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Metals
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Recent Advances in Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing of Metals
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Recent Advances in Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing of Metals

A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701). This special issue belongs to the section "Additive Manufacturing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 December 2026 | Viewed by 9076

Editors

Dr. Emanuele Ghio

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Engineering for Industrial Systems and Technologies (DEIST), University of Parma, Parma, Italy
Interests: metals and alloys; microstructural characterization; heat treatments; mechanical properties; additive manufacturing
Prof. Dr. Emanuela Cerri

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Engineering for Industrial Systems and Technologies (DEIST), University of Parma, Via G. Usberti 181/A, Parma, Italy
Interests: additive manufacturing; friction stir process; microstructure; mechanical properties

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Metal additive manufacturing (AM) has rapidly evolved in the industrial field, enabling the fabrication of complex, high-performance components with design freedom and material flexibility. As the field advances, the focus is shifting toward optimization, particularly in tailoring microstructure, improving mechanical properties, and developing post-processing strategies such as heat treatment to ensure enhanced performance. Understanding the intricate relationships between processing parameters, microstructural evolution, heat treatment effects, and final part properties remains a key challenge.

Laser-based and electron-based powder bed techniques are central to this progress. Their ability to precisely control energy input and achieve rapid solidification enables the design of unique microstructures and strength. Heat treatment, in particular, plays a crucial role in relieving residual stresses, refining microstructures, and enhancing mechanical behavior, thereby unlocking the full potential of additively manufactured metal alloys in various applications such as aerospace, automotive, energy, and biomedical engineering.

This Special Issue aims to showcase recent advances in powder-based metal additive manufacturing and laser processing, with a strong emphasis on microstructure–property relationships and/or heat treatment optimization. Contributions are invited that explore fundamental mechanisms, novel processing strategies, and application-driven studies.

We warmly invite submission of full research papers, short communications, and reviews.

Dr. Emanuele Ghio
Prof. Dr. Emanuela Cerri
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Metals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • powder-based additive manufacturing
  • microstructural characterization
  • mechanical properties
  • heat treatment optimization
  • process–microstructure–property relationships
  • metals and alloys
  • laser-based 3D printing
  • electron-based 3D printing
  • sustainability in additive manufacturing

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 31965 KB  
Article
Creep Behavior of Inconel 718 Produced by Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF)
by Daniel Augusto de Souza Borges, Gisele Fabiane Costa Almeida, Suzana Noronha Ferreira Ribeiro, Gleicy de Lima Xavier Ribeiro, Paulo Henrique Tedardi do Nascimento, Rodolfo Luiz Prazeres Gonçalves, Carlos Roberto Camello Lima, Marcos Massi and Antônio Augusto Couto
Metals 2026, 16(6), 641; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16060641 - 10 Jun 2026
Viewed by 745
Abstract
Additive manufacturing using laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) has been widely used to produce nickel-based superalloy components with complex shapes for high-temperature applications requiring creep resistance. In this research, the creep behavior of LPBF Inconel 718 under solution and double-aging heat treatments, performed [...] Read more.
Additive manufacturing using laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) has been widely used to produce nickel-based superalloy components with complex shapes for high-temperature applications requiring creep resistance. In this research, the creep behavior of LPBF Inconel 718 under solution and double-aging heat treatments, performed at 590–650 °C under stresses of 450–550 MPa, is studied. The characterization included optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), porosity analysis, Vickers microhardness tests, and fracture surface examination. The findings revealed that even after heat treatment, the material maintained a mainly directional, columnar microstructure, with an average porosity below 1%, which was unevenly distributed and contained critical defects related to lack-of-fusion (LOF) and trapped powder. Fracture after creep presents regions of ductile failure alongside facets indicative of quasi-cleavage. Kinetic analysis revealed a high stress exponent (n = 18.26) and an activation energy (Qc = 410–538 kJ/mol), indicating that the deformation operates within the power-law breakdown (PLB) regime, where dislocation–precipitate interactions govern the creep rate in this precipitation-strengthened superalloy. Overall, the results highlight that the directional microstructure and residual defects typical of LPBF can reduce the creep resistance of Inconel 718, underscoring the importance of post-processing methods and internal defect control specifically tailored for additively manufactured materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing of Metals)
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20 pages, 7671 KB  
Article
Impact of Aggressive Environments and Processing Orientation on the Mechanical Performance of L-PBF 316L Stainless Steel
by Najib Abu-warda, Javier Bedmar, Sonia García-Rodríguez, Belén Torres and Joaquin Rams
Metals 2026, 16(1), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010086 - 13 Jan 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 790
Abstract
This study addresses the limited understanding of how build orientation and aggressive environments jointly affect the mechanical reliability of L-PBF 316L stainless steel. Specimens were fabricated in vertical, edge, and flat orientations and exposed for 360 h to 1 M H2SO [...] Read more.
This study addresses the limited understanding of how build orientation and aggressive environments jointly affect the mechanical reliability of L-PBF 316L stainless steel. Specimens were fabricated in vertical, edge, and flat orientations and exposed for 360 h to 1 M H2SO4, 3.5 wt.% NaCl, and dry air oxidation at 800 °C. Tensile tests and microstructural analyses revealed strong anisotropy: edge and flat builds showed higher tensile and yield strength, while vertical builds exhibited greater ductility. Aqueous environments caused surface degradation and moderate strength loss, most severe in vertical samples. High-temperature oxidation induced σ-phase precipitation, increasing tensile strength (~20%) but reducing ductility and yield strength. These findings highlight the critical role of building orientation and service conditions in ensuring long-term performance of L-PBF 316L stainless steel. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing of Metals)
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20 pages, 6158 KB  
Article
Improving Surface Roughness and Printability of LPBF Ti6246 Components Without Affecting Their Structure, Mechanical Properties and Building Rate
by Thibault Mouret, Aurore Leclercq, Patrick K. Dubois and Vladimir Brailovski
Metals 2026, 16(1), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010032 - 27 Dec 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1413
Abstract
Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is the best suited technology to manufacture temperature-resistant Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo parts with complex geometrical features for high-end applications. Improving printing accuracy by reducing the layer thickness (t) generally requires repeating a tedious and time-consuming process optimization routine. [...] Read more.
Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is the best suited technology to manufacture temperature-resistant Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo parts with complex geometrical features for high-end applications. Improving printing accuracy by reducing the layer thickness (t) generally requires repeating a tedious and time-consuming process optimization routine. To simplify this endeavour, the present work proposes three process equivalence criteria allowing to transfer optimized process conditions from one printing parameter set to another. This approach recommends keeping the volumetric laser energy density (VED) and hatching space-to-layer thickness ratio (h/t) constant, while adjusting the scanning speed (v) and hatching space (h) accordingly. To validate this approach, Ti6246 parts were printed with 50 µm and 25 µm layer thicknesses, while keeping VED = 100 J/mm3 and h/t = 3 constant for both cases. The printed samples were analyzed in terms of their density, microstructure and mechanical properties, as well as the geometric compliance of wall-, gap- and channel-containing artefacts. Highly dense samples exhibiting comparable microstructures and mechanical properties were obtained with both parameters sets investigated. However, they induced markedly differing geometric characteristics. Notably, using 25 µm layers allowed printing walls as thin as 0.2 mm as compared to 1.0 mm for 50 µm layers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing of Metals)
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17 pages, 10396 KB  
Article
Laser Powder Bed-Fused Scalmalloy®: Effect of Long Thermal Aging on Hardness and Electrical Conductivity
by Emanuele Ghio, Lorenzo Curti, Daniele Carosi, Alessandro Morri and Emanuela Cerri
Metals 2025, 15(12), 1364; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15121364 - 11 Dec 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1147
Abstract
This study investigates the microstructural evolution, porosity characteristics, and mechanical behavior of LPBF-manufactured Scalmalloy®, which were investigated in the as-built conditions and after long-term exposure to direct aging of 275, 325, and 400 °C. Optical microscopy, and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) [...] Read more.
This study investigates the microstructural evolution, porosity characteristics, and mechanical behavior of LPBF-manufactured Scalmalloy®, which were investigated in the as-built conditions and after long-term exposure to direct aging of 275, 325, and 400 °C. Optical microscopy, and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analyses were employed to examine the grain morphology, pore distribution, and defect characteristics. In the as-built state, the microstructure displayed the typical fish-scale melt pool morphology with columnar grains in the melt pool centers and fine equiaxed grains along their boundaries, combined with a small number of gas pores and lack-of-fusion defects. After direct aging, coarsening of grains was revealed, accompanied by partial spheroidization of pores, though the global density remained above 99.7%, ensuring structural integrity. Grain orientation analyses revealed a reduction in crystallographic texture and local misorientation after direct aging, suggesting stress relaxation and a more homogeneous microstructure. The hardness distribution reflected this transition: in the as-built state, higher hardness values were found at melt pool edges, while coarser central grains exhibited lower hardness. After direct aging, the hardness differences between these regions decreased, and the average hardness increased from (104 ± 7) HV0.025 to (170 ± 10) HV0.025 due to precipitation of Al3(Sc,Zr) phases. Long-term aging studies confirmed the stability of mechanical performance at 325 °C, whereas aging at 400 °C induced overaging and hardness loss due to precipitate coarsening. Electrical conductivities increased monotonically at all tested temperatures from ~11.7 MS/m, highlighting the interplay between solute depletion and precipitate evolution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing of Metals)
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Review

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27 pages, 7931 KB  
Review
Carbon Nanotube-Reinforced Titanium Matrix Composites for Additive Manufacturing: Progress in Fabrication Methods and Strengthening Mechanisms
by Xingna Cheng, Shihao Liu, Zhijun Zheng and Zhongchen Lu
Metals 2026, 16(4), 369; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16040369 - 27 Mar 2026
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2030
Abstract
Titanium matrix composites reinforced with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have attracted significant attention due to their potential to overcome the inherent limitations of titanium alloys in hardness, wear resistance, and strength–toughness balance. With the rapid development of additive manufacturing (AM) technologies, the integration of [...] Read more.
Titanium matrix composites reinforced with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have attracted significant attention due to their potential to overcome the inherent limitations of titanium alloys in hardness, wear resistance, and strength–toughness balance. With the rapid development of additive manufacturing (AM) technologies, the integration of CNT reinforcements into titanium matrices provides new opportunities for fabricating high-performance lightweight components. This review systematically summarizes recent progress in the preparation and application of CNT-reinforced titanium matrix composites for AM. Key powder preparation strategies, including mechanical mixing, chemical coating, and in situ growth methods, are critically compared in terms of CNT dispersion uniformity, structural integrity preservation, powder flowability, and process compatibility. The influence of CNT incorporation on AM behavior and final material performance is discussed, with particular emphasis on multiscale strengthening mechanisms such as enhanced laser absorption, load transfer effects, grain refinement, and dispersion strengthening induced by TiC formation. Current challenges mainly involve achieving homogeneous CNT distribution, controlling interfacial reactions, and balancing dispersion efficiency with structural damage. Future research directions are proposed, focusing on advanced powder engineering techniques, interface regulation strategies, and deeper understanding of the relationships between processing parameters, microstructure evolution, and mechanical properties. This work provides a comprehensive reference for the design and fabrication of next-generation CNT-reinforced titanium-based materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing of Metals)
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68 pages, 8811 KB  
Review
Metallic Mechanical Metamaterials Produced by LPBF for Energy Absorption Systems
by Gabriele Grima, Kamal Sleem, Gianni Virgili, Alberto Santoni, Maria Laura Gatto, Stefano Spigarelli, Marcello Cabibbo and Eleonora Santecchia
Metals 2025, 15(12), 1315; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15121315 - 28 Nov 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2148
Abstract
Metallic mechanical metamaterials have attracted the attention of many industrial sectors due to their unique properties which enable them to outperform natural materials in unconventional ways. Metal metamaterials encompass multiple fields, including materials science, mechanics, and industrial technology, and they have become particularly [...] Read more.
Metallic mechanical metamaterials have attracted the attention of many industrial sectors due to their unique properties which enable them to outperform natural materials in unconventional ways. Metal metamaterials encompass multiple fields, including materials science, mechanics, and industrial technology, and they have become particularly popular following the implementation of reliable, high-resolution, efficient metal additive manufacturing processes. This review takes a joint approach, providing an in-depth analysis of the base materials and geometries that characterize metamaterials in order to understand their behavior in response to impacts at different load regimes and to offer readers a critical overview of the most suitable design choices for energy absorption systems. Furthermore, this review highlights advanced metamaterial optimization methods that are useful for increasing the mechanical energy absorbed avoiding peak impulse transfer to the people, instrumentation, or generic loads that mechanical metamaterials are designed to protect. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing of Metals)
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