarkers for early [...] Read more.

This research addresses IL-28B gene polymorphisms (rs12979860 and rs8099917) to determine their association with HTLV-1-related diseases; it aims to compare genotypic frequencies to identify predisposition or protection, considering population, disease, and controls. Given HTLV-1’s impact on immunity, this study seeks biomarkers for early diagnosis and intervention. A systematic search met inclusion criteria, such as open access bibliographic and experimental studies published in English between 2010 and 2024, and genetic factors linked to susceptibility to pathologies. Regarding exclusion criteria, bibliographic or experimental studies in organisms other than humans, unofficial sources, non-indexed journals, and scientific articles in languages other than English were ruled out. Statistical data analyses were assessed using meta-analysis, including forest plot and Q test of heterogeneity based on the I² statistics. The analyzed data indicate associations between genotypes, such as CT, GG, CC, and TT of the rs12979890 and rs8099917 polymorphisms and the predisposition to various diseases, such as HCV, arthropathy, HAM/TSP, cytomegalovirus and Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever associated with HTLV-1; however, the observed inconsistencies, such as high heterogeneity, and deficiency of related information limit the consolidation of the findings. Further research is needed to clarify IL-28B genotype interactions and disease susceptibility in HTLV-1 infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virus–Host Interactions: Antivirals and Diagnostics)

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14 pages, 3168 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reassortment Dynamics: Phylogeography and Evolution of H4N9 Influenza Viruses

by Nataliia A. Bobrova, Ekaterina D. Lisenenkova, Ekaterina S. Avsievich, Olga N. Mityaeva, Pavel Yu Volchkov and Andrey A. Deviatkin

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050469 - 12 May 2025

Viewed by 153

Abstract

A characteristic feature of influenza A viruses is their high capacity for reassortment, significantly increasing their genetic diversity. This can lead to the formation of influenza A virus variants with unique phenotypic characteristics, particularly those with pandemic potential. Representatives of the H4N9 subtype [...] Read more.

A characteristic feature of influenza A viruses is their high capacity for reassortment, significantly increasing their genetic diversity. This can lead to the formation of influenza A virus variants with unique phenotypic characteristics, particularly those with pandemic potential. Representatives of the H4N9 subtype are low-pathogenic influenza A (LPAI) viruses. Despite their low pandemic potential, these viruses may represent an important reservoir of genes for genetic exchange with other IAVs. Here, we analyzed the reassortment events of H4N9 viruses using all publicly available sequences. Several computational approaches, including phylogenetic reconstructions and reassortment detection algorithms (PDDM and PDCP), were used to identify phylogenetic incongruences. Numerous reassortment events were detected in H4N9 viruses, especially in the NS segment. This suggests extensive genetic exchange with other avian and mammalian IAVs. In addition, a comparison of phylogenetic and geographic patterns suggests that H4N9 viruses have undergone multiple trans-regional transmissions. These results suggest that LPAI viruses make a significant contribution to the overall influenza gene pool, increasing the likelihood of the emergence of new IAV variants with unpredictable phenotypic characteristics. However, our results suggest that the current understanding of the real distribution and genetic diversity is fragmented. Therefore, better monitoring and surveillance of H4N9 viruses should improve influenza pandemic preparedness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights in Viral Diseases and Computational Biology)

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