Toxins

19 pages, 1202 KB

Open AccessArticle

Antimicrobial Activity of Micrurus Venoms and Bioactive Films Functionalized with Purified L-Amino Acid Oxidase

by Vitelbina Núñez Rangel, Paola Rey-Suárez, Daniel Buitrago-Chinchilla, Laura Reyes-Méndez, Leidy Gómez-Sampedro, Alejandro Carmona-Jiménez, Mateo Rivillas-Ochoa and Adriana Muñoz-Bravo

Toxins 2026, 18(6), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18060240 - 22 May 2026

Abstract

Phytopathogenic bacteria and fungi significantly reduce fruit and vegetable yields, resulting in substantial economic losses. Conventional management relies on synthetic agrochemicals; however, their intensive use poses risks to human health, environmental integrity, and biodiversity. Snake venoms have evolved under selective pressure, developing specialized components with potent antimicrobial properties as part of a defense mechanism against prey-borne microorganisms. This study evaluated the inhibitory potential of Micrurus venoms against pathogens of agricultural interest and developed bioactive gelatin-based films incorporated with purified L-amino acid oxidases (LAAOs) as a novel biocontrol strategy. Venoms from M. ancoralis, M. mipartitus, and M. dumerilii exhibited significant growth inhibition against Xanthomonas and Fusarium strains. The primary active component was identified as LAAO through biological activity and mass spectrometry. Biofilms were formulated by incorporating M. ancoralis venom and its purified LAAO into a gelatin matrix. Physicochemical and microbiological characterization, alongside in situ assays on strawberries, demonstrated that the functionalized biofilms retained potent antimicrobial activity. Furthermore, LAAO incorporation did not significantly alter the physicochemical properties of the fruit but effectively extended shelf life by reducing weight loss and maintaining sensory appearance. These findings highlight the biotechnological potential of elapid venom components in the development of alternatives for phytopathogen control and active food packaging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Venoms and Drugs)

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26 pages, 4279 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tracking Toxins: A Pilot Investigation of Cyanotoxins in North-Central Tennessee’s Surface Waters and Wells

by Kristi L. Hill, Andrea C. Jaegge, Devin M. Moore and Thomas D. Byl

Toxins 2026, 18(6), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18060239 - 22 May 2026

Abstract

Cyanobacterial toxins (cyanotoxins) threaten aquatic ecosystems and human health, yet the factors influencing their production and distribution in freshwater remain unclear. In north-central Tennessee, nutrient-rich runoff from agricultural and urban areas, combined with a karst landscape that supports drinking and recreational water use, heightens the need to understand cyanotoxin behavior. To examine cyanotoxin patterns, the U.S. Geological Survey and the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation monitored 18 sites, including two wells under the influence of surface water, every two weeks from September 2022 to November 2024. At least one cyanotoxin was detected at all sites, with the highest concentrations in deep reservoirs and lower levels in shallow systems. Most detections occurred during summer and fall, aligning with high temperatures and rapid-onset drought. Statistical analysis indicated that increased specific conductivity and pH raised the likelihood of detecting total microcystin, likely resulting from drought conditions and nutrient-laden runoff. Additionally, dissolved microcystin showed an inverse relationship with Cumberland River water levels, and principal component analysis showed that Secchi depth, chlorophyll a, pH, temperature, and conductivity explained most water quality variability. These results help increase understanding of cyanotoxin distribution and associated water quality conditions during detections to guide future freshwater cyanotoxin monitoring studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection and Adsorption of Cyanotoxins in Waters)

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15 pages, 1016 KB

Open AccessReview

The Utility of the Electromyography and Ultrasound Guidance Combination for Botulinum Neurotoxin Injection: Focus on the Added Value of Electromyography

by Domenico Antonio Restivo, Mario Stampanoni Bassi, Rosario Marchese-Ragona, Giovanni Castelnovo, Angelo Alito, Demetrio Milardi, Stefano Masiero and Daniele Coraci

Toxins 2026, 18(6), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18060238 - 22 May 2026

Abstract

The efficacy of botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is strongly dependent on its accurate delivery to hyperactive muscles and, ideally, to motor endplate regions. Although guidance techniques such as electromyography (EMG) and ultrasound (US) improve injection precision, each technique provides only partial information—either functional or anatomical. Integrating these techniques could enhance targeting accuracy, optimize dose distribution, and reduce off-target effects. A structured PubMed search was performed using terms related to BoNT, spasticity/dystonia, EMG, and US. Filters included clinical trials, randomized controlled trials, meta-analyses and reviews published within the last decade. Fifty-nine studies met the inclusion criteria. The publications were predominantly in neuroscience and rehabilitation journals. Only 17 studies reported combined EMG–US guidance. These focused mainly on stroke and cervical dystonia. While EMG-US integration is a promising strategy, we emphasize the added value of EMG guidance for US approaches, which is particularly important when treating complex neurological conditions involving complex, overlapping muscle activation patterns, or when targeting structures that are inaccessible to conventional imaging techniques. The EMG-US integrated approach is a promising strategy for optimizing BoNT therapy by combining structural visualization with real-time functional assessment. Despite its promising advantages in terms of accuracy and dose optimization, its clinical adoption is limited by a lack of high-quality evidence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Toxins)

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Toxins, Volume 18, Issue 6 (June 2026) – 3 articles

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