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Pathogens
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One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases
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One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases

A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817). This special issue belongs to the section "Emerging Pathogens".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 March 2025) | Viewed by 29759

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Ricardo Pereira Igreja

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Guest Editor
Department of Preventive Medicine, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Interests: infectious and parasitic diseases; tropical medicine; travel medicine
Dr. Maria Cristina Schneider

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Department of International Health, Georgetown University, District of Columbia, Washington, DC, USA
2. Institute of Collective Health, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Interests: One Health; zoonotic diseases; infectious diseases
Dr. Priscila Marques de Macedo

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Co-Guest Editor
Laboratório de Pesquisa Clínica em Dermatologia Infecciosa, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Interests: medical mycology; endemic mycoses; neglected diseases; sporotrichosis; paracoccidioidomycosis

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The One Health concept emphasizes the importance of working collaboratively at the human–animal–ecosystem interface to predict, prevent, detect, respond to, and control infectious diseases. To understand disease transmission, it is important to review some definitions; the host or reservoir of a pathogen is the habitat in which the agent normally lives, grows, and multiplies while the host could be animals, humans, or the environment. It is estimated that 61% of human pathogens worldwide are zoonoses, a subgroup that comprises 75% of all emerging pathogens of the past decade. COVID-19 exposed the gaps in scientists’ knowledge on how diseases could spillover from animals to humans. This Special Issue therefore aims to discuss the current status and root causes of zoonotic diseases and the human–animal interphase.

Prof. Dr. Ricardo Pereira Igreja
Dr. Maria Cristina Schneider
Dr. Priscila Marques de Macedo
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • pathogen spillover
  • emerging zoonoses
  • One Health
  • environment
  • neglected zoonotic diseases

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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5 pages, 173 KiB  
Editorial
One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases
by Ricardo Pereira Igreja, Priscila Marques de Macedo and Maria Cristina Schneider
Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050482 - 15 May 2025
Viewed by 437
Abstract
The vision that everything is connected in this world is not new [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases)

Research

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19 pages, 2976 KiB  
Article
Leptospirosis Cases During the 2024 Catastrophic Flood in Rio Grande Do Sul, Brazil
by Tani Maria Ranieri, Eduardo Viegas da Silva, Marcelo Jostmeier Vallandro, Mayara Mota de Oliveira, Regina Bones Barcellos, Roberta Vanacor Lenhardt, Loeci Natalina Timm, Aline Scarpellini Campos, Cintia Simoni, Paulo Renato da Silva Abbad, Doris Bercht Brack, Tássia Flores Rech, Juliano de Oliveira Silveira, Vivian Oliveira Estevam, Lidsy Ximenes Fonseca, Deise I. Galan and Maria Cristina Schneider
Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 393; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040393 - 17 Apr 2025
Viewed by 1138
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a well-known disease that frequently occurs after floods. At the beginning of May 2024, a catastrophic flood occurred in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, affecting two million people and leading to a state of calamity. Given the State’s [...] Read more.
Leptospirosis is a well-known disease that frequently occurs after floods. At the beginning of May 2024, a catastrophic flood occurred in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, affecting two million people and leading to a state of calamity. Given the State’s high pre-flood leptospirosis rates, the disease became a major concern for decision-makers. This study aimed to estimate the rise in leptospirosis cases after the flood, assess the changes in case patterns before and after the disaster, and document the response of the state health surveillance center to the outbreak. We estimated the increase during the flood period (May to July 2024) by comparing it with the same period in the previous year as baseline. During the first three months of the catastrophic event, 6273 suspected cases of leptospirosis were reported to the surveillance system, and 958 cases were confirmed. The number of confirmed cases during the flood was 10.3-fold higher than the baseline. Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient was 0.77 (p-value < 0.0001) for the association of Health Regions regarding the rank in incidence rates of confirmed cases in the flood period and the proportion of the population with households flooded. Thirty deaths (three females) were confirmed, a 6.0-fold rise compared with 2023. The state responders carried out many activities, including epidemiological surveillance and the dissemination of information. Among the challenges faced was the lack of evidence in the literature supporting recommendations for antibiotic chemoprophylaxis for rescue personnel. Another difficulty concerned performing gold-standard laboratory diagnostic tests to confirm the enormous number of suspected cases reported during this catastrophe. Despite implementing many actions to mitigate its impact, leptospirosis remained a major challenge during the event. These findings may provide valuable insights for decision-makers facing similar situations in massive climate disasters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases)
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10 pages, 244 KiB  
Article
The Role of Ruminants as Sentinel Animals in the Circulation of the West Nile Virus in Tunisia
by Ahmed Ouni, Hajer Aounallah, Wafa Kammoun Rebai, Francisco Llorente, Walid Chendoul, Walid Hammami, Adel Rhim, Miguel Ángel Jiménez-Clavero, Elisa Pérez-Ramírez, Ali Bouattour and Youmna M’Ghirbi
Pathogens 2025, 14(3), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14030267 - 8 Mar 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 838
Abstract
Outbreaks of the West Nile Virus (WNV) have increased significantly in recent years in the Mediterranean region, including Tunisia. To understand the risks for animal and human health and to mitigate the impact of future outbreaks, comprehensive viral surveillance in vertebrate hosts and [...] Read more.
Outbreaks of the West Nile Virus (WNV) have increased significantly in recent years in the Mediterranean region, including Tunisia. To understand the risks for animal and human health and to mitigate the impact of future outbreaks, comprehensive viral surveillance in vertebrate hosts and vectors is needed. We conducted the first serosurvey for the WNV in ruminants in southern Tunisia using the ELISA test and confirmed it with the micro-virus neutralization test (VNT). Antibodies were detected by the ELISA test in camels (38/112), sheep (9/155), and goats (7/58), and six samples were doubtful (five camels and one sheep). The ELISA positive and doubtful sera (n = 60) were further analyzed to confirm the presence of specific anti-WNV and anti-Usutu virus (USUV) antibodies using the micro-virus neutralization test (VNT). Out of the 60 sera, 33 were confirmed for specific WNV antibodies, with an overall seroprevalence of 10.15% [95% CI: 7.09–13.96]. The high seroprevalence observed in camels (22.3%) suggests their potential use as sentinel animals for WNV surveillance in southern Tunisia. The viral genome, and consequently active circulation, could not be detected by real-time RT-qPCR in blood samples. Ongoing surveillance of the WNV in animals, including camels, sheep, and goats, may be used for the early detection of viral circulation and for a rapid response to mitigate potential outbreaks in horses and humans. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases)
12 pages, 1029 KiB  
Article
One Health Priorities: Advancing Veterinary Public Health in Latin America and the Caribbean
by Felipe Rocha, Alessandra Cristiane Sibim, Baldomero Molina-Flores, Wagner Antonio Chiba de Castro, Louise Bach Kmetiuk, Renato Vieira Alves, André Luis de Sousa dos Santos, Margarita Corrales Moreno, Álvaro A. Faccini-Martínez, Natalia Margarita Cediel, Alexander Welker Biondo, Ottorino Cosivi and Marco Antonio Natal Vigilato
Pathogens 2024, 13(8), 710; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13080710 - 21 Aug 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2352
Abstract
One Health (OH) is an integrative approach to human, animal, and environmental health and can be used as a comprehensive indicator for comparative purposes. Although an OH index has been proposed for comparing cities, states, and countries, to date, no practical study has [...] Read more.
One Health (OH) is an integrative approach to human, animal, and environmental health and can be used as a comprehensive indicator for comparative purposes. Although an OH index has been proposed for comparing cities, states, and countries, to date, no practical study has compared countries using this approach. Accordingly, this study aimed to assess OH initiatives using a survey with a veterinary public health focus. The questionnaire contained 104 quantitative questions and was sent to representatives of governmental institutions of 32 countries in the Americas. After exclusion criteria were considered, a total of 35 questionnaires from 17 countries were analyzed, with country names remaining undisclosed during the statistical analyses to protect potentially sensitive information. Principal component analysis (PCA) of health parameters in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) as a function of country perception (self-vector) showed that food safety was ranked higher than public policies (p = 0.009), and that both (p = 0.003) were ranked higher than institutional routines related to zoonosis programs. National policies in accordance with international standards, regulations, recommendations, and guidelines was considered the standout topic for public policy, with higher-ranking topics including standard. Meanwhile, challenging topics included tools, preparedness, governance, and research. Food safety showed both strengths and challenges in the coordination of its activities with other sectors. Food safety communication was scored as a strength, while foodborne diseases prevention was ranked as a challenge. Institutional routines for zoonosis maintained both strong and challenging topics in the execution and implementation of attributions and daily routine. Thus, the survey showed that topics such as access to and compliance with international guidelines and intercountry integration were ranked higher than in-country articulation, particularly among food safety, zoonoses, and environmental institutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases)
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21 pages, 3543 KiB  
Article
Identifying the Drivers Related to Animal Reservoirs, Environment, and Socio-Demography of Human Leptospirosis in Different Community Types of Southern Chile: An Application of Machine Learning Algorithm in One Health Perspective
by Himel Talukder, Claudia Muñoz-Zanzi, Miguel Salgado, Sergey Berg and Anni Yang
Pathogens 2024, 13(8), 687; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13080687 - 14 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1797
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a zoonosis with global public health impact, particularly in poor socio-economic settings in tropical regions. Transmitted through urine-contaminated water or soil from rodents, dogs, and livestock, leptospirosis causes over a million clinical cases annually. Risk factors include outdoor activities, livestock production, [...] Read more.
Leptospirosis is a zoonosis with global public health impact, particularly in poor socio-economic settings in tropical regions. Transmitted through urine-contaminated water or soil from rodents, dogs, and livestock, leptospirosis causes over a million clinical cases annually. Risk factors include outdoor activities, livestock production, and substandard housing that foster high densities of animal reservoirs. This One Health study in southern Chile examined Leptospira serological evidence of exposure in people from urban slums, semi-rural settings, and farm settings, using the Extreme Gradient Boosting algorithm to identify key influencing factors. In urban slums, age, shrub terrain, distance to Leptospira-positive households, and neighborhood housing density were contributing factors. Human exposure in semi-rural communities was linked to environmental factors (trees, shrubs, and lower vegetation terrain) and animal variables (Leptospira-positive dogs and rodents and proximity to Leptospira-positive households). On farms, dog counts, animal Leptospira prevalence, and proximity to Leptospira-contaminated water samples were significant drivers. The study underscores that disease dynamics vary across landscapes, with distinct drivers in each community setting. This case study demonstrates how the integration of machine learning with comprehensive cross-sectional epidemiological and geospatial data provides valuable insights into leptospirosis eco-epidemiology. These insights are crucial for informing targeted public health strategies and generating hypotheses for future research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases)
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27 pages, 2849 KiB  
Article
Fifty Years of the National Rabies Control Program in Brazil under the One Health Perspective
by Maria Cristina Schneider, Kyung-Duk Min, Phyllis Catharina Romijn, Nelio Batista De Morais, Lucia Montebello, Silene Manrique Rocha, Sofia Sciancalepore, Patricia Najera Hamrick, Wilson Uieda, Volney de Magalhães Câmara, Ronir Raggio Luiz and Albino Belotto
Pathogens 2023, 12(11), 1342; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12111342 - 11 Nov 2023
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6874
Abstract
In 1973, the National Rabies Program was created in Brazil through an agreement between the Ministry of Health and Agriculture. Since its beginning, it developed integrated action through access to free post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) for people at risk, dog vaccination campaigns, a joint [...] Read more.
In 1973, the National Rabies Program was created in Brazil through an agreement between the Ministry of Health and Agriculture. Since its beginning, it developed integrated action through access to free post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) for people at risk, dog vaccination campaigns, a joint surveillance system, and awareness. This study aims to describe human rabies in Brazil under the One Health perspective in recent decades, including achievements in the control of dog-mediated cases and challenges in human cases transmitted by wild animals. This paper also explores possible drivers of human rabies in the Northeast Region with half of the cases. The first part of this study was descriptive, presenting data and examples by periods. Statistical analysis was performed in the last period (2010–2022) to explore possible drivers. Dog-mediated human cases decreased from 147 to 0, and dog cases decreased from 4500 to 7. A major challenge is now human cases transmitted by wild animals (bats, non-human primates, and wild canids). Most current human cases occur in municipalities with a tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest biome and a Gini index higher than 0.5. In the multivariable analysis, an association with temperature was estimated (OR = 1.739; CI95% = 1.181–2.744), and primary healthcare coverage (OR = 0.947; CI95% = 0.915–0.987) was identified as a protector. It is possible to significantly reduce the number of dog-mediated human rabies cases through the efforts presented. However, Brazil has wildlife variants of the rabies virus circulating. The association of human cases with higher temperatures in the Northeast is a concern with climate change. To reduce human cases transmitted by wild animals, it is important to continue distributing free PEP, especially in remote at-risk areas in the Amazon Region, and to increase awareness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases)
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Review

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20 pages, 1144 KiB  
Review
Pandemic-Proofing: Intercepting Zoonotic Spillover Events
by Bharti Bhatia, Sudipta Sonar, Seema Khan and Jayanta Bhattacharya
Pathogens 2024, 13(12), 1067; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13121067 - 3 Dec 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5328
Abstract
Zoonotic spillover events pose a significant and growing threat to global health. By focusing on preventing these cross-species transmissions, we can significantly mitigate pandemic risks. This review aims to analyze the mechanisms of zoonotic spillover events, identify key risk factors, and propose evidence-based [...] Read more.
Zoonotic spillover events pose a significant and growing threat to global health. By focusing on preventing these cross-species transmissions, we can significantly mitigate pandemic risks. This review aims to analyze the mechanisms of zoonotic spillover events, identify key risk factors, and propose evidence-based prevention strategies to reduce future pandemic threats. Through a comprehensive literature review and analysis of major databases including PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus from 1960–2024, we examined documented spillover events, their outcomes, and intervention strategies. This article emphasizes that targeting the root cause—the spillover event itself—is key to averting future pandemics. By analyzing historical and contemporary outbreaks, we extract crucial insights into the dynamics of zoonotic transmission. Factors underlying these events include increased human–animal contact due to habitat encroachment, agricultural intensification, and wildlife trade. Climate change, global travel, and inadequate healthcare infrastructure exacerbate risks. The diversity of potential viral reservoirs and rapid viral evolution present major challenges for prediction and prevention. Solutions include enhancing surveillance of wildlife populations, improving biosecurity measures, investing in diagnostic capabilities, and promoting sustainable wildlife management. A “One Health” approach integrating human, animal, and environmental health is crucial. Predictive modelling, international cooperation, and public education are key strategies. Developing pre-exposure prophylactics and post-exposure treatments is essential for mitigating outbreaks. While obstacles remain, advances in genomics and ecological modelling offer hope. A proactive, comprehensive approach addressing the root causes of spillover events is vital for safeguarding global health against future pandemics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases)
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16 pages, 1035 KiB  
Review
Zoonotic Threats: The (Re)emergence of Cercarial Dermatitis, Its Dynamics, and Impact in Europe
by Maria Teresa Bispo, Manuela Calado, Isabel Larguinho Maurício, Pedro Manuel Ferreira and Silvana Belo
Pathogens 2024, 13(4), 282; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13040282 - 26 Mar 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3547
Abstract
Cercarial dermatitis (CD), or “Swimmer’s itch” as it is also known, is a waterborne illness caused by a blood fluke from the family Schistosomatidae. It occurs when cercariae of trematode species that do not have humans as their definitive host accidentally penetrate human [...] Read more.
Cercarial dermatitis (CD), or “Swimmer’s itch” as it is also known, is a waterborne illness caused by a blood fluke from the family Schistosomatidae. It occurs when cercariae of trematode species that do not have humans as their definitive host accidentally penetrate human skin (in an aquatic environment) and trigger allergic symptoms at the site of contact. It is an emerging zoonosis that occurs through water and is often overlooked during differential diagnosis. Some of the factors contributing to the emergence of diseases like CD are related to global warming, which brings about climate change, water eutrophication, the colonization of ponds by snails susceptible to the parasite, and sunlight exposure in the summer, associated with migratory bird routes. Therefore, with the increase in tourism, especially at fluvial beaches, it is relevant to analyze the current epidemiological scenario of CD in European countries and the potential regions at risk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases)
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Other

10 pages, 3832 KiB  
Case Report
First Case of Human Ocular Dirofilariasis in the Aosta Valley Region: Clinical Management and Morphological-Molecular Confirmation
by Erik Mus, Annalisa Viani, Lorenzo Domenis, Fabio Maradei, Antonio Valastro, Gianluca Marucci, Claudio Giuseppe Giacomazzi, Silvia Carla Maria Magnani, Roberto Imparato, Annie Cometto, Adriano Casulli, Riccardo Orusa and Luca Ventre
Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 423; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050423 - 28 Apr 2025
Viewed by 854
Abstract
Purpose: Dirofilariasis is a zoonotic infectious disease caused by a species belonging to the Dirofilaria genus. Human dirofilariasis cases have increased in Europe in the last few decades. Dogs and wild canids represent the definitive hosts and principal reservoirs of Dirofilaria repens, while [...] Read more.
Purpose: Dirofilariasis is a zoonotic infectious disease caused by a species belonging to the Dirofilaria genus. Human dirofilariasis cases have increased in Europe in the last few decades. Dogs and wild canids represent the definitive hosts and principal reservoirs of Dirofilaria repens, while mosquito species are biological vectors. Humans act as accidental hosts, and clinical manifestations depend on the location of the worm in the organs or tissues. We described the first case of ocular dirofilariasis in the Aosta Valley region (Italy). Case description: a 62-year-old Italian woman complained of recurrent ocular redness, pain and discomfort, accompanied by itching and foreign body sensation in the right eye. The slit lamp biomicroscopic examination revealed conjunctival congestion on the temporal region of bulbar conjunctiva, and a long whitish vermiform mobile mass was detected under the conjunctiva. The anterior chamber showed no flare or cells in either eye, and the dilated fundus examination was normal. The worm was immediately surgically removed to prevent further migration, and was diagnosed morphologically and molecularly as D. repens. Following surgical removal, the symptoms resolved completely and rapidly, with no recurrence of ocular symptoms recorded during 12-month follow-up visits. Conclusions: Ocular dirofilariasis can lead to misdiagnosis due to its rare ocular manifestations, and it is considered an emergent zoonosis in European countries. Accurate diagnosis and control of ocular dirofilariasis by D. repens require a multidisciplinary approach under the One Health framework to effectively address this emergent zoonosis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases)
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9 pages, 2341 KiB  
Case Report
Mycobacteriosis in a Pet Ferret (Mustela putorius furo) Caused by Mycobacterium xenopi: A Case Report on Neglected Risk of Zoonotic Transmission
by Željko Mihaljević, Irena Reil, Josipa Habuš, Zrinka Štritof, Šimun Naletilić, Gabrijela Jurkić Krsteska, Tajna Kovač, Maja Zdelar-Tuk, Sanja Duvnjak and Silvio Špičić
Pathogens 2024, 13(4), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13040328 - 16 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2192
Abstract
Ferrets are highly susceptible to a wide range of mycobacteria, mainly M. bovis, M. avium, and M. triplex. Therefore, ferrets pose a risk of transmission of mycobacteriosis, especially zoonotically relevant tuberculosis. The aim of this study was to describe the [...] Read more.
Ferrets are highly susceptible to a wide range of mycobacteria, mainly M. bovis, M. avium, and M. triplex. Therefore, ferrets pose a risk of transmission of mycobacteriosis, especially zoonotically relevant tuberculosis. The aim of this study was to describe the findings of M. xenopi mycobacteriosis in a pet ferret and emphasize its zoonotic potential. A pet ferret had a history of weight loss, apathy, hyporexia, and hair loss. Abdominal ultrasound revealed splenomegaly with two solid masses and cystic lesions of the liver. Fine-needle aspiration cytology revealed numerous acid-fast bacilli in epithelioid cells, thus leading to the suspicion of mycobacterial infection. Because of its poor general condition, the ferret was euthanized. Necropsy examination revealed generalized granulomatous lymphadenitis, pneumonia, myocarditis, splenitis, and hepatitis. Histologically, in all organs, there were multifocal to coalescing areas of inflammatory infiltration composed of epithelioid macrophages, a low number of lymphocytes, and plasma cells, without necrosis nor multinucleated giant cells. Ziehl–Neelsen staining detected the presence of numerous (multibacillary) acid-fast bacteria, which were PCR-typed as M. xenopi. This is the first study showing the antimicrobial susceptibility testing of M. xenopi in veterinary medicine, describing the resistance to doxycycline. Overall, our results could facilitate further diagnosis and provide guidelines for the treatment protocols for such infections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases)
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10 pages, 2580 KiB  
Perspective
Wildlife as Food and Medicine in Brazil: A Neglected Zoonotic Risk?
by Caio Graco Zeppelini, Ianei de Oliveira Carneiro, Poliana Mascarenhas de Abreu, Ann Katelynn Linder, Romulo Romeu Nóbrega Alves and Federico Costa
Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030222 - 2 Mar 2024
Viewed by 2699
Abstract
The practice of consuming wild fauna in Brazil is both culturally and socioeconomically questionable. Wild animals and their byproducts are sought for nutritional, medicinal, and/or supernatural reasons, with some taxa (e.g., songbirds) being kept as pets. This practice is concentrated in traditional and [...] Read more.
The practice of consuming wild fauna in Brazil is both culturally and socioeconomically questionable. Wild animals and their byproducts are sought for nutritional, medicinal, and/or supernatural reasons, with some taxa (e.g., songbirds) being kept as pets. This practice is concentrated in traditional and rural communities, as well as the rural exodus populations in large urban centers, maintained both by cultural preferences and for their role in food safety in part of the rural exodus community. A total of 564 taxa are known to be sold in wet markets in Brazil, with birds, fish, and mammals being the most commonly listed. There is great zoonotic outbreak potential in this consumption chain given the diversity of species involved (with several listed being known reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens), invasion of wild environments for hunting, unsanitary processing of carcasses, and consumption of most/all biotopes of the animal, as well as the creation of favorable conditions to cross-species pathogen transmission. Given its socioeconomic situation and the global trends in disease emergence, there is a risk of the future emergence of a Public Health Emergency of International Concern in Brazil through wildlife consumption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases)
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