Buildings

17 pages, 494 KB

Open AccessArticle

Equipment Selection Optimization and Empirical Analysis of Operational Performance for a Commercial Building Refrigeration Plant

by Dongliang Zhang, Lingjun Guan, Aiqin Xu, Wen Zhou, Jiankun Yang and Yuanyuan Zhang

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2067; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112067 (registering DOI) - 22 May 2026

Abstract

Climate change necessitates a global transition toward green and low-carbon development, underscoring the critical importance of energy efficiency. Buildings account for a substantial portion of urban energy consumption and carbon emissions, with central air-conditioning systems representing the largest energy-consuming component. This study focuses [...] Read more.

Climate change necessitates a global transition toward green and low-carbon development, underscoring the critical importance of energy efficiency. Buildings account for a substantial portion of urban energy consumption and carbon emissions, with central air-conditioning systems representing the largest energy-consuming component. This study focuses on optimizing equipment selection—including chillers, pumps, and cooling towers—for the refrigeration plant of a commercial complex in Xiamen. Following theoretical optimization, the operational performance of the implemented system was empirically analyzed using long-term monitoring data from 2024 to 2025. The results demonstrate an energy efficiency ratio (EER) of 5.44 in 2024 and 5.28 in 2025, surpassing the Grade I efficiency threshold (5.2) stipulated by the Chinese standard T/CRAAS 1039-2023. Monthly EER values consistently remained above 5.06 throughout the cooling season. Detailed performance analysis of individual equipment further confirmed that actual operational performance of chillers, pumps, and cooling towers closely matched or even exceeded rated performance metrics, with chiller efficiency deviations controlled within 5%. This study integrates optimized equipment selection at the design stage with empirical performance analysis based on actual operation, providing a validated approach for improving the energy efficiency of refrigeration plants in commercial buildings and offering valuable references for the revision of relevant energy efficiency standards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development of Indoor Environment Comfort)

17 pages, 7654 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Tunnel Air Temperature and Velocity on the Heat Transfer Characteristics of Energy Segments

by Qinghan Zeng, Bo Dong, Fengjun Zhang, Jinfang He, Qingjian Zhang and Yongming Ji

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2066; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112066 (registering DOI) - 22 May 2026

Abstract

Thermal pollution in underground spaces is one of the current challenges faced by subway tunnels. Energy tunnel technology based on heat pumps can not only solve the problem of thermal pollution but also realize the resource utilization of waste heat. However, the influence [...] Read more.

Thermal pollution in underground spaces is one of the current challenges faced by subway tunnels. Energy tunnel technology based on heat pumps can not only solve the problem of thermal pollution but also realize the resource utilization of waste heat. However, the influence mechanisms of the tunnel air environment on the heat transfer characteristics of energy segments are still insufficiently studied. Taking the shield energy tunnel as the research object, this study proposed an energy segment model based on a capillary heat exchanger and established a fluid-thermal coupled numerical model on the COMSOL 6.4 simulation platform. Then, the effects of tunnel air temperature and speed on the heat transfer performance of the energy segment were systematically investigated. The results indicate that an increase in the temperature differential between the tunnel air and the inlet water of the capillary heat exchanger significantly enhances the heat transfer rate of the energy segments. Specifically, a 5 °C rise in air temperature corresponds to a 60.7% increase in the heat extraction rate of the CHE during the heating season, whereas it results in a 58.8% decrease in the heat release rate of the CHE during the cooling season. An increase in tunnel air speed enhances the overall heat transfer coefficient by strengthening convective heat transfer between the tunnel air and the energy segment. Although the enhancement of convective heat transfer is limited, the system already demonstrates relatively optimal heat transfer performance at a wind speed of 4.61 m/s. The study further reveals that increasing these two parameters not only enhances heat exchange but also exacerbates the non-uniformity of temperature distribution across the segment. This study conducts an in-depth analysis of how tunnel environmental parameters impact the thermal performance of energy segments, thereby offering a theoretical foundation for the optimized design of these energy segments in shield tunnels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies in Indoor Thermal Comfort and Energy Efficiency for Buildings)

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34 pages, 8744 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study and Finite Element Simulation of Externally Prestressed CFRP Plate Strengthened Pre-Cracked Reinforced Concrete T-Beam

by Jiaqi Huang, Shunchao Chen, Peng Kang, Zhaohua Ma and Ruipeng Wang

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2065; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112065 (registering DOI) - 22 May 2026

Abstract

Cracking in reinforced concrete beam bridges severely compromises their durability and structural integrity. Although external prestressed CFRP plate reinforcement technology has emerged as an effective repair solution, current design codes primarily rely on idealized crack-free or simplified single-crack assumptions, leading to inadequate precision [...] Read more.

Cracking in reinforced concrete beam bridges severely compromises their durability and structural integrity. Although external prestressed CFRP plate reinforcement technology has emerged as an effective repair solution, current design codes primarily rely on idealized crack-free or simplified single-crack assumptions, leading to inadequate precision in prestressing application for real-world structures with complex crack networks. This study investigated the reinforcement effectiveness of externally prestressed CFRP plates on three pre-cracked reinforced concrete T-beams with varying reinforcement ratios (1.20%, 2.41%, and 3.61%). A comprehensive experimental program was conducted to monitor crack closure behavior, strain distributions, and deflection changes during tensioning and loading phases. A three-dimensional finite element model was developed using Midas FEA NX 2022, and theoretical formulas for crack closure prestressing were derived under the plane-section assumption, supplemented by engineering correction factors. Results demonstrated that calculation errors for both crack closure prestressing and secondary cracking loads were below 5%, while correlation coefficients between finite element simulations and experimental data ranged from 0.93 to 0.99. External prestressing significantly enhanced the stiffness of cracked beams, with stiffness recovery rates reaching up to 156.2%, and exhibited excellent synergistic performance among CFRP plates, steel reinforcement, and concrete. These findings provide a theoretical foundation and technical support for the precision design of external prestressing reinforcement in cracked reinforced concrete beams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Construction and Maintenance of Engineering Structures)

20 pages, 7337 KB

Open AccessArticle

Vernacular Architecture and Spatial Memory: An Architectural Analysis of Kalif Structures in Rize/Pazar and Their Evaluation in Terms of Intangible Cultural Heritage

by Emre Pınar and Tunç Aslan Tülücü

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2064; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112064 (registering DOI) - 22 May 2026

Abstract

This study examines the kalif structure, a unique and increasingly invisible component of the rural architecture in the Eastern Black Sea region that is currently under threat of extinction, along with the tradition of kalif-guarding integrated with this structure. Historically constructed to protect [...] Read more.

This study examines the kalif structure, a unique and increasingly invisible component of the rural architecture in the Eastern Black Sea region that is currently under threat of extinction, along with the tradition of kalif-guarding integrated with this structure. Historically constructed to protect agricultural production from wildlife, kalifs are not merely functional shelters but also multi-layered memory objects where collective solidarity and social interaction are reproduced. A qualitative research method was adopted for the study, utilizing literature review, on-site physical documentation, and technical analysis centered on Yücehisar village in the Pazar district of Rize. Within the scope of the research, the material use and construction techniques of kalifs are detailed from an architectural perspective, and these practices are evaluated through the lens of Intangible Cultural Heritage. The findings indicate that the loss of the physical presence of kalifs due to the transition from corn to tea cultivation and rural migration signifies the dissolution of a production-based culture of living. Consequently, the study reveals the critical importance of incorporating the kalif and the act of kalif-guarding into academic literature and cultural memory within the framework of Intangible Cultural Heritage standards to preserve local identity and rural memory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Traditional Construction Wisdom in Developing Regions: Sustainable Urbanization and Local-Eco Adaptation—2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 7320 KB

Open AccessArticle

In Situ Test on Pre-Mixed Fluid-Solidified Soil Pile for Embankment Foundation Treatment

by Yaohui Yang, Gongfeng Xin, Yumin Chen and Ruihan Shen

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2063; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112063 (registering DOI) - 22 May 2026

Abstract

Cement–soil mixing piles commonly face the problem of insufficient pile quality during on-site construction, and traditional measures such as increasing grouting pressure or enhancing mixing intensity are difficult to resolve effectively. The development of flowable solidified soil technology offers a new path for [...] Read more.

Cement–soil mixing piles commonly face the problem of insufficient pile quality during on-site construction, and traditional measures such as increasing grouting pressure or enhancing mixing intensity are difficult to resolve effectively. The development of flowable solidified soil technology offers a new path for innovating soil pile reinforcement techniques. Based on an in situ test, this research proposes and introduces a new technology for pre-mixed fluid-solidified soil piles (PSPs). This technique effectively improves pile quality and significantly enhances pile bearing capacity by pre-mixing flowable solidified soil and then grouting it after pre-drilling holes with a screw drill. The results show that reinforcement of soil piles using the pre-mixed flowable solidified soil and pre-drilled grouting process has significantly improved pile quality, with better core sample integrity and uniformity. The results indicate that the characteristic bearing capacity of the uniform-section PSP is 252 kPa, meeting the design requirement of 130 kPa. The ultimate bearing capacity of the uniform-section PSP is 177% higher than that of the uniform-section CMP. In addition, the ultimate bearing capacity of the PSP after variable-section treatment is 153% higher than that of the uniform-section PSP. Finally, new design recommendations have been proposed, specifically calculation formulas for the load-bearing capacity and settlement of composite foundations based on current standards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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26 pages, 882 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Evaluating and Improving the Completeness of Old Community Renewal from the Perspective of Supply–Demand

by Wei Wu and Songchuan Chen

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2062; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112062 (registering DOI) - 22 May 2026

Abstract

Improving the comprehensiveness of old community renewal is a key approach to enhancing residents’ quality of life and the community environment. Currently, research on improving comprehensiveness from both supply and demand perspectives remains limited. This study constructs an evaluation system comprising 27 indicators [...] Read more.

Improving the comprehensiveness of old community renewal is a key approach to enhancing residents’ quality of life and the community environment. Currently, research on improving comprehensiveness from both supply and demand perspectives remains limited. This study constructs an evaluation system comprising 27 indicators that cover three dimensions: physical infrastructure, community services, and community governance. Adopting the approach of “single indicator, two-way assessment, and comprehensive evaluation,” this study conducts evaluations from both supply and demand perspectives. On the supply side, facility coverage is calculated through field surveys, POI data, and ArcGIS spatial analysis; on the demand side, resident satisfaction is measured via questionnaires, and an evaluation framework for supply–demand matching is constructed using the IPA model. An empirical analysis using Community X in Beijing as a case study reveals that the completeness of community renewal exhibits significant hierarchical differentiation: supply–demand matching and conditions are favorable for basic services, elderly care and services for special groups, and cultural services; supply and demand for buildings, infrastructure, and public safety are balanced and moderately complete; environmental facilities exhibit oversupply and excessive completeness; and long-term management and resident participation suffer from insufficient supply and lack of completeness, emerging as core constraints. Based on these findings, targeted optimization strategies are proposed, which can provide scientific guidance for the development of comprehensive communities and the renewal of existing urban stock. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

30 pages, 1927 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bargaining and Pricing in Recycling Supply Chains for Construction and Demolition Waste as a Substrate

by Jiaqi Lei, Huixin Chen and Xingwei Li

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2061; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112061 (registering DOI) - 22 May 2026

Abstract

The high-value utilization of construction and demolition waste is critical for sustainable development in the building sector. However, in construction and demolition waste (CDW) recycling supply chains, existing studies lack a systematic analysis of pricing mechanisms for such recycled CDW as substrate products, [...] Read more.

The high-value utilization of construction and demolition waste is critical for sustainable development in the building sector. However, in construction and demolition waste (CDW) recycling supply chains, existing studies lack a systematic analysis of pricing mechanisms for such recycled CDW as substrate products, particularly regarding interest coordination and the quantification of green value. To reveal the bargaining mechanism between farmers as recyclers and processors and supermarkets as retailers under an asymmetric bargaining structure, this study applies Nash bargaining theory to construct a dynamic game model. The study revealed that (1) when the green degree of a product reaches a certain level, it can obtain a sustainable market premium and create a stable income space for both parties. (2) The relative strength of the bargaining power between the two sides significantly affects the impact of market base scale changes on profit distribution. When the bargaining power of the supermarket is lower than the threshold and the bargaining power of the farmers is higher than the threshold, the difference in profit between the farmers and the supermarket is negatively correlated with the market base scale of the CDW as a substrate. (3) The green sensitivity level of consumers affects the difference in profit of the main body with the government subsidy to farmers. This level is determined by the value of the green sensitivity coefficient of consumers and presents a differentiated adjustment effect in different value ranges, which in turn affects the transmission direction of government subsidies to profit distribution. (4) When the green sensitivity coefficient and the green communication intensity of farmers and the investment level are lower than the corresponding critical values, the difference in social welfare with or without subsidies is positively correlated with the amount of the subsidy. This study provides decision support for farmers and supermarkets in designing rational bargaining strategies and offers insights for improving coordination and sustainability in construction and demolition waste recycling supply chains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Study on Urban Environment by Big Data Analytics)

20 pages, 759 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bridging the Cognitive–Execution Gap in MEP Engineering: A Mixed-Methods Study from Taiwan

by Chung Chyi Chou, Mu Fan Tsai, Chi An Hsu, Ching Sen Chuang, Wei Ta Chang and Chia Chou Tsai

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2060; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112060 - 22 May 2026

Abstract

This study examined how mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) practitioners understand and apply quality and safety management in construction projects in Taiwan. It focused on the gap between what practitioners know about best practices and what they can carry out on site, defined [...] Read more.

This study examined how mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) practitioners understand and apply quality and safety management in construction projects in Taiwan. It focused on the gap between what practitioners know about best practices and what they can carry out on site, defined here as the “Cognitive–Execution Gap.” A mixed-methods design was used, combining a questionnaire survey of 130 MEP practitioners with semi-structured interviews with six senior experts. Practitioners with MEP-related academic backgrounds scored significantly higher in professional knowledge and practice than those from unrelated fields, with mean differences of 0.87 and 0.78 points on a 5-point scale, respectively (both p < 0.001). In contrast, awareness of management optimization strategies was high and similar across all demographic groups. Interview findings suggest that schedule pressure, the lower organizational status of MEP compared with civil engineering, and persistent talent shortages prevent practitioners from applying the practices that they recognize as necessary. The results provide evidence consistent with a Cognitive–Execution Gap and suggest that bridging it requires organization-level reforms, including prospectively evaluated BIM-based coordination, clearer standard operating procedures and performance indicators, and structured mentorship programs to strengthen professional capacity in MEP engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Safety Management and Occupational Health in Construction)

32 pages, 8869 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Decarbonization Pathways of Urban Residential Buildings in China’s Hot-Summer Warm-Winter Region: Coupling Building Performance and Grid Decarbonization

by Guojian Li, Xueyu Tan, Yongbo He and Ziang Li

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2059; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112059 (registering DOI) - 22 May 2026

Abstract

Long-term decarbonization of urban residential buildings in southern China depends on the joint evolution of building stock, end-use efficiency, and electricity carbon intensity. This study develops a dynamic stock-energy-carbon framework for urban residential buildings in China’s hot-summer warm-winter region from 2010 to 2060, [...] Read more.

Long-term decarbonization of urban residential buildings in southern China depends on the joint evolution of building stock, end-use efficiency, and electricity carbon intensity. This study develops a dynamic stock-energy-carbon framework for urban residential buildings in China’s hot-summer warm-winter region from 2010 to 2060, using Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, and Hainan as case provinces. The model links demographic and housing-space change with stock survival, retrofit of the base-year stock, cohort-specific performance levels for post-2022 new construction, and time-varying provincial grid emission factors. EnergyPlus simulations of seven high-rise residential archetypes show that nearly zero-energy performance reduces province-level EUI by 19.2–26.5% relative to the baseline, with cooling-load reductions forming the dominant part of the improvement in the warmer provinces. Across coupled demand-side scenarios, stricter new-build performance standards reduce 2026–2060 cumulative operational energy by 5.3–10.1% relative to the conservative demand-side setting, while increasing retrofit intensity provides a smaller but consistent additional reduction. Carbon outcomes are more sensitive to electricity-sector assumptions: under the main demand-side setting, moving from the conservative to the accelerated grid pathway advances the operational-carbon peak by 8–15 years across the four provinces and lowers 2060 residual emissions by about 71%. A comparison with available observed provincial household-electricity statistics is added as a plausibility check; it confirms the relevant order of magnitude but also indicates that absolute demand estimates should be interpreted cautiously because of boundary and EUI-representation differences. These results suggest that demand-side efficiency policies must be coordinated with rapid provincial power-sector decarbonization if the residential sector in Hot-Summer Warm-Winter Region is to reach earlier carbon peaks and lower residual operational emissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Design of Smart-Built Environments Based on Advanced Performance Simulation: From Building to Regional Scales)

38 pages, 13352 KB

Open AccessArticle

Out-of-Plane Cyclic Behavior and Failure Mechanisms of Spatial CFST KT-Joints: Experimental and Numerical Investigations

by Linxin Peng, Hetao Lv, Ye Zhang, Guikai Mo and Huan Chen

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2058; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112058 - 22 May 2026

Abstract

The seismic design of spatial joints in long-span concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) arch bridges under complex stresses remains a critical challenge in high-intensity seismic zones. This study investigates the seismic performance and failure mechanisms of CFST spatial KT-type joints, using the Pingnan No. [...] Read more.

The seismic design of spatial joints in long-span concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) arch bridges under complex stresses remains a critical challenge in high-intensity seismic zones. This study investigates the seismic performance and failure mechanisms of CFST spatial KT-type joints, using the Pingnan No. 3 Bridge as a case study. Based on similarity theory, four scaled test specimens were designed. The core variable was the axial compression ratio of the main pipe, while the load on the K-branch served as the parametric variable. Quasi-static tests were conducted under constant static loading on the main pipe and K-branches, coupled with low-cycle cyclic loading on the T-branch. Furthermore, nonlinear finite element analysis (FEA) was performed using Abaqus for cross-validation. The results indicate that the primary failure mode of this joint configuration is the shear-punching failure of the main pipe wall at the T-branch intersection. The load–displacement hysteresis curves exhibit a robust “bow-shaped” profile, indicating substantial plastic energy dissipation capacity. Comparative analysis confirms that hollow steel pipe T-branches offer superior ductility in long-span arch bridges compared to concrete-filled alternatives. By extracting shear stress distribution characteristics from the FEA model to precisely locate the neutral axis, this study proposes a theoretical correction to the ultimate load-carrying capacity calculation model. The derived theoretical values demonstrate good agreement with the experimental results. The relative errors between the calculated and experimental bearing capacities of KT783a, KT783, KT700, and KT607 were 1.99%, 0.23%, 2.26%, and 2.45%, respectively, referring to the T-branch out-of-plane bearing capacity predicted by the proposed formula. The proposed theoretical model provides a reliable quantitative basis for the seismic design and local strengthening of similar spatial joints in long-span CFST arch bridges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

23 pages, 1978 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Scale Attention-Enhanced YOLOv26 Framework for Steel Structure Corrosion Detection and Segmentation

by Hongmei Hou, Zhixin Wang, Jianbo Zheng, Jinzhen Xi and Libin Tian

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2057; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112057 - 22 May 2026

Abstract

Steel structures in complex service environments are highly susceptible to corrosion, making accurate detection challenging. This study proposes an improved YOLOv26-based method for corrosion damage segmentation. A diverse dataset is constructed by combining field-collected and public data with varying lighting conditions and multi-scale [...] Read more.

Steel structures in complex service environments are highly susceptible to corrosion, making accurate detection challenging. This study proposes an improved YOLOv26-based method for corrosion damage segmentation. A diverse dataset is constructed by combining field-collected and public data with varying lighting conditions and multi-scale features. Enhancements to the YOLOv26-seg architecture include integrating Efficient Channel Attention (ECA) in the backbone to strengthen low-contrast feature representation, designing a multi-branch attention mechanism (ECA + CBAM) in the detection head to improve small- and medium-scale target recognition, and introducing Selective Kernel Attention (SKA) in the segmentation branch to refine boundary details. The resulting YOLOv26-ECS model achieves an mAP50 of 0.920 and mAP50–95 of 0.851 on the self-constructed dataset, outperforming the baseline by 5.0% and 6.0%, respectively, while maintaining 28.34 FPS. Experiments on public datasets further demonstrate strong generalization. A GUI system is also developed for visualization and practical deployment. Overall, the proposed method delivers accurate and efficient corrosion detection and segmentation, showing strong potential for engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

34 pages, 7319 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Effects and Nonlinear Characteristics of Mechanisms Driving Street Vitality in Historic Districts: A Multi-Source Data-Driven Approach

by Fengjun Liu, Yi Lu, Junhui Hu and Luyao Chen

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2056; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112056 - 22 May 2026

Abstract

Preservation and revitalization of historic districts are critical for quality urban development and renewal. Accurately assessing what drives district vitality is essential for sustainable historic area development. Current research often uses cross-sectional data and single models, limiting understanding. This study uses Xigong District, [...] Read more.

Preservation and revitalization of historic districts are critical for quality urban development and renewal. Accurately assessing what drives district vitality is essential for sustainable historic area development. Current research often uses cross-sectional data and single models, limiting understanding. This study uses Xigong District, Luoyang, and integrates multi-source data—street view imagery, points of interest, road networks, and nighttime lighting—from 2014 to 2021. MGWR and XGBoost models create a dynamic framework for analyzing how the built environment affects street vitality over time. Results: (1) Spatial effects: Physically, green exposure, functional mix, and road network access are highly spatially sensitive. Morphological indicators—commercial frontage, street continuity, complexity, and building texture—show reduced local variation over time. Perceptually, the influence of abstract color narrows each year, and subjective preference broadens. (2) Nonlinear effects: Green exposure and openness dominate but show negative inhibition and diminishing returns. Morphological, functional, and road network indicators have moderate explanatory power with clear thresholds. Perceptual importance shifts from abstract color to architectural texture, which now rises while color influence steadies. Renewal should go beyond basic greening and surface color. Instead, focus on refined, threshold-based control of form and function, and preserve authentic historic texture. This approach enables scientific, sustainable vitality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Study on Urban Environment by Big Data Analytics)

26 pages, 8946 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Investigation of Failure Modes of Reinforced Concrete Beams Under Eccentric Near-Field Air Blast Loading with Experimental Validation

by Yin Guo, Rongyue Zheng, Wei Wang, Chenzhen Ye and Ye Zhou

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2054; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112054 - 22 May 2026

Abstract

As primary structural components, the damage characteristics and failure modes of reinforced concrete (RC) beams under near-field blast loads are essential for blast-resistant design and vulnerability analysis. To address the research gap regarding the failure modes and blast performance of RC beams under [...] Read more.

As primary structural components, the damage characteristics and failure modes of reinforced concrete (RC) beams under near-field blast loads are essential for blast-resistant design and vulnerability analysis. To address the research gap regarding the failure modes and blast performance of RC beams under eccentric explosions, this study systematically investigates the effects of charge mass and eccentric distance on structural damage. This was achieved through three near-field air blast tests with varying charge masses and explosion locations, supplemented by LS-DYNA numerical simulations. The experiments utilized 1/2-scale RC beam specimens, and the numerical simulations were conducted using the ALE fluid–structure interaction (FSI) algorithm. A classification criterion for beam failure modes was established using a deformation decoupling method, based on the shear deformation ratio (δ). Results indicate that under eccentric explosions that do not trigger significant local damage, the beams primarily exhibit global deformation. Under a charge mass of 2 kg TNT, as the eccentric distance (e) increases from 0 (mid-span) to 0.90 m, the maximum vertical displacement of the RC beam decreases from 3.50 cm to 1.37 cm (a reduction of approximately 60%). The shear deformation ratio δ at the point of maximum displacement first decreases from 0.3117 at mid-span to a minimum of 0.0670 at e = 0.90 m, then rises to 0.2635 at e = 1.05 m, exhibiting a clear “V-shaped” trend. Increasing the charge mass from 2 kg to 2.5 kg for mid-span explosions raises the maximum displacement from 3.50 cm to 8.22 cm (an increase of 135%) and causes δ to increase from 0.3117 (flexural-shear failure) to 0.4428 (shear-like failure). The inflection point of the “V-shaped” δ curve shifts inward from e = 0.90 m (2 kg) to approximately e = 0.45 m (2.5 kg), indicating a transition toward shear-dominated failure modes with increasing charge mass. As the equivalent increases, the failure mode gradually shifts toward a shear-dominated mode, and the inflection point of the deformation ratio shifts toward the mid-span. These findings provide a theoretical foundation and technical support for the damage assessment and blast-resistant design of RC structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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30 pages, 23938 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigations of Structural Responses of a High-Rise Building Subject to Oblique-Downstream Interference Effects

by Yang Li, Cheng-Wei Chen, Cheng-Hsin Chang and Yuan-Lung Lo

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2053; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112053 (registering DOI) - 22 May 2026

Abstract

This study experimentally investigates the aerodynamic mechanisms and dynamic responses of slender high-rise buildings subjected to oblique-downstream interference effects. Using a simulated open-terrain atmospheric boundary layer, a square prismatic principal building (aspect ratio 8.0) was evaluated alongside an identical interfering building. High-frequency force [...] Read more.

This study experimentally investigates the aerodynamic mechanisms and dynamic responses of slender high-rise buildings subjected to oblique-downstream interference effects. Using a simulated open-terrain atmospheric boundary layer, a square prismatic principal building (aspect ratio 8.0) was evaluated alongside an identical interfering building. High-frequency force balance and aeroelastic vibration tests were conducted across four Scruton numbers (

S_{c r}

). Aerodynamic damping was quantified using the random decrement technique and a trial-and-error approximation. Results show pronounced resonant amplification under strict conditions. Specifically, at a low

S_{c r}

(1.12), a reduced velocity (

U_{r}

) of 5.5, and an interference location of

(x / B, y / B) = (- 1.5, 1.5)

, the principal building exhibits an inclined elliptical trajectory, driven by a negative aerodynamic damping effect of approximately −2%. Higher

S_{c r}

values attenuate displacement, but rooftop acceleration amplifications persist, reaching an interference factor of 2.0. Ultimately, the synchronized rhythmic channeling required to excite the principal building necessitates a minimum wake width from the interfering structure (breadth-to-depth ratio > 0.5), highlighting critical aeroelastic instabilities in dense high-rise clusters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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24 pages, 1399 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Readiness of Regulatory Documents for Automation: A Comparison Between the United Kingdom and Kazakhstan

by Thomas Beach, Zarina Kabzhan and Alexandr Shakhnovich

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2052; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112052 - 22 May 2026

Abstract

Automated compliance checking (ACC) integrated with Building Information Modeling (BIM) requires regulatory texts that can be translated into machine-executable rules. Existing studies have largely focused on rule extraction techniques and ontology-based modeling within single jurisdictions, leaving the upstream question of regulatory readiness underexplored. [...] Read more.

Automated compliance checking (ACC) integrated with Building Information Modeling (BIM) requires regulatory texts that can be translated into machine-executable rules. Existing studies have largely focused on rule extraction techniques and ontology-based modeling within single jurisdictions, leaving the upstream question of regulatory readiness underexplored. This study introduces a clause-level framework for assessing the formalizability of building regulations and applies it to four documents covering accessibility and fire safety in the United Kingdom and Kazakhstan. The corpus was decomposed into 2361 enforceable clauses, classified using a ten-category semantic taxonomy, and evaluated against four formalizability criteria: explicit scope, measurable requirement, deterministic outcome, and design-stage data availability. Clauses were classified as formalizable only when satisfying all four criteria simultaneously. UK documents reached 85% formalizability for accessibility and 90% for fire safety, compared with 77% and 51% for the corresponding Kazakh standards. The largest gap was observed in fire safety, where the Kazakh corpus contained fewer BIM-oriented and spatially explicit checks and a higher share of clauses lacking evidential specification. The proposed framework supports clause-level diagnosis of regulatory automation readiness, and a four-stage roadmap links linguistic structure to digital maturity in both jurisdictions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

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29 pages, 22014 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dissemination and Localization of Early Modern Architecture in Nanjing, China—A Case Study of the National Goods Bank Building

by Qiaochu Jiang, Yinghan Li and Qi Zhou

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2051; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112051 - 22 May 2026

Abstract

This paper examines the construction of the National Goods Bank in Nanjing as a case study to investigate the localization of modern architecture in China during the 1930s. Set against the backdrop of Nanjing’s capital construction period (1927–1937), it explores how professional architects [...] Read more.

This paper examines the construction of the National Goods Bank in Nanjing as a case study to investigate the localization of modern architecture in China during the 1930s. Set against the backdrop of Nanjing’s capital construction period (1927–1937), it explores how professional architects utilized New-national architecture to effectively disseminate modern architectural principles while navigating the tensions between modernity and national identity. The study first reviews the historical context of the building’s design and construction, focusing on architect Xi Fuquan, a Chinese architect educated in the West, whose modernist orientation influenced the project. It then analyzes the building’s spatial organization, decorative elements, and construction methods. The findings indicate that the National Goods Bank represents a “professional-led” pragmatic modernism, offering a distinct counter-narrative to the state-led formalist Chinese Revival architecture. This case study contributes to a broader understanding of Chinese architectural modernity by illustrating how modern architecture was disseminated and localized through adaptive, professional-led practices in the early twentieth century. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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18 pages, 6187 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Seismic Retrofit Strategy Using an External RC Exoskeleton: Section-Cut-Based Force Transfer Assessment and Connection Typology Analysis

by Alexandru-Nicolae Bizu, Dorina-Nicolina Isopescu, Gabriela Draghici, Mirela Popa and Andreea Nistorac

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2050; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112050 - 22 May 2026

Abstract

The study proposes and investigates a seismic retrofitting strategy based on an external reinforced concrete exoskeleton, grounded in the analysis of the actual force transfer mechanisms between the existing structure and the added system. The three-dimensional numerical model was developed in ETABS, employing [...] Read more.

The study proposes and investigates a seismic retrofitting strategy based on an external reinforced concrete exoskeleton, grounded in the analysis of the actual force transfer mechanisms between the existing structure and the added system. The three-dimensional numerical model was developed in ETABS, employing linear response spectrum analysis in accordance with EN 1998-1 and P100-1/2013. The internal forces transmitted at the structural interface were determined using the Section Cut method, enabling the identification of integrated resultants and the prioritization of critical connections. Three types of connections are examined—slab-to-slab, column-to-wall, and beam-to-joint—while the distribution of stresses within the anchor groups is assessed based on an elastic model under combined axial force and bending action. The results indicate that the global structural response is governed by diaphragm coupling, whereas the vertical interfaces ensure kinematic compatibility and the redistribution of axial and bending effects. The proposed methodology provides a coherent framework for the rational design of interface connections in retrofit interventions carried out without interrupting building operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Enhancing Seismic Resilience of Buildings)

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22 pages, 12654 KB

Open AccessArticle

Wood Consolidant Solution Based on Decorated MWCNTs Tested on Real Wood Samples from Banloc Castle

by Madalina Elena David, Rodica-Mariana Ion, Alina Moșiu, Ramona Marina Grigorescu, Lorena Iancu, Mariana Constantin, Raluca Maria Stirbescu and Anca Irina Gheboianu

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2049; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112049 - 22 May 2026

Abstract

Historical buildings are highly prone to degradation because they are continuously exposed to the external environment, which represents an extremely aggressive factor. Globally, there are so many historical buildings that need urgent restoration. This paper focuses on finding a new consolidant for real [...] Read more.

Historical buildings are highly prone to degradation because they are continuously exposed to the external environment, which represents an extremely aggressive factor. Globally, there are so many historical buildings that need urgent restoration. This paper focuses on finding a new consolidant for real oak old wood and presents a new recipe based on multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) decorated with zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles dispersed in PHBHV solution, aimed at improving old wood properties. The research was conducted on Banloc Castle oak wood, which is predominant throughout the castle. The obtained treatment was applied by brushing onto the wood surface, while the retention and uniform application of the consolidation were confirmed by optical microscopy. One major advantage of the treatment is that the natural color of the wood is not affected, with the total color difference being very small. Another advantage gained after consolidation was the enhanced hydrophobic behavior of the old wood confirmed through water absorption, humidity and contact angle tests. In contrast, untreated wood exhibited hydrophilic behavior and high water and moisture absorption capacity, making aged wood extremely vulnerable to environmental degradation over time. Mechanical tests confirmed that the consolidant solution significantly improved the properties of the wooden material, due to the effective impregnation of the treatment into the wood structure. Furthermore, the MWCNT-based consolidant inhibited the growth of the Aspergillus niger strain, providing antifungal protection and preventing the colonization of microorganisms within the wood structure and its subsequent degradation. Through the methods investigated in this work, it was proven that the treatment is suitable for the consolidation of aged and degraded oak wood materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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27 pages, 2144 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Operationalising Digital Circularity: A Critical Systematic Review of Artificial Intelligence Applications to Material and Digital Product Passports

by Genesis Camila Cervantes Puma and Luís Bragança

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2048; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112048 - 22 May 2026

Abstract

This systematic review maps how Artificial Intelligence (AI) operationalises Material and Digital Product Passports (MP/DPP) for circular construction (January 2020–March 2026). However, most existing AI-to-passport implementations lack standardised reporting metrics, interoperability frameworks, and benchmarks for end-of-life decision support, leaving a critical operational gap [...] Read more.

This systematic review maps how Artificial Intelligence (AI) operationalises Material and Digital Product Passports (MP/DPP) for circular construction (January 2020–March 2026). However, most existing AI-to-passport implementations lack standardised reporting metrics, interoperability frameworks, and benchmarks for end-of-life decision support, leaving a critical operational gap that this review systematically addresses. The review follows the PRISMA 2020 guidelines to ensure methodological transparency and reproducibility. Of 2810 records identified across Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Scopus, 49 peer-reviewed studies met the inclusion criteria for explicitly linking AI to MP/DPP under a circular economy lens. Evidence is synthesised across AI task families (computer vision, NLP including large language models, machine learning, knowledge graphs, digital twin/IoT), lifecycle phases (design, construction, operation, end-of-life), and circularity functions (traceability, lifecycle data enrichment, reuse/recycling readiness, recovery/EoL planning). The literature concentrates on traceability and lifecycle enrichment, while decision support for reuse and end-of-life remains sparse. Methodological weaknesses include narrow field validation, limited reporting of passport-level service metrics, and weak interoperability between AI pipelines and passport schemas. The regulatory landscape has intensified: Regulation (EU) 2024/3110 (Construction Products Regulation) entered into force in January 2025, and Regulation (EU) 2024/1781 (ESPR) launched its first product groups in April 2025, transforming AI-enabled MP/DPP from a prospective research topic into an immediate operational requirement. This review also notes the emergence of Large Language Models and blockchain as pivotal technologies for NLP-based field extraction and governed trust in twin-to-passport pipelines, respectively. Three framework elements are contributed and formalised as the Digital Circularity AI Framework (DCAF): (i) a minimum reporting bundle for AI-to-passport pipelines; (ii) a governance pack for twin-to-passport updates covering provenance, versioning, latency, and blockchain-trust; and (iii) open benchmark definitions for reuse grading, deconstruction sequencing, and residual value estimation. Together, these elements aim to shift MP/DPP from identification-oriented tools toward actionable decision support for circular recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Theory to Practice: Artificial Intelligence Applications in the Built Environment)

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38 pages, 11582 KB

Open AccessReview

Life Prediction of Underground Concrete Structures: From Mechanism-Based Models to Digital Twin Frameworks

by Bin Yang, Yue Li, Hui Lin, Yaqiang Li, Xiongfei Liu and Jianglin Liu

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2047; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112047 - 22 May 2026

Abstract

Underground concrete structures are exposed to a multi-ion groundwater and seepage–leakage coupling environment for a long time, and it is difficult to observe visually, which makes it difficult to accurately characterize important boundary conditions and defect states, resulting in significant time-varying and spatially [...] Read more.

Underground concrete structures are exposed to a multi-ion groundwater and seepage–leakage coupling environment for a long time, and it is difficult to observe visually, which makes it difficult to accurately characterize important boundary conditions and defect states, resulting in significant time-varying and spatially differing characteristics of the concrete deterioration process. Therefore, its durability assessment and life prediction are significantly different from those of above-ground structures. Aiming at the complex prediction problem of limited service information of underground concrete, this paper summarizes and combs the evolution process of underground concrete life prediction methods, and puts forward the evolution process of five generation prediction frameworks: from a deterministic mechanism model (Gen-1) to a multi-physical field coupling model (Gen-2), a probabilistic reliability framework (Gen-3), a data-driven and physical information fusion method (Gen-4) and then to a digital twin framework for online update and system integration (Gen-5). Differently from the traditional review by model category, this paper reveals the internal logic of life prediction from single life point values to time-varying risk assessment from the perspective of the transformation of prediction targets and problem structures. Based on the comparison of typical underground service environments, it is further shown that the key constraints of prediction ability are usually derived from insufficient observability and limited parameter identifiability, as well as model structure errors introduced by deterioration mechanism switching and local defects, rather than physical model complexity. On this basis, this paper proposes the selection idea of life prediction methods for different underground scenes, emphasizing measurable characterization, hierarchical verification and hierarchical calculation as the core, and effectively connecting the mechanism model, uncertainty analysis, data update and operation and maintenance decisions. In this paper, the life prediction of underground concrete is redefined as a dynamic evaluation process embedded in the whole life management of infrastructure, which provides a theoretical framework and research direction for the construction of a reliable and deployable life prediction system of underground concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Intelligent Construction, Operation and Maintenance, 3rd Edition)

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25 pages, 7626 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Temperature Effects and Crack Control of the Alternative Bay Method of Ultra-Long Structural Floors

by Yunpeng Zhao, Yingmin Li, Xiongfei Wu, Yuan Tan, Hong Liao, Guojing Zhou, Wenlong Xu, Jun Han and Baolong Jiang

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2046; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112046 - 22 May 2026

Abstract

To address the problems of easy cracking and the difficulty in balancing construction schedule and structural quality in the construction of ultra-long concrete slabs, this paper takes the ultra-long floor slab project of an inpatient building in the Science City Campus of Chongqing [...] Read more.

To address the problems of easy cracking and the difficulty in balancing construction schedule and structural quality in the construction of ultra-long concrete slabs, this paper takes the ultra-long floor slab project of an inpatient building in the Science City Campus of Chongqing University Cancer Hospital as the research object, and conducts research on temperature and crack control in the construction of the alternative bay method. The key structural mechanical parameters are determined through theoretical calculation. The temperature and deformation changes during the whole process of concrete pouring are tracked by combining on-site monitoring and finite element simulation, and the effects of different construction parameters are compared and analyzed. The results show that when the alternative bay method is adopted, the overall temperature distribution of the floor slab is uniform, and there are obvious differences in deformation at different positions. The center of the first-poured slab has smaller deformation, the beam side has larger deformation, the later-poured slab has larger overall deformation, and tensile deformation occurs on both sides of the construction joint. Reasonably dividing the pouring blocks, optimizing the pouring sequence and extending the pouring interval can significantly reduce the tensile deformation of concrete and alleviate stress concentration. This study confirms that the alternative bay method can effectively reduce the risk of temperature-induced cracking in ultra-long floor slabs and provide technical reference for seamless construction of similar above-ground structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Recent Developments in Building Structures)

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Buildings, Volume 16, Issue 11 (June-1 2026) – 21 articles

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