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Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater...
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Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Marine and Freshwater Toxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2021) | Viewed by 76991

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Triantafyllos Kaloudis

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Athens Water Supply & Sewerage Company, EYDAP SA, 11146 Athens, Greece
Interests: Cyanotoxins; cyanobacterial metabolites; cyanobacterial blooms; detection/determination of cyanotoxins; mass spectrometry; water treatment; advanced oxidation processes; environmental chemistry
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Anastasia Hiskia

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
National Center for Scientific Research “DEMOKRITOS”, Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Partiarchi Grigoriou E & Neapoleos 27 str., 15341, Agia Paraskevi, Athens, Greece
Interests: advanced oxidation processes; reactive oxygen species; environmental analytical chemistry; emerging pollutants; cyanotoxins; transformation products; cyanobacterial bioactive metabolites
Dr. Theodoros Triantis

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
National Center for Scientific Research “DEMOKRITOS”, Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Partiarchi Grigoriou E & Neapoleos 27 str., 15341, Agia Paraskevi, Athens, Greece
Interests: advanced oxidation processes; environmental analytical chemistry; cyanotoxins; transformation/degradation products of cyanotoxins; bioactive metabolites

Special Issue Information

At present, cyanobacteria and their toxins (also known as cyanotoxins) constitute a major threat for freshwater resources worldwide. Cyanotoxin occurrence in water bodies around the globe is constantly increasing, whereas emerging, less studied or completely new variants and congeners of various chemical classes of cyanotoxins, as well as their degradation/transformation products are often detected. In addition to planctic cyanobacteria, benthic cyanobacteria, in many cases, appear to be important toxin producers, although far less studied and more difficult to manage and control. This Special Issue aims to highlight novel research results on the structural diversity of cyanotoxins from planktic and benthic cyanobacteria, as well as on their expanding global geographical spread in freshwaters. In particular, the Issue welcomes research papers on :

  • Novel and improved methods of sampling, extraction, detection, and quantitation of cyanotoxins, with an emphasis on multivariant/class methods (e.g., LC-MS based techniques, in vitro assays, sensors);
  • Structural characterization of new cyanotoxins using mass spectrometry and related techniques;
  • Global occurrence of cyanotoxins, with an emphasis on emerging (e.g., saxitoxins, anatoxin-a, cylindrospermopsin) or new classes of cyanotoxins (such as anabaenopeptins, microginins, etc.) as well as first reports of cyanotoxins on water bodies in less studied regions;
  • Tranformation/degradation products of cyanotoxins formed in the environment or during conventional and advanced methods of water treatment (e.g., biodegradation, chemical oxidation).;
  • Planktic/benthic cyanotoxin producers, biotic and/or abiotic environmental factors that affect cyanotoxin production;
  • Results of monitoring programs demonstrating temporal and spatial distribution of cyanotoxins in freshwater bodies.
Dr. Triantafyllos Kaloudis
Dr. Anastasia Hiskia
Dr. Theodoros Triantis
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • emerging cyanotoxins
  • structural characterization
  • analysis
  • monitoring
  • mass spectrometry
  • in vitro assays
  • transformation products
  • planktic and benthic cyanobacteria

Published Papers (18 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 227 KiB  
Editorial
Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria
by Triantafyllos Kaloudis, Anastasia Hiskia and Theodoros M. Triantis
Toxins 2022, 14(4), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14040264 - 08 Apr 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2611
Abstract
Toxic cyanobacteria in freshwater bodies constitute a major threat to public health and aquatic ecosystems [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

21 pages, 2252 KiB  
Article
A Summer of Cyanobacterial Blooms in Belgian Waterbodies: Microcystin Quantification and Molecular Characterizations
by Wannes Hugo R. Van Hassel, Mirjana Andjelkovic, Benoit Durieu, Viviana Almanza Marroquin, Julien Masquelier, Bart Huybrechts and Annick Wilmotte
Toxins 2022, 14(1), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14010061 - 16 Jan 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3149
Abstract
In the context of increasing occurrences of toxic cyanobacterial blooms worldwide, their monitoring in Belgium is currently performed by regional environmental agencies (in two of three regions) using different protocols and is restricted to some selected recreational ponds and lakes. Therefore, a global [...] Read more.
In the context of increasing occurrences of toxic cyanobacterial blooms worldwide, their monitoring in Belgium is currently performed by regional environmental agencies (in two of three regions) using different protocols and is restricted to some selected recreational ponds and lakes. Therefore, a global assessment based on the comparison of existing datasets is not possible. For this study, 79 water samples from a monitoring of five lakes in Wallonia and occasional blooms in Flanders and Brussels, including a canal, were analyzed. A Liquid Chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method allowed to detect and quantify eight microcystin congeners. The mcyE gene was detected using PCR, while dominant cyanobacterial species were identified using 16S RNA amplification and direct sequencing. The cyanobacterial diversity for two water samples was characterized with amplicon sequencing. Microcystins were detected above limit of quantification (LOQ) in 68 water samples, and the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended guideline value for microcystins in recreational water (24 µg L−1) was surpassed in 18 samples. The microcystin concentrations ranged from 0.11 µg L−1 to 2798.81 µg L−1 total microcystin. For 45 samples, the dominance of the genera Microcystis sp., Dolichospermum sp., Aphanizomenon sp., Cyanobium/Synechococcus sp., Planktothrix sp., Romeria sp., Cyanodictyon sp., and Phormidium sp. was shown. Moreover, the mcyE gene was detected in 75.71% of all the water samples. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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18 pages, 3392 KiB  
Article
Anabaenopeptins from Cyanobacteria in Freshwater Bodies of Greece
by Sevasti-Kiriaki Zervou, Triantafyllos Kaloudis, Spyros Gkelis, Anastasia Hiskia and Hanna Mazur-Marzec
Toxins 2022, 14(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14010004 - 21 Dec 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3600
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic microorganisms that are able to produce a large number of secondary metabolites. In freshwaters, under favorable conditions, they can rapidly multiply, forming blooms, and can release their toxic/bioactive metabolites in water. Among them, anabaenopeptins (APs) are a less studied class [...] Read more.
Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic microorganisms that are able to produce a large number of secondary metabolites. In freshwaters, under favorable conditions, they can rapidly multiply, forming blooms, and can release their toxic/bioactive metabolites in water. Among them, anabaenopeptins (APs) are a less studied class of cyclic bioactive cyanopeptides. The occurrence and structural variety of APs in cyanobacterial blooms and cultured strains from Greek freshwaters were investigated. Cyanobacterial extracts were analyzed with LC–qTRAP MS/MS using information-dependent acquisition in enhanced ion product mode in order to obtain the fragmentation mass spectra of APs. Thirteen APs were detected, and their possible structures were annotated based on the elucidation of fragmentation spectra, including three novel ones. APs were present in the majority of bloom samples (91%) collected from nine Greek lakes during different time periods. A large variety of APs was observed, with up to eight congeners co-occurring in the same sample. AP F (87%), Oscillamide Y (87%) and AP B (65%) were the most frequently detected congeners. Thirty cyanobacterial strain cultures were also analyzed. APs were only detected in one strain (Microcystis ichtyoblabe). The results contribute to a better understanding of APs produced by freshwater cyanobacteria and expand the range of structurally characterized APs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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20 pages, 2189 KiB  
Communication
Investigation of the Occurrence of Cyanotoxins in Lake Karaoun (Lebanon) by Mass Spectrometry, Bioassays and Molecular Methods
by Noura Alice Hammoud, Sevasti-Kiriaki Zervou, Triantafyllos Kaloudis, Christophoros Christophoridis, Aikaterina Paraskevopoulou, Theodoros M. Triantis, Kamal Slim, Joanna Szpunar, Ali Fadel, Ryszard Lobinski and Anastasia Hiskia
Toxins 2021, 13(10), 716; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13100716 - 10 Oct 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3379
Abstract
Lake Karaoun is the largest artificial lake in Lebanon and serves multiple purposes. Recently, intensive cyanobacterial blooms have been reported in the lake, raising safety and aesthetic concerns related to the presence of cyanotoxins and cyanobacterial taste and odor (T&O) compounds, respectively. Here, [...] Read more.
Lake Karaoun is the largest artificial lake in Lebanon and serves multiple purposes. Recently, intensive cyanobacterial blooms have been reported in the lake, raising safety and aesthetic concerns related to the presence of cyanotoxins and cyanobacterial taste and odor (T&O) compounds, respectively. Here, we communicate for the first time results from a recent investigation by LC-MS/MS covering multiple cyanotoxins (microcystins (MCs), anatoxin-a, cylindrospermopsin, nodularin) in water and fish collected between 2019 and 2020. Eleven MCs were identified reaching concentrations of 211 and 199 μg/L for MC-LR and MC-YR, respectively. Cylindrospermopsin, anatoxin-a and nodularin were not detected. The determination of the total MCs was also carried out by ELISA and Protein Phosphatase Inhibition Assay yielding comparable results. Molecular detection of cyanobacteria (16S rRNA) and biosynthetic genes of toxins were carried out by qPCR. Untargeted screening analysis by GC-MS showed the presence of T&O compounds, such as β-cyclocitral, β-ionone, nonanal and dimethylsulfides that contribute to unpleasant odors in water. The determination of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) showed the presence of anthropogenic pollutants, mostly dichloromethane and toluene. The findings are important to develop future monitoring schemes in order to assess the risks from cyanobacterial blooms with regard to the lake’s ecosystem and its uses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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22 pages, 25705 KiB  
Article
Is Toxin-Producing Planktothrix sp. an Emerging Species in Lake Constance?
by Corentin Fournier, Eva Riehle, Daniel R. Dietrich and David Schleheck
Toxins 2021, 13(9), 666; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13090666 - 17 Sep 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3242
Abstract
Recurring blooms of filamentous, red-pigmented and toxin-producing cyanobacteria Planktothrix rubescens have been reported in numerous deep and stratified prealpine lakes, with the exception of Lake Constance. In a 2019 and 2020 Lake Constance field campaign, we collected samples from a distinct red-pigmented biomass [...] Read more.
Recurring blooms of filamentous, red-pigmented and toxin-producing cyanobacteria Planktothrix rubescens have been reported in numerous deep and stratified prealpine lakes, with the exception of Lake Constance. In a 2019 and 2020 Lake Constance field campaign, we collected samples from a distinct red-pigmented biomass maximum below the chlorophyll-a maximum, which was determined using fluorescence probe measurements at depths between 18 and 20 m. Here, we report the characterization of these deep water red pigment maxima (DRM) as cyanobacterial blooms. Using 16S rRNA gene-amplicon sequencing, we found evidence that the blooms were, indeed, contributed by Planktothrix spp., although phycoerythrin-rich Synechococcus taxa constituted most of the biomass (>96% relative read abundance) of the cyanobacterial DRM community. Through UPLC–MS/MS, we also detected toxic microcystins (MCs) in the DRM in the individual sampling days at concentrations of ≤1.5 ng/L. Subsequently, we reevaluated the fluorescence probe measurements collected over the past decade and found that, in the summer, DRM have been present in Lake Constance, at least since 2009. Our study highlights the need for a continuous monitoring program also targeting the cyanobacterial DRM in Lake Constance, and for future studies on the competition of the different cyanobacterial taxa. Future studies will address the potential community composition changes in response to the climate change driven physiochemical and biological parameters of the lake. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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20 pages, 2489 KiB  
Article
Toxins and Other Bioactive Metabolites in Deep Chlorophyll Layers Containing the Cyanobacteria Planktothrix cf. isothrix in Two Georgian Bay Embayments, Lake Huron
by Arthur Zastepa, Todd R. Miller, L. Cynthia Watson, Hedy Kling and Susan B. Watson
Toxins 2021, 13(7), 445; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13070445 - 27 Jun 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3295
Abstract
The understanding of deep chlorophyll layers (DCLs) in the Great Lakes—largely reported as a mix of picoplankton and mixotrophic nanoflagellates—is predominantly based on studies of deep (>30 m), offshore locations. Here, we document and characterize nearshore DCLs from two meso-oligotrophic embayments, Twelve Mile [...] Read more.
The understanding of deep chlorophyll layers (DCLs) in the Great Lakes—largely reported as a mix of picoplankton and mixotrophic nanoflagellates—is predominantly based on studies of deep (>30 m), offshore locations. Here, we document and characterize nearshore DCLs from two meso-oligotrophic embayments, Twelve Mile Bay (TMB) and South Bay (SB), along eastern Georgian Bay, Lake Huron (Ontario, Canada) in 2014, 2015, and 2018. Both embayments showed the annual formation of DCLs, present as dense, thin, metalimnetic plates dominated by the large, potentially toxic, and bloom-forming cyanobacteria Planktothrix cf. isothrix. The contribution of P. cf. isothrix to the deep-living total biomass (TB) increased as thermal stratification progressed over the ice-free season, reaching 40% in TMB (0.6 mg/L at 9.5 m) and 65% in South Bay (3.5 mg/L at 7.5 m) in 2015. The euphotic zone in each embayment extended down past the mixed layer, into the nutrient-enriched hypoxic hypolimnia, consistent with other studies of similar systems with DCLs. The co-occurrence of the metal-oxidizing bacteria Leptothrix spp. and bactivorous flagellates within the metalimnetic DCLs suggests that the microbial loop plays an important role in recycling nutrients within these layers, particularly phosphate (PO4) and iron (Fe). Samples taken through the water column in both embayments showed measurable concentrations of the cyanobacterial toxins microcystins (max. 0.4 µg/L) and the other bioactive metabolites anabaenopeptins (max. ~7 µg/L) and cyanopeptolins (max. 1 ng/L), along with the corresponding genes (max. in 2018). These oligopeptides are known to act as metabolic inhibitors (e.g., in chemical defence against grazers, parasites) and allow a competitive advantage. In TMB, the 2018 peaks in these oligopeptides and genes coincided with the P. cf. isothrix DCLs, suggesting this species as the main source. Our data indicate that intersecting physicochemical gradients of light and nutrient-enriched hypoxic hypolimnia are key factors in supporting DCLs in TMB and SB. Microbial activity and allelopathy may also influence DCL community structure and function, and require further investigation, particularly related to the dominance of potentially toxigenic species such as P. cf. isothrix. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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21 pages, 4995 KiB  
Article
Cyanobacterial Toxins and Peptides in Lake Vegoritis, Greece
by Sevasti-Kiriaki Zervou, Kimon Moschandreou, Aikaterina Paraskevopoulou, Christophoros Christophoridis, Elpida Grigoriadou, Triantafyllos Kaloudis, Theodoros M. Triantis, Vasiliki Tsiaoussi and Anastasia Hiskia
Toxins 2021, 13(6), 394; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13060394 - 01 Jun 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3846
Abstract
Cyanotoxins (CTs) produced by cyanobacteria in surface freshwater are a major threat for public health and aquatic ecosystems. Cyanobacteria can also produce a wide variety of other understudied bioactive metabolites such as oligopeptides microginins (MGs), aeruginosins (AERs), aeruginosamides (AEGs) and anabaenopeptins (APs). This [...] Read more.
Cyanotoxins (CTs) produced by cyanobacteria in surface freshwater are a major threat for public health and aquatic ecosystems. Cyanobacteria can also produce a wide variety of other understudied bioactive metabolites such as oligopeptides microginins (MGs), aeruginosins (AERs), aeruginosamides (AEGs) and anabaenopeptins (APs). This study reports on the co-occurrence of CTs and cyanopeptides (CPs) in Lake Vegoritis, Greece and presents their variant-specific profiles obtained during 3-years of monitoring (2018–2020). Fifteen CTs (cylindrospermopsin (CYN), anatoxin (ATX), nodularin (NOD), and 12 microcystins (MCs)) and ten CPs (3 APs, 4 MGs, 2 AERs and aeruginosamide (AEG A)) were targeted using an extended and validated LC-MS/MS protocol for the simultaneous determination of multi-class CTs and CPs. Results showed the presence of MCs (MC-LR, MC-RR, MC-YR, dmMC-LR, dmMC-RR, MC-HtyR, and MC-HilR) and CYN at concentrations of <1 μg/L, with MC-LR (79%) and CYN (71%) being the most frequently occurring. Anabaenopeptins B (AP B) and F (AP F) were detected in almost all samples and microginin T1 (MG T1) was the most abundant CP, reaching 47.0 μg/L. This is the first report of the co-occurrence of CTs and CPs in Lake Vegoritis, which is used for irrigation, fishing and recreational activities. The findings support the need for further investigations of the occurrence of CTs and the less studied cyanobacterial metabolites in lakes, to promote risk assessment with relevance to human exposure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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20 pages, 6367 KiB  
Article
Is the Cyanobacterial Bloom Composition Shifting Due to Climate Forcing or Nutrient Changes? Example of a Shallow Eutrophic Reservoir
by Morgane Le Moal, Alexandrine Pannard, Luc Brient, Benjamin Richard, Marion Chorin, Emilien Mineaud and Claudia Wiegand
Toxins 2021, 13(5), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13050351 - 13 May 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3209
Abstract
Cyanobacterial blooms in eutrophic freshwater is a global threat to the functioning of ecosystems, human health and the economy. Parties responsible for the ecosystems and human health increasingly demand reliable predictions of cyanobacterial development to support necessary decisions. Long-term data series help with [...] Read more.
Cyanobacterial blooms in eutrophic freshwater is a global threat to the functioning of ecosystems, human health and the economy. Parties responsible for the ecosystems and human health increasingly demand reliable predictions of cyanobacterial development to support necessary decisions. Long-term data series help with identifying environmental drivers of cyanobacterial developments in the context of climatic and anthropogenic pressure. Here, we analyzed 13 years of eutrophication and climatic data of a shallow temperate reservoir showing a high interannual variability of cyanobacterial development and composition, which is a less occurring and/or less described phenomenon compared to recurrant monospecific blooms. While between 2007–2012 Planktothrix agardhii dominated the cyanobacterial community, it shifted towards Microcystis sp. and then Dolichospermum sp. afterwards (2013–2019). The shift to Microcystis sp. dominance was mainly influenced by generally calmer and warmer conditions. The later shift to Dolichospermum sp. was driven by droughts influencing, amongst others, the N-load, as P remained unchanged over the time period. Both, climatic pressure and N-limitation contributed to the high variability of cyanobacterial blooms and may lead to a new equilibrium. The further reduction of P-load in parallel to the decreasing N-load is important to suppress cyanobacterial blooms and ameliorate ecosystem health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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13 pages, 1758 KiB  
Article
Cyanotoxin Screening in BACA Culture Collection: Identification of New Cylindrospermopsin Producing Cyanobacteria
by Rita Cordeiro, Joana Azevedo, Rúben Luz, Vitor Vasconcelos, Vítor Gonçalves and Amélia Fonseca
Toxins 2021, 13(4), 258; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13040258 - 03 Apr 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3380
Abstract
Microcystins (MCs), Saxitoxins (STXs), and Cylindrospermopsins (CYNs) are some of the more well-known cyanotoxins. Taking into consideration the impacts of cyanotoxins, many studies have focused on the identification of unknown cyanotoxin(s)-producing strains. This study aimed to screen strains from the Azorean Bank of [...] Read more.
Microcystins (MCs), Saxitoxins (STXs), and Cylindrospermopsins (CYNs) are some of the more well-known cyanotoxins. Taking into consideration the impacts of cyanotoxins, many studies have focused on the identification of unknown cyanotoxin(s)-producing strains. This study aimed to screen strains from the Azorean Bank of Algae and Cyanobacteria (BACA) for MCs, STX, and CYN production. A total of 157 strains were searched for mcy, sxt, and cyr producing genes by PCR, toxin identification by ESI-LC-MS/MS, and cyanotoxin-producing strains morphological identification and confirmation by 16S rRNA phylogenetic analysis. Cyanotoxin-producing genes were amplified in 13 strains and four were confirmed as toxin producers by ESI-LC-MS/MS. As expected Aphanizomenon gracile BACA0041 was confirmed as an STX producer, with amplification of genes sxtA, sxtG, sxtH, and sxtI, and Microcystis aeruginosa BACA0148 as an MC-LR producer, with amplification of genes mcyC, mcyD, mcyE, and mcyG. Two nostocalean strains, BACA0025 and BACA0031, were positive for both cyrB and cyrC genes and ESI-LC-MS/MS confirmed CYN production. Although these strains morphologically resemble Sphaerospermopsis, the 16S rRNA phylogenetic analysis reveals that they probably belong to a new genus. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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19 pages, 1626 KiB  
Article
Potentially Toxic Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria in Slovenian Freshwater Bodies: Detection by Quantitative PCR
by Maša Zupančič, Polona Kogovšek, Tadeja Šter, Špela Remec Rekar, Leonardo Cerasino, Špela Baebler, Aleksandra Krivograd Klemenčič and Tina Eleršek
Toxins 2021, 13(2), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13020133 - 11 Feb 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2860
Abstract
Due to increased frequency of cyanobacterial blooms and emerging evidence of cyanotoxicity in biofilm, reliable methods for early cyanotoxin threat detection are of major importance for protection of human, animal and environmental health. To complement the current methods of risk assessment, this study [...] Read more.
Due to increased frequency of cyanobacterial blooms and emerging evidence of cyanotoxicity in biofilm, reliable methods for early cyanotoxin threat detection are of major importance for protection of human, animal and environmental health. To complement the current methods of risk assessment, this study aimed to evaluate selected qPCR assays for detection of potentially toxic cyanobacteria in environmental samples. In the course of one year, 25 plankton and 23 biofilm samples were collected from 15 water bodies in Slovenia. Three different analyses were performed and compared to each other; qPCR targeting mcyE, cyrJ and sxtA genes involved in cyanotoxin production, LC-MS/MS quantifying microcystin, cylindrospermopsin and saxitoxin concentration, and microscopic analyses identifying potentially toxic cyanobacterial taxa. qPCR analyses detected potentially toxic Microcystis in 10 lake plankton samples, and potentially toxic Planktothrix cells in 12 lake plankton and one lake biofilm sample. A positive correlation was observed between numbers of mcyE gene copies and microcystin concentrations. Potential cylindrospermopsin- and saxitoxin-producers were detected in three and seven lake biofilm samples, respectively. The study demonstrated a potential for cyanotoxin production that was left undetected by traditional methods in both plankton and biofilm samples. Thus, the qPCR method could be useful in regular monitoring of water bodies to improve risk assessment and enable timely measures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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21 pages, 4770 KiB  
Article
Roles of Nutrient Limitation on Western Lake Erie CyanoHAB Toxin Production
by Malcolm A. Barnard, Justin D. Chaffin, Haley E. Plaas, Gregory L. Boyer, Bofan Wei, Steven W. Wilhelm, Karen L. Rossignol, Jeremy S. Braddy, George S. Bullerjahn, Thomas B. Bridgeman, Timothy W. Davis, Jin Wei, Minsheng Bu and Hans W. Paerl
Toxins 2021, 13(1), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13010047 - 09 Jan 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6492
Abstract
Cyanobacterial harmful algal bloom (CyanoHAB) proliferation is a global problem impacting ecosystem and human health. Western Lake Erie (WLE) typically endures two highly toxic CyanoHABs during summer: a Microcystis spp. bloom in Maumee Bay that extends throughout the western basin, and a Planktothrix [...] Read more.
Cyanobacterial harmful algal bloom (CyanoHAB) proliferation is a global problem impacting ecosystem and human health. Western Lake Erie (WLE) typically endures two highly toxic CyanoHABs during summer: a Microcystis spp. bloom in Maumee Bay that extends throughout the western basin, and a Planktothrix spp. bloom in Sandusky Bay. Recently, the USA and Canada agreed to a 40% phosphorus (P) load reduction to lessen the severity of the WLE blooms. To investigate phosphorus and nitrogen (N) limitation of biomass and toxin production in WLE CyanoHABs, we conducted in situ nutrient addition and 40% dilution microcosm bioassays in June and August 2019. During the June Sandusky Bay bloom, biomass production as well as hepatotoxic microcystin and neurotoxic anatoxin production were N and P co-limited with microcystin production becoming nutrient deplete under 40% dilution. During August, the Maumee Bay bloom produced microcystin under nutrient repletion with slight induced P limitation under 40% dilution, and the Sandusky Bay bloom produced anatoxin under N limitation in both dilution treatments. The results demonstrate the importance of nutrient limitation effects on microcystin and anatoxin production. To properly combat cyanotoxin and cyanobacterial biomass production in WLE, both N and P reduction efforts should be implemented in its watershed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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17 pages, 1848 KiB  
Article
Mass Occurrence of Anatoxin-a- and Dihydroanatoxin-a-Producing Tychonema sp. in Mesotrophic Reservoir Mandichosee (River Lech, Germany) as a Cause of Neurotoxicosis in Dogs
by Franziska Bauer, Jutta Fastner, Bernadett Bartha-Dima, Wolfram Breuer, Almuth Falkenau, Christian Mayer and Uta Raeder
Toxins 2020, 12(11), 726; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12110726 - 20 Nov 2020
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4172
Abstract
In August 2019, three dogs died after bathing in or drinking from Mandichosee, a mesotrophic reservoir of the River Lech (Germany). The dogs showed symptoms of neurotoxic poisoning and intoxication with cyanotoxins was considered. Surface blooms were not visible at the time of [...] Read more.
In August 2019, three dogs died after bathing in or drinking from Mandichosee, a mesotrophic reservoir of the River Lech (Germany). The dogs showed symptoms of neurotoxic poisoning and intoxication with cyanotoxins was considered. Surface blooms were not visible at the time of the incidents. Benthic Tychonema sp., a potential anatoxin-a (ATX)-producing cyanobacterium, was detected in mats growing on the banks, as biofilm on macrophytes and later as aggregations floating on the lake surface. The dogs’ pathological examinations showed lung and liver lesions. ATX and dihydroanatoxin-a (dhATX) were detected by LC-MS/MS in the stomachs of two dogs and reached concentrations of 563 and 1207 µg/L, respectively. Anatoxins (sum of ATX and dhATX, ATXs) concentrations in field samples from Mandichosee ranged from 0.1 µg/L in the open water to 68,000 µg/L in samples containing a large amount of mat material. Other (neuro)toxic substances were not found. A molecular approach was used to detect toxin genes by PCR and to reveal the cyanobacterial community composition by sequencing. Upstream of Mandichosee, random samples were taken from other Lech reservoirs, uncovering Tychonema and ATXs at several sampling sites. Similar recent findings emphasize the importance of focusing on the investigation of benthic toxic cyanobacteria and applying appropriate monitoring strategies in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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18 pages, 2309 KiB  
Article
Is a Central Sediment Sample Sufficient? Exploring Spatial and Temporal Microbial Diversity in a Small Lake
by Barbara Weisbrod, Susanna A. Wood, Konstanze Steiner, Ruby Whyte-Wilding, Jonathan Puddick, Olivier Laroche and Daniel R. Dietrich
Toxins 2020, 12(9), 580; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12090580 - 09 Sep 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3341
Abstract
(1) Background: Paleolimnological studies use sediment cores to explore long-term changes in lake ecology, including occurrences of harmful cyanobacterial blooms. Most studies are based on single cores, assuming this is representative of the whole lake, but data on small-scale spatial variability of microbial [...] Read more.
(1) Background: Paleolimnological studies use sediment cores to explore long-term changes in lake ecology, including occurrences of harmful cyanobacterial blooms. Most studies are based on single cores, assuming this is representative of the whole lake, but data on small-scale spatial variability of microbial communities in lake sediment are scarce. (2) Methods: Surface sediments (top 0.5 cm) from 12 sites (n = 36) and two sediment cores were collected in Lake Rotorua (New Zealand). Bacterial community (16S rRNA metabarcoding), Microcystis specific 16S rRNA, microcystin synthetase gene E (mcyE) and microcystins (MCs) were assessed. Radionuclide measurements (210Pb, 137Cs) were used to date sediments. (3) Results: Bacterial community, based on relative abundances, differed significantly between surface sediment sites (p < 0.001) but the majority of bacterial amplicon sequence variants (88.8%) were shared. Despite intense MC producing Microcystis blooms in the past, no Microcystis specific 16S rRNA, mcyE and MCs were found in surface sediments but occurred deeper in sediment cores (approximately 1950′s). 210Pb measurements showed a disturbed profile, similar to patterns previously observed, as a result of earthquakes. (4) Conclusions: A single sediment core can capture dominant microbial communities. Toxin producing Microcystis blooms are a recent phenomenon in Lake Rotorua. We posit that the absence of Microcystis from the surface sediments is a consequence of the Kaikoura earthquake two years prior to our sampling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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21 pages, 3402 KiB  
Article
Insight into Unprecedented Diversity of Cyanopeptides in Eutrophic Ponds Using an MS/MS Networking Approach
by Andreja Kust, Klára Řeháková, Jaroslav Vrba, Vincent Maicher, Jan Mareš, Pavel Hrouzek, Maria-Cecilia Chiriac, Zdeňka Benedová, Blanka Tesařová and Kumar Saurav
Toxins 2020, 12(9), 561; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12090561 - 31 Aug 2020
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4405
Abstract
Man-made shallow fishponds in the Czech Republic have been facing high eutrophication since the 1950s. Anthropogenic eutrophication and feeding of fish have strongly affected the physicochemical properties of water and its aquatic community composition, leading to harmful algal bloom formation. In our current [...] Read more.
Man-made shallow fishponds in the Czech Republic have been facing high eutrophication since the 1950s. Anthropogenic eutrophication and feeding of fish have strongly affected the physicochemical properties of water and its aquatic community composition, leading to harmful algal bloom formation. In our current study, we characterized the phytoplankton community across three eutrophic ponds to assess the phytoplankton dynamics during the vegetation season. We microscopically identified and quantified 29 cyanobacterial taxa comprising non-toxigenic and toxigenic species. Further, a detailed cyanopeptides (CNPs) profiling was performed using molecular networking analysis of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) data coupled with a dereplication strategy. This MS networking approach, coupled with dereplication, on the online global natural product social networking (GNPS) web platform led us to putatively identify forty CNPs: fourteen anabaenopeptins, ten microcystins, five cyanopeptolins, six microginins, two cyanobactins, a dipeptide radiosumin, a cyclooctapeptide planktocyclin, and epidolastatin 12. We applied the binary logistic regression to estimate the CNPs producers by correlating the GNPS data with the species abundance. The usage of the GNPS web platform proved a valuable approach for the rapid and simultaneous detection of a large number of peptides and rapid risk assessments for harmful blooms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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23 pages, 2417 KiB  
Article
Cylindrospermopsin- and Deoxycylindrospermopsin-Producing Raphidiopsis raciborskii and Microcystin-Producing Microcystis spp. in Meiktila Lake, Myanmar
by Andreas Ballot, Thida Swe, Marit Mjelde, Leonardo Cerasino, Vladyslava Hostyeva and Christopher O. Miles
Toxins 2020, 12(4), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12040232 - 07 Apr 2020
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3656
Abstract
Meiktila Lake is a shallow reservoir located close to Meiktila city in central Myanmar. Its water is used for irrigation, domestic purposes and drinking water. No detailed study of the presence of cyanobacteria and their potential toxin production has been conducted so far. [...] Read more.
Meiktila Lake is a shallow reservoir located close to Meiktila city in central Myanmar. Its water is used for irrigation, domestic purposes and drinking water. No detailed study of the presence of cyanobacteria and their potential toxin production has been conducted so far. To ascertain the cyanobacterial composition and presence of cyanobacterial toxins in Meiktila Lake, water samples were collected in March and November 2017 and investigated for physico-chemical and biological parameters. Phytoplankton composition and biomass determination revealed that most of the samples were dominated by the cyanobacterium Raphidiopsis raciborskii. In a polyphasic approach, seven isolated cyanobacterial strains were classified morphologically and phylogenetically as R. raciborskii, and Microcystis spp. and tested for microcystins (MCs), cylindrospermopsins (CYNs), saxitoxins and anatoxins by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS). ELISA and LC–MS analyses confirmed CYNs in three of the five Raphidiopsis strains between 1.8 and 9.8 μg mg−1 fresh weight. Both Microcystis strains produced MCs, one strain 52 congeners and the other strain 20 congeners, including 22 previously unreported variants. Due to the presence of CYN- and MC-producing cyanobacteria, harmful effects on humans, domestic and wild animals cannot be excluded in Meiktila Lake. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

33 pages, 1412 KiB  
Review
Determination of Cyanotoxins and Prymnesins in Water, Fish Tissue, and Other Matrices: A Review
by Devi Sundaravadivelu, Toby T. Sanan, Raghuraman Venkatapathy, Heath Mash, Dan Tettenhorst, Lesley DAnglada, Sharon Frey, Avery O. Tatters and James Lazorchak
Toxins 2022, 14(3), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14030213 - 16 Mar 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7412
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms (HABs) and their toxins are a significant and continuing threat to aquatic life in freshwater, estuarine, and coastal water ecosystems. Scientific understanding of the impacts of HABs on aquatic ecosystems has been hampered, in part, by limitations in the methodologies [...] Read more.
Harmful algal blooms (HABs) and their toxins are a significant and continuing threat to aquatic life in freshwater, estuarine, and coastal water ecosystems. Scientific understanding of the impacts of HABs on aquatic ecosystems has been hampered, in part, by limitations in the methodologies to measure cyanotoxins in complex matrices. This literature review discusses the methodologies currently used to measure the most commonly found freshwater cyanotoxins and prymnesins in various matrices and to assess their advantages and limitations. Identifying and quantifying cyanotoxins in surface waters, fish tissue, organs, and other matrices are crucial for risk assessment and for ensuring quality of food and water for consumption and recreational uses. This paper also summarizes currently available tissue extraction, preparation, and detection methods mentioned in previous studies that have quantified toxins in complex matrices. The structural diversity and complexity of many cyanobacterial and algal metabolites further impede accurate quantitation and structural confirmation for various cyanotoxins. Liquid chromatography–triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (LC–MS/MS) to enhance the sensitivity and selectivity of toxin analysis has become an essential tool for cyanotoxin detection and can potentially be used for the concurrent analysis of multiple toxins. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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37 pages, 19685 KiB  
Review
Anabaenopeptins: What We Know So Far
by Patrick Romano Monteiro, Samuel Cavalcante do Amaral, Andrei Santos Siqueira, Luciana Pereira Xavier and Agenor Valadares Santos
Toxins 2021, 13(8), 522; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13080522 - 27 Jul 2021
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4718
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are microorganisms with photosynthetic mechanisms capable of colonizing several distinct environments worldwide. They can produce a vast spectrum of bioactive compounds with different properties, resulting in an improved adaptative capacity. Their richness in secondary metabolites is related to their unique and diverse [...] Read more.
Cyanobacteria are microorganisms with photosynthetic mechanisms capable of colonizing several distinct environments worldwide. They can produce a vast spectrum of bioactive compounds with different properties, resulting in an improved adaptative capacity. Their richness in secondary metabolites is related to their unique and diverse metabolic apparatus, such as Non-Ribosomal Peptide Synthetases (NRPSs). One important class of peptides produced by the non-ribosomal pathway is anabaenopeptins. These cyclic hexapeptides demonstrated inhibitory activity towards phosphatases and proteases, which could be related to their toxicity and adaptiveness against zooplankters and crustaceans. Thus, this review aims to identify key features related to anabaenopeptins, including the diversity of their structure, occurrence, the biosynthetic steps for their production, ecological roles, and biotechnological applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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17 pages, 484 KiB  
Review
Co-Occurrence of Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins with Other Environmental Health Hazards: Impacts and Implications
by James S. Metcalf and Geoffrey A. Codd
Toxins 2020, 12(10), 629; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12100629 - 01 Oct 2020
Cited by 52 | Viewed by 6106
Abstract
Toxin-producing cyanobacteria in aquatic, terrestrial, and aerial environments can occur alongside a wide range of additional health hazards including biological agents and synthetic materials. Cases of intoxications involving cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins, with exposure to additional hazards, are discussed. Examples of the co-occurrence of [...] Read more.
Toxin-producing cyanobacteria in aquatic, terrestrial, and aerial environments can occur alongside a wide range of additional health hazards including biological agents and synthetic materials. Cases of intoxications involving cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins, with exposure to additional hazards, are discussed. Examples of the co-occurrence of cyanobacteria in such combinations are reviewed, including cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins plus algal toxins, microbial pathogens and fecal indicator bacteria, metals, pesticides, and microplastics. Toxicity assessments of cyanobacteria, cyanotoxins, and these additional agents, where investigated in bioassays and in defined combinations, are discussed and further research needs are identified. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyanotoxins in Bloom: Ever-Increasing Occurrence and Global Distribution of Freshwater Cyanotoxins from Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria)
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