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Micro

Micro is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on microscale and nanoscale research and applications in physics, chemistry, materials, biology, medicine, food, environment technology, engineering, etc., published quarterly online by MDPI.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science) and other databases.
Journal Rank: CiteScore - Q2 (Engineering (miscellaneous))
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 23.2 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: APC discount vouchers, optional signed peer review, and reviewer names published annually in the journal.
Micro is a companion journal of Micromachines.

Impact Factor: 1.9 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.0 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2673-8023

Latest Articles

26 pages, 12478 KB

Open AccessArticle

Depth Distribution of Microplastics Contamination and Associated Risks in Homestead Farming Soils from Industrial and Non-Industrial Regions of Bangladesh

by Afia Sultana, Qingyue Wang, Miho Suzuki, Christian Ebere Enyoh, Md. Sohel Rana, Weiqian Wang and Anunobi Chinazo Ndidiamaka

Micro 2026, 6(2), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020042 - 4 Jun 2026

Microplastic (MP) contamination in terrestrial ecosystems has emerged as a critical environmental concern, particularly in agricultural soils influenced by anthropogenic activities. This study investigated the depth-wise distribution, polymer composition, and associated ecological and human health risks of MPs in homestead agricultural soils across [...] Read more.

Microplastic (MP) contamination in terrestrial ecosystems has emerged as a critical environmental concern, particularly in agricultural soils influenced by anthropogenic activities. This study investigated the depth-wise distribution, polymer composition, and associated ecological and human health risks of MPs in homestead agricultural soils across four regions of Bangladesh representing different levels of industrialization: Narayanganj (old industrial), Savar (moderate industrial), Gazipur (emerging industrial), and Mymensingh (non-industrial). Soil samples were collected from two depth intervals (0–20 cm and 21–50 cm), and MPs were extracted using density separation, identified through microscopic analysis, and characterized via ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. A diverse range of MP morphologies and polymers was detected, with irregular particles and fragments dominating the composition. Polypropylene (PP), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) were the most abundant polymers, reflecting widespread domestic, industrial, and agricultural plastic usage. MP abundance was consistently higher in surface soils, indicating dominant surface inputs, although vertical migration into subsoil layers was evident. Spatial analysis revealed higher MP contamination in industrial regions, particularly Narayanganj and Savar, compared to the non-industrial reference site. Ecological risk assessment indicated low risk levels across all regions; however, significant spatial variability was observed. Human exposure assessment demonstrated that inhalation was the primary pathway, followed by dermal contact and ingestion, with children exhibiting higher exposure levels than adults. Lifetime average daily dose (LADD) and carcinogenic risk estimates remained below acceptable thresholds, suggesting minimal immediate health risks. Nevertheless, the persistence, mobility, and cumulative nature of MPs highlight potential long-term concerns. Therefore, this study provides comprehensive insights into the sources, distribution, and risks of MPs in homestead agricultural soils and underscores the need for improved waste management practices, sustainable agricultural strategies, and long-term monitoring to mitigate environmental and human health impacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nano-Structured Biopolymer Materials for Biomedical, Environmental, and Sustainable Applications)

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13 pages, 20962 KB

Open AccessArticle

Polygalacturonic Acid Gels and Supramolecular Gels Loaded with a Drug, Bioceramics and Bioglass

by Rebecca Sikkema and Igor Zhitomirsky

Micro 2026, 6(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020041 - 2 Jun 2026

This investigation addressed challenges in the delivery of poorly soluble drugs, and the colloidal processing of polymer–ceramic composites by fabrication of advanced supramolecular hydrogels. Polygalacturonic acid (PGA) polymer and 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid (GA) drug, both characterized by poor aqueous solubility, were selected as model [...] Read more.

This investigation addressed challenges in the delivery of poorly soluble drugs, and the colloidal processing of polymer–ceramic composites by fabrication of advanced supramolecular hydrogels. Polygalacturonic acid (PGA) polymer and 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid (GA) drug, both characterized by poor aqueous solubility, were selected as model building blocks for supramolecular hydrogels. Meglumine (MG) served as a multifunctional component in the gels, acting as a building block as well as an alkalizing and solubilizing agent for PGA and GA. Investigations revealed gel formation mechanisms, which were based on the electrostatic interactions of deprotonated anionic carboxylic groups of PGA and GA with protonated amino groups of MG and the hydrogen bonding of PGA polymer and GA molecules. The feasibility of the fabrication of PGA-MG and GA-MG gels opened an avenue for the fabrication of PGA-GA-MG gels. The composite gels provided a platform for drug delivery, and the kinetics of drug release from the composite gels containing MG excipient were investigated. Composite gels were obtained from colloidal dispersions, containing bioceramics, such as hydroxyapatite, silica, and titania, and bioglass in the PGA solutions in the presence of MG. The results of this investigation pave the way for the fabrication of novel supramolecular and composite gels loaded with various functional materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nano-Structured Biopolymer Materials for Biomedical, Environmental, and Sustainable Applications)

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40 pages, 2063 KB

Open AccessReview

From Plant Metabolites to Functional Nanomaterials: Advances in Phytochemical-Mediated Silver Nanoparticle Synthesis and Applications

by Edith Dube

Micro 2026, 6(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020040 - 1 Jun 2026

Phytochemical-assisted green synthesis of silver nanoparticles offers a sustainable alternative to conventional fabrication routes by utilising plant-derived metabolites as multifunctional reducing, capping, and stabilising agents. Polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, and related biomolecules mediate the reduction of Ag⁺ to Ag⁰ under mild [...] Read more.

Phytochemical-assisted green synthesis of silver nanoparticles offers a sustainable alternative to conventional fabrication routes by utilising plant-derived metabolites as multifunctional reducing, capping, and stabilising agents. Polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, and related biomolecules mediate the reduction of Ag⁺ to Ag⁰ under mild conditions while controlling nucleation, growth, and surface stabilisation, thereby dictating nanoparticle size, morphology, and colloidal stability. This review establishes clear links between phytochemical composition and the mechanistic pathways governing nanoparticle formation and biofunctional performance. Variations in extract chemistry influence electron transfer dynamics, surface functionalisation, and physicochemical properties, ultimately modulating biological activity. Enhanced antimicrobial and antioxidant effects arise from synergistic interactions between the silver core and phytochemical capping layers, promoting membrane disruption, reactive oxygen species generation, and biomolecular interference. Despite promising applications in antimicrobial coatings, food preservation, agriculture, and anticancer systems, key challenges remain, including compositional variability, limited mechanistic standardisation, and insufficient toxicological evaluation. Nonetheless, phytochemical-assisted synthesis provides a tunable and sustainable platform for AgNP production, aligning nanomaterial design with green chemistry principles while enabling multifunctional bioactivity. By integrating phytochemical composition, mechanistic synthesis pathways, and structure–activity relationships across diverse applications, this review provides a critical framework for the rational design, standardisation, and scalable development of next-generation phytochemical-mediated AgNP systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Microscale Materials Science)

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31 pages, 11499 KB

Open AccessArticle

Systematic Investigation of a Safer Polyacrylamide Gel Synthesis for MgO Nanoparticles with Tailored Properties

by Hedi Ben Ahmed, Maxim Pryazhnikov, Jessica Pirogovskaya, Sergey Zharkov, Il’ya Bril’ and Andrey Minakov

Micro 2026, 6(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020039 - 27 May 2026

Magnesium oxide (MgO) nanoparticles, recognized for their versatile applications from catalysis to biomedicine, require synthesis methods that offer precise control over their properties while ensuring safety and scalability. This study explores a safer, industrially viable adaptation of the polyacrylamide gel synthesis route by [...] Read more.

Magnesium oxide (MgO) nanoparticles, recognized for their versatile applications from catalysis to biomedicine, require synthesis methods that offer precise control over their properties while ensuring safety and scalability. This study explores a safer, industrially viable adaptation of the polyacrylamide gel synthesis route by utilizing magnesium sulfate (MgSO₄) instead of conventional nitrates to mitigate explosion risks during calcination. A systematic study was conducted to evaluate the influence of key synthesis parameters, such as crosslinker ratio, initiator concentration, precursor loading, calcination conditions (including temperature, time, and heating rate), pH, and the use of chelating agents (EDTA and citric acid), on the purity, morphology, size distribution, and colloidal stability of the synthesized MgO nanoparticles. Characterization via X-ray spectroscopy XRF and XRD, acoustic spectroscopy, nitrogen physisorption (BET), electronic microscopy SEM and TEM and dispersion stability analysis revealed that polymeric cell volume (controlled by crosslinker and initiator) significantly influences size distribution, while chelating agents in alkaline environments drastically reduce particle size to ~20 nm and alter morphology to platelets (EDTA) or polygonal shapes (citric acid). Crucially, a low heating rate (2.5 °C/min) was found to yield smaller particles (~30 nm) and higher purity. This work provides a comprehensive blueprint for the tailored, safe, and scalable synthesis of MgO nanoparticles with targeted properties for specific technological applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Microscale Materials Science)

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23 pages, 5288 KB

Open AccessArticle

Smartphone-Based Microscope with Integrated Reflective Illumination for On-Chip Dynamic Characterization of Microparticles

by Emanuela Cutuli, Pasquale Memmolo, Biagio Mandracchia and Maide Bucolo

Micro 2026, 6(2), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020038 - 19 May 2026

This work presents the Smart-Reflex-Scope, a compact and accessible smartphone-based microscope with integrated reflective illumination developed for on-chip analysis of microparticle dynamics. In this work, the platform is specifically employed to characterize size-dependent microparticle motion within a microchannel. The Smart-Reflex-Scope simultaneously functions as [...] Read more.

This work presents the Smart-Reflex-Scope, a compact and accessible smartphone-based microscope with integrated reflective illumination developed for on-chip analysis of microparticle dynamics. In this work, the platform is specifically employed to characterize size-dependent microparticle motion within a microchannel. The Smart-Reflex-Scope simultaneously functions as an illumination source and imaging unit by integrating a reversed smartphone camera lens, a custom reflex module, a microfluidic chip, and a precision Z-axis translation stage for focal adjustment. The optical performance was quantitatively evaluated in terms of equivalent focal length, magnification, and object-plane spatial resolution, providing a comprehensive assessment of the system’s microscale imaging capabilities. A comparative design study was conducted between two configurations: Design-1, based on normal reflection, and Design-2, based on angular reflection. The two approaches were analyzed with respect to illumination uniformity and imaging performance to identify the optimal configuration for enhanced visualization. Experimental validation was performed using synthetic microparticles with diameters of

6 μ m

and

20 μ m

, enabling assessment of the system’s ability to resolve and dynamically track micrometric objects of different sizes. The results demonstrate reliable detection and size-dependent dynamic characterization. A two-factor statistical ANOVA analysis confirmed the significance of the observed differences between microparticle groups under the tested experimental conditions (p-value

< 0.0001

). Overall, the proposed platform represents a scalable and miniaturized microscopy solution bridging conventional benchtop instruments and portable analytical devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Analysis Methods and Instruments)

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19 pages, 3067 KB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure-Controlled g-C₃N₄: From Photocatalyst to Potential UV-Shielding Pigment with Enhanced Skin Feel

by Masanori Sakamoto, Akari Nakata, Misa Shimizu, Ayuka Tagashira, Hideyuki Hirazawa, Yugo Imai, Hazuki Saka and Kokona Okabe

Micro 2026, 6(2), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020037 - 18 May 2026

Conventional organic and inorganic ultraviolet (UV) filters often face limitations related to photostability, skin penetration, and potential toxicity arising from their photocatalytic activity. In this study, graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) was investigated as a candidate biocompatible UV-shielding pigment. g-C [...] Read more.

Conventional organic and inorganic ultraviolet (UV) filters often face limitations related to photostability, skin penetration, and potential toxicity arising from their photocatalytic activity. In this study, graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) was investigated as a candidate biocompatible UV-shielding pigment. g-C₃N₄ powders were synthesized via thermal polymerization using urea and melamine as precursors. The melamine-derived samples exhibited a dense, block-like morphology with a strong yellow coloration and poor spreadability. In contrast, the urea-derived samples formed a distinctive porous and rounded structure. This morphology, originating from multistage gas evolution during polymerization, significantly reduced the static friction coefficient, resulting in a smoother texture and improved skin adaptability. Preliminary biological evaluation indicated high cell viability in cytotoxicity tests. Combined with the observed low photocatalytic activity, these findings suggest a favorable biocompatibility profile for topical applications. Overall, the results demonstrate that precursor engineering using urea enables the synthesis of high-performance g-C₃N₄ pigments with improved texture, desirable optical properties, and reduced biological reactivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Micro- and Nanomaterials: Design, Modulation, and Applications in Energy and Sensing)

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44 pages, 4160 KB

Open AccessReview

Imidazole Antifungals Against Fungal Pathogens: Resistance Mechanisms and Emerging Delivery Strategies

by Manita Saini, Syed Arman Rabbani, Mohamed El-Tanani, Shrestha Sharma and Rakesh Kumar

Micro 2026, 6(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020036 - 13 May 2026

Fungal infections remain a major and growing global health concern, particularly in immunocompromised populations and in settings where antifungal resistance is increasing. Imidazole antifungals continue to play an important role in the treatment of superficial and mucocutaneous mycoses because they inhibit lanosterol 14α-demethylase [...] Read more.

Fungal infections remain a major and growing global health concern, particularly in immunocompromised populations and in settings where antifungal resistance is increasing. Imidazole antifungals continue to play an important role in the treatment of superficial and mucocutaneous mycoses because they inhibit lanosterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51), a key enzyme in ergosterol biosynthesis. This mechanism disrupts fungal membrane integrity and underlies their clinical utility. However, the effectiveness of imidazoles is increasingly limited by resistance mechanisms such as CYP51 mutations, efflux pump overexpression, and biofilm-associated tolerance. In parallel, several biopharmaceutical constraints, including poor aqueous solubility, limited tissue penetration, short residence time, and variable local drug exposure, further reduce therapeutic performance. This review critically examines the medicinal chemistry, mechanism of action, and resistance biology of imidazole antifungals, while also highlighting the role of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic limitations in treatment failure. Particular attention is given to emerging drug delivery approaches, including lipid-based systems, vesicular carriers, nanocarriers, and other advanced topical formulations, which are being developed to improve solubility, enhance tissue retention, and sustain antifungal exposure at the site of infection. By integrating resistance mechanisms with formulation science, the review provides a translational perspective on how imidazole antifungals may be optimized for improved clinical utility and resistance management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Antimicrobial Agents and Nanomaterials—2nd Edition)

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Graphical abstract

28 pages, 6202 KB

Open AccessReview

Freeform Micro-Optical Elements—Recent Production Techniques, Opportunities and Challenges

by Tomasz Blachowicz, Guido Ehrmann, Johannes Fiedler, Reinhard Kaschuba and Andrea Ehrmann

Micro 2026, 6(2), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020035 - 11 May 2026

Freeform optics belong to the increasingly important elements in optical research and industry, which pose several challenges regarding design and highly precise manufacturing. First being used in cameras and for focusing, nowadays freeform optics are used in a broad range of applications, from [...] Read more.

Freeform optics belong to the increasingly important elements in optical research and industry, which pose several challenges regarding design and highly precise manufacturing. First being used in cameras and for focusing, nowadays freeform optics are used in a broad range of applications, from lighting to LiDAR, from endoscopy to photovoltaics, and from astronomical instruments to quantum cryptography. Designing freeform optics can be based on different theories and methods. Fabrication is possible by mechanical methods, such as diamond turning or high-precision milling, often followed by different polishing techniques, as well as laser-based techniques, mainly applying different lithographic techniques. Here, we give an overview of recent design and optimization methods, production methods used during the last years, and applications of freeform optics, including the possibility to combine freeform optics with tunability for different applications. We describe the opportunities of new applications as well as common problems and give an outlook towards future directions of research and development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Analysis Methods and Instruments)

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19 pages, 6200 KB

Open AccessArticle

Composition-Dependent Thermoresistive Behavior of PLA/PCL/GNP Composites: From Monotonic PTC Response to Tunable PTC–NTC Transition

by Vladimir Georgiev, Evgeni Ivanov, Todor Batakliev and Rumiana Kotsilkova

Micro 2026, 6(2), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020034 - 9 May 2026

The present work investigates the composition-dependent thermoresistive behavior of polylactic acid/polycaprolactone (PLA/PCL) composites reinforced with 4 wt.% graphene nanoplatelets (GNP), prepared by twin-screw extrusion at PLA/PCL ratios of 95/5, 70/30, 60/40, and 30/70 wt.%/wt.%. Their morphology, thermal properties, and structure were characterized by [...] Read more.

The present work investigates the composition-dependent thermoresistive behavior of polylactic acid/polycaprolactone (PLA/PCL) composites reinforced with 4 wt.% graphene nanoplatelets (GNP), prepared by twin-screw extrusion at PLA/PCL ratios of 95/5, 70/30, 60/40, and 30/70 wt.%/wt.%. Their morphology, thermal properties, and structure were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, and wide-angle X-ray diffraction. Thermoresistive measurements over four cycles (30–130 °C) revealed two distinct regimes: PLA-rich compositions exhibited a stable, monotonic positive temperature coefficient (PTC) response after the first conditioning cycle, with TCR values up to 0.38% °C⁻¹, whereas compositions with 40–70 wt.% PCL displayed a non-monotonic PTC-to-NTC transition linked to PCL melting and subsequent conductive network rearrangement. The magnitude of both PTC and NTC responses increased systematically with PCL content. These results demonstrate that the thermoresistive characteristics of biodegradable PLA/PCL/GNP composites, including the sign, magnitude, and switching temperature of the TCR, can be effectively tuned through blend composition, offering a practical route for designing thermally responsive sensing materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Micro- and Nanomaterials: Design, Modulation, and Applications in Energy and Sensing)

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28 pages, 1651 KB

Open AccessReview

Nanoemulsion-Based Delivery of Essential Oils for Controlling Foodborne Pathogens and Spoilage Microorganisms

by Diego Pádua de Almeida, Paula Zambe Azevedo, Ramila Cristiane Rodrigues, Elisa de Paula Reis Lima, Paulo Cesar Stringueta, Pedro Henrique Campelo and Evandro Martins

Micro 2026, 6(2), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020033 - 8 May 2026

The increasing incidence of foodborne diseases and the limitations of conventional preservation methods have driven the search for safer, more effective, and sustainable antimicrobial strategies. In this context, essential oil nanoemulsions have emerged as promising alternatives to synthetic preservatives due to their broad-spectrum [...] Read more.

The increasing incidence of foodborne diseases and the limitations of conventional preservation methods have driven the search for safer, more effective, and sustainable antimicrobial strategies. In this context, essential oil nanoemulsions have emerged as promising alternatives to synthetic preservatives due to their broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, natural origin, and potential applicability across diverse food matrices. This study critically examines the mechanisms of action of essential oils against pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms and discusses how their incorporation into nanoemulsions can overcome limitations such as low volatility, poor solubility, and chemical instability. The physicochemical principles governing the formation and stability of these nanoemulsions are addressed, alongside the influence of food matrix components (proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, pH, and ionic strength) on antimicrobial efficacy. Evidence from real food systems indicates that nanoemulsions often outperform free essential oils, although the magnitude of the effect strongly depends on matrix complexity and processing or storage conditions. The review further discusses critical aspects related to toxicity, safety, bioaccessibility, sensory acceptance, and regulatory considerations, as well as emerging evidence on adaptive responses and antimicrobial resistance risks associated with sublethal exposure to essential oil nanoemulsions. It is concluded that, despite their considerable technological potential, the industrial application of essential oil nanoemulsions requires further systematic studies in real foods, standardized protocols, and integrated risk assessments to ensure efficacy and safety under practical conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Microscale Materials Science)

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15 pages, 4893 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pretreatment Effects on the Microtensile Bond Strength Between a Bulk-Fill Resin-Based Composite Cavity Base Material and Methyl Methacrylate (MMA)-Based Luting Cement

by Reiko Kohsaka, Saho Komatsu, Akiko Haruyama, Toshiaki Ara, Akihiro Kuroiwa, Nobuo Yoshinari and Atsushi Kameyama

Micro 2026, 6(2), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020032 - 3 May 2026

The effects of different surface pretreatments on the microtensile bond strength (µTBS) between a bulk-fill resin-based composite cavity base material (Bulk Base HARD II) and 4-META/MMA-TBB resin (Super-Bond EX), which is often used as a luting agent for indirect dental restorations, were investigated. [...] Read more.

The effects of different surface pretreatments on the microtensile bond strength (µTBS) between a bulk-fill resin-based composite cavity base material (Bulk Base HARD II) and 4-META/MMA-TBB resin (Super-Bond EX), which is often used as a luting agent for indirect dental restorations, were investigated. Six experimental treatments were established: 10% citric acid/3% ferric chloride conditioner (10-3), self-etching primer (Teeth Primer; TP), silane coupling agent (M&C Primer; MC), 10-3+MC, TP+MC, and a control group with no treatment. The µTBS was measured after 1 week (immediate group) and 6 months (aged group) of water storage. There were no significant differences in µTBS among the immediate subgroups. However, the aged 10-3+MC group exhibited the highest bond strength, significantly outperforming the control group. On the other hand, the µTBS of the aged TP group was significantly lower than those of both aged 10-3 and 10-3+MC. MC alone did not enhance bond strength, and its application after TP led to a nonuniform surface morphology, raising concerns about adhesive stability. Failure mode analysis indicated that cohesive failure within the luting cement was predominant, with mixed failures being more frequent in the aged TP group. Overall, MC may not be necessary, and 10-3 conditioning does not adversely affect bond strength. Based on the results of this in vitro study, the most effective clinical practice entails pretreatment of the prepared cavity employing a citric acid/ferric chloride conditioner. Full article

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18 pages, 1316 KB

Open AccessReview

Linearization of BTI Degradation Across Si, SiC, and GaN

by Joseph B. Bernstein, Tsuriel Avraham and Bin Wang

Micro 2026, 6(2), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020031 - 30 Apr 2026

Bias temperature instability (BTI) degradation is commonly described using empirical power-law kinetics; however, extraction of the time exponent and projection of lifetime remain highly sensitive to baseline definition and data representation. In conventional approaches, the threshold voltage shift is referenced to an initial [...] Read more.

Bias temperature instability (BTI) degradation is commonly described using empirical power-law kinetics; however, extraction of the time exponent and projection of lifetime remain highly sensitive to baseline definition and data representation. In conventional approaches, the threshold voltage shift is referenced to an initial value that cannot be measured simultaneously with stress, introducing uncertainty that can produce apparent curvature and variability in the extracted exponent. In this work, a baseline-independent linearization method is applied to representative published datasets spanning advanced silicon, SiC MOSFETs, and GaN power devices. By analyzing the measured degradation trajectories directly in a transformed time coordinate, the method removes curvature associated with baseline ambiguity and enables consistent extraction of the effective power-law exponent. Across all material systems examined, the extracted exponent exhibits systematic dependence on applied stress once baseline effects are reduced. This behavior challenges the commonly assumed constant-exponent formulation used in conventional lifetime projections and shows that even modest variations in the exponent can produce large differences in projected time-to-failure. A transformed lifetime representation based on

{T T F}^{n}

is introduced, in which the influence of exponent variation is separated from the intrinsic voltage and temperature acceleration of the degradation rate. In this representation, the extracted acceleration parameters become more stable and physically interpretable. This formulation is consistent with standard reliability frameworks, including JEDEC JEP122G, in which the time exponent enters directly into the lifetime expression. These results demonstrate that baseline-independent analysis provides a unified framework for interpreting BTI degradation across disparate semiconductor technologies and suggest that explicit treatment of stress-dependent exponents is required for physically consistent lifetime modeling. Full article

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19 pages, 2595 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogen Evolution Kinetics on Noble-Metal-Lean Pd/Ag Nanowire Networks Supported on Graphite

by Martina Schwager, Niklas Käfer, Jenni Richter and Hannes Reggel

Micro 2026, 6(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020030 - 30 Apr 2026

The hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) plays a central role in electrochemical hydrogen production and requires catalysts that combine high activity with reduced noble metal usage. In this work, palladium nanoparticles (PdNPs) were deposited onto silver nanowire-modified graphite electrodes (Pd/AgNW/C) to investigate the influence [...] Read more.

The hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) plays a central role in electrochemical hydrogen production and requires catalysts that combine high activity with reduced noble metal usage. In this work, palladium nanoparticles (PdNPs) were deposited onto silver nanowire-modified graphite electrodes (Pd/AgNW/C) to investigate the influence of Pd loading on HER kinetics and catalytic efficiency. The electrodes were prepared by constant-current electrodeposition and characterized using polarization measurements and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The direct current (DC) results showed a pronounced enhancement of HER activity in the presence of Pd, while the highest mass-specific activity was observed at low Pd loadings. Increasing the Pd content further increased the overall current but reduced the catalytic efficiency when normalized to the Pd mass. EIS measurements revealed two contributions to the impedance response associated with processes occurring on different timescales. With increasing cathodic overpotential, both the charge transfer resistance and the low-frequency resistance decreased markedly, indicating accelerated reaction kinetics. The combined DC and alternating current (AC) analyses suggest that the silver nanowire network facilitates efficient electron transport and promotes a favorable dispersion of Pd nanoparticles at low loadings, enabling efficient HER catalysis with reduced noble metal usage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanomaterials for Sustainable Waste Conversion, Energy Production, and Environmental Applications)

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18 pages, 3912 KB

Open AccessArticle

Beyond the Black Box: Resin Viscosity and Tensile Strength as Fabrication Guides for VPP 3D-Printed Microfluidic Molds

by Rifat Hussain Chowdhury, Shunya Okamoto, Takayuki Shibata, Tuhin Subhra Santra and Moeto Nagai

Micro 2026, 6(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020029 - 24 Apr 2026

Resin 3D-printed molds are being increasingly favored for PDMS microfluidics across many disciplines. However, resin diversity, as well as secret manufacturer formulations, leads to a lack of standardization when using 3D printing for microscale applications. The impact of physical resin properties, both in [...] Read more.

Resin 3D-printed molds are being increasingly favored for PDMS microfluidics across many disciplines. However, resin diversity, as well as secret manufacturer formulations, leads to a lack of standardization when using 3D printing for microscale applications. The impact of physical resin properties, both in its monomeric concoction and polymerized lattices at 100 µm or lower scales, needs quantification. We tested the performance of locally available resin formulations, isolating the impact of resin pigments and how it impacted the resin’s properties and performance. Lower resin viscosity improved feature fidelity (edge filleting < 25 µm) and improved resolution limit for recessed features, while cured polymer mechanical strength impacted the limit for positive mold features. We combined our findings to fabricate quality negative and positive mold structures in the mold and determined the best protocols associated with limitations during the fabrication of such structures. The methodologies in this study are expected to be widely applicable across various resin types and simplify the adoption of 3D printing protocols for specific feature fabrication in microscale molds for PDMS devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nanosized Polymer Powders: From Design to Processing Technologies and Advanced Applications)

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Graphical abstract

17 pages, 7069 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optical and Thermal Control of Pore Architecture in Collagen Hydrogels for Vascular-like Tissue Engineering Scaffolds

by Mareni Arishima, Shigehisa Aoki, Sayaka Masaike and Takayuki Narita

Micro 2026, 6(2), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020028 - 22 Apr 2026

Vascularization remains a central challenge in thick tissue engineering. Building on our prior demonstration that carbonate buffer concentration governs multi-channel collagen gel (MCCG) architecture and perfusion culture performance, this study aimed to establish non-contact, orthogonal control of pore size and density in riboflavin-sensitized [...] Read more.

Vascularization remains a central challenge in thick tissue engineering. Building on our prior demonstration that carbonate buffer concentration governs multi-channel collagen gel (MCCG) architecture and perfusion culture performance, this study aimed to establish non-contact, orthogonal control of pore size and density in riboflavin-sensitized Type I collagen hydrogels via UV irradiation intensity and preparation temperature. UV intensity was modulated by varying the source-to-sample distance (25–52 mm); preparation temperature was set at 5, 25, or 40 °C; gelation kinetics were quantified using a vial-tilt assay. Pore area fraction ranged from 0.9% to 8.6% and Young’s modulus from 16 to 49 kPa depending on UV dose. Higher preparation temperatures accelerated gelation and produced smaller, more densely distributed pores, consistent with kinetically arrested phase separation. NIH/3T3 fibroblasts cultured on intermediate- and low-intensity UV scaffolds achieved >80% confluency by Day 7, with three-dimensional tissue-like organization and directionally aligned cellular bundles within large pores; cell metabolic activity, assessed by CCK-8 assay, remained consistently high throughout the culture period. These results demonstrate that UV irradiation intensity and preparation temperature are independently tunable, non-contact parameters for reproducible fabrication of collagen scaffolds with tunable vascular-like pore networks, complementing and extending the chemical (buffer concentration) design space of MCCG-based perfusion culture systems. Full article

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20 pages, 2229 KB

Open AccessArticle

Carbonaceous Composites of Eco-Friendly Alginic Acid–Calcium (II) Beads for Cleaning Herbicides from Water

by Sahin Demirci, Jorge H. Torres, Seneshaw Tsegaye and Nurettin Sahiner

Micro 2026, 6(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020027 - 21 Apr 2026

The widespread use of herbicides such as paraquat and glyphosate is a serious environmental and health concern due to their persistence, mobility, and toxicity in aquatic ecosystems. Composites of alginic acid (Alg) are prepared with carbonaceous materials such as graphene oxide (GO), carbon [...] Read more.

The widespread use of herbicides such as paraquat and glyphosate is a serious environmental and health concern due to their persistence, mobility, and toxicity in aquatic ecosystems. Composites of alginic acid (Alg) are prepared with carbonaceous materials such as graphene oxide (GO), carbon particles (CPs), porous carbon particles (PCPs), carbon black (CB), and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were synthesized and evaluated as sorbents for the removal of cationic herbicide paraquat and the anionic herbicide glyphosate. The resulting Alg-based beads are environmentally safe because of the materials used during their preparation, such as a biopolymer, Alg, carbonaceous substances (GO, CPs, PCPs, and CB) as composite moieties, and Ca(II) ions as cross-linkers. The Alg–bead composite possessed strong swelling ability ranging from 1700% to 2500%, which led to swollen beads of spherical shape and an average diameter of 3 mm, each containing 20% of carbonaceous materials. Amongst all Alg-based beads prepared for paraquat and glyphosate removal from the aquatic environment, the highest adsorption capacity was attained for Alg–porous carbon particle (Alg-PCP) composites. The Alg-PCP beads were capable of adsorbing 85.7 ± 2.9 mg/g and 31.6 ± 2.2 mg/g from 50 mL of 250 ppm solutions of paraquat and glyphosate, respectively. In contrast, bare Alg beads adsorbed only 39.7 ± 1.8 mg/g and 12.9 ± 1.7 mg/g, respectively. A 250 mg Alg-PCP bead composite achieved a 91% removal of paraquat from a 50 mL solution containing 250 ppm of paraquat. These results show that Alg–PCP can be used to mitigate herbicide contamination in water, protecting aquatic ecosystems and addressing associated environmental and health risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Microscale Materials Science)

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14 pages, 2642 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Custom-Built SPIM Platform for Three-Dimensional Time-Lapse Imaging and Quantification of Anisotropic Tumor Spheroid Growth

by Yudai Oda, Masaki Miyamoto and Shogo Miyata

Micro 2026, 6(2), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020026 - 18 Apr 2026

Mechanical confinement plays an important role in regulating tumor growth and invasion; however, the quantitative, time-resolved, three-dimensional evaluation of confined tumor spheroids remains technically challenging. In this study, we developed a custom-built selective plane illumination microscopy (SPIM)-based monitoring platform for long-term volumetric imaging [...] Read more.

Mechanical confinement plays an important role in regulating tumor growth and invasion; however, the quantitative, time-resolved, three-dimensional evaluation of confined tumor spheroids remains technically challenging. In this study, we developed a custom-built selective plane illumination microscopy (SPIM)-based monitoring platform for long-term volumetric imaging of tumor spheroids under mechanically confined conditions. This system integrates a culture housing unit and a transparent cuvette-based spheroid culture method optimized for SPIM observation. Colorectal adenocarcinoma-derived cell spheroids were embedded in agarose gels with defined concentrations to modulate the stiffness of the surrounding matrix. Bright-field imaging and viability analyses confirmed sustained spheroid growth without necrotic core formation over a 4-day culture period, demonstrating that the SPIM-based system maintained the physiological culture conditions. Three-dimensional imaging using SPIM enabled a quantitative evaluation of spheroid growth and anisotropic invasion. Volumetric expansion was observed under all confinement conditions. Notably, increasing the matrix stiffness enhanced both the volumetric growth rate and anisotropic invasion, indicating stiffness-dependent directional growth under mechanical confinement. The developed SPIM-based platform has the potential to serve as a practical tool for the time-resolved three-dimensional analysis of tumor spheroid growth and may provide a useful approach for investigating the mechanobiological regulation of tumor progression in confined microenvironments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Microscale Biology and Medicines)

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17 pages, 3710 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Antibiotic Removal Using Fe-Doped ZnS Nanoparticles

by Sonia J. Bailón-Ruiz, Yarilyn Cedeño-Mattei, Nayeli Colón-Dávila and Luis Alamo-Nole

Micro 2026, 6(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020025 - 9 Apr 2026

The environmental persistence of β-lactam antibiotics represents a growing ecological concern, requiring materials capable of combined adsorption and catalytic degradation. Herein, pure ZnS and 1% Fe-doped ZnS nanoparticles were synthesized via microwave-assisted treatment and evaluated for the removal of ceftaroline fosamil from aqueous [...] Read more.

The environmental persistence of β-lactam antibiotics represents a growing ecological concern, requiring materials capable of combined adsorption and catalytic degradation. Herein, pure ZnS and 1% Fe-doped ZnS nanoparticles were synthesized via microwave-assisted treatment and evaluated for the removal of ceftaroline fosamil from aqueous media. Transmission electron microscopy revealed quasi-spherical nanoparticles below 10 nm, while selected area electron diffraction confirmed a face-centered cubic structure retained after Fe incorporation. UV-Vis spectroscopy showed similar absorption edges (~316 nm), indicating negligible band-gap variation, whereas photoluminescence analysis demonstrated strong emission quenching in Fe-ZnS, indicating suppressed electron–hole recombination. Point-of-zero charge measurements (pH_PZC ≈ 4.6 for ZnS; 4.5 for Fe-ZnS) indicated negatively charged surfaces under circumneutral conditions, influencing interfacial interactions with the antibiotic. Adsorption experiments followed the Langmuir isotherm model, with Fe-ZnS exhibiting a higher maximum adsorption capacity (156 mg g⁻¹) compared to ZnS (115 mg g⁻¹). Under UV irradiation (302 nm), Fe-ZnS achieved near-complete degradation at a catalyst loading of 500 ppm. Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis revealed the transformation of ceftaroline fosamil (m/z 685.01) into ceftaroline (m/z 605.05) via phosphate group loss, followed by the formation of intermediate fragments at m/z 492.08 and 308.03, associated with cleavage of the thiadiazol-amine moiety and subsequent opening of the cephalosporin ring. After extended irradiation, these intermediates diminished, and a fragment at m/z 356.01 was detected, suggesting further breakdown through thioether bond cleavage. These results support a degradation pathway involving sequential dephosphorylation and fragmentation of the cephalosporin core. Overall, the enhanced performance of Fe-ZnS arises from the synergistic interplay between surface charge characteristics and dopant-modulated charge carrier dynamics, highlighting its potential for antibiotic remediation in aquatic environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Microscale Materials Science)

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18 pages, 4334 KB

Open AccessArticle

Formation of Nano-Sized Silicon Oxynitride Layers on Monocrystalline Silicon by Nitrogen Implantation

by Sashka Alexandrova, Anna Szekeres, Evgenia Valcheva, Mihai Anastasescu, Hermine Stroescu, Madalina Nicolescu and Mariuca Gartner

Micro 2026, 6(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020024 - 30 Mar 2026

Nitridation of different materials using ion implantation is of considerable interest for many applications. As electronic components, oxynitride (SiO_xN_y) layers exhibit beneficial properties such as precise compositional variability, refractive index tunability, oxidation resistance, and low mechanical stress. In the [...] Read more.

Nitridation of different materials using ion implantation is of considerable interest for many applications. As electronic components, oxynitride (SiO_xN_y) layers exhibit beneficial properties such as precise compositional variability, refractive index tunability, oxidation resistance, and low mechanical stress. In the present study we investigate nanoscale SiO_xN_y synthesized using ion implantation methods. To introduce N⁺ ions into a shallow Si subsurface region, both conventional ion beam implantation and plasma immersion ion implantation with subsequent high-temperature treatment in dry O₂ are used. The optical and morphological properties and chemical bonding of formed SiO_xN_y layers were studied by applying spectroscopic ellipsometry in the range of VIS-Near IR (SE) and IR (IR-SE), Raman spectroscopy and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). Monte Carlo modeling of implant profiles contributed to understanding physical and chemical processes and predicted different influences of the incorporated N⁺ ions on the oxidation mechanism, confirmed by the thickness dependence of SiO_xN_y/Si layers obtained from the SE data analysis. IR-SE spectral analysis established the formation of Si-O, Si-N, Si-N-O and Si-Si chemical bonds in the grown layers. The occurrence of amorphization of the Si crystal lattice due to incorporation of high-energy N⁺ ions into the Si lattice is confirmed by the Raman and ellipsometry results. The free Si atoms can congregate, forming nanocrystalline clusters. AFM imaging revealed that both implantation methods left the surface of the resulting SiO_xN_y layers considerably smooth with similar roughness parameter values. The results of the studies imply that the technological approaches used allow the production of high-quality nanoscale silicon oxynitride films with appropriate tunable composition and properties for possible application in advanced electronic devices for nanoelectronics, optoelectronics and sensor applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Surface Engineering and Micro Additive Manufacturing)

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14 pages, 19922 KB

Open AccessArticle

Highly Sensitive CO Sensor Based on ZnO/SnO₂ and ZnO/Au Nanorods

by Victor Petrov, Timofey Grishin and Alexandra Starnikova

Micro 2026, 6(2), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/micro6020023 - 26 Mar 2026

This study investigates the properties of ZnO nanorod-based sensors and ZnO nanorods modified with tin dioxide (ZnO/SnO₂) and gold (ZnO/Au) nanoclusters and their response to low concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO). It was demonstrated that the ZnO/SnO₂(3) nanorod-based sensor [...] Read more.

This study investigates the properties of ZnO nanorod-based sensors and ZnO nanorods modified with tin dioxide (ZnO/SnO₂) and gold (ZnO/Au) nanoclusters and their response to low concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO). It was demonstrated that the ZnO/SnO₂(3) nanorod-based sensor exhibited the highest sensitivity (S = 1.64) to 10 ppm CO, while the ZnO/Au(3) sensor displayed the shortest response (69–207 s) and recovery (203–233 s) times. This behavior can be explained by ZnO/Au and ZnO/SnO₂ nanostructures having low activation energies (0.23–0.25 eV) and high potential barrier values (0.37–0.43 eV). Sensors based on ZnO/Au and ZnO/SnO₂ nanorods demonstrate sensitivity to 10 ppm CO at 250 °C and at 200 °C. In contrast, ZnO nanorod-based sensors are sensitive to 2 ppm CO at 250 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Micro- and Nanomaterials: Design, Modulation, and Applications in Energy and Sensing)

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