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Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Relation to Landscape Design, Planning and Management

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A special issue of Land (ISSN 2073-445X). This special issue belongs to the section "Land Planning and Landscape Architecture".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 November 2025 | Viewed by 10138

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Aikaterini Gkoltsiou

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Guest Editor

Laboratory of Floriculture & Landscape Architecture, Department of Crop Science, School of Plant Sciences, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, 118 55 Athens, Greece
Interests: landscape character assessment; landscape reclamation; landscape architecture; landscape management; landscape and health; landscape policies; agricultural landscape; tourism; wellbeing and ecosystem services; green infrastructure and social landscape analysis

Dr. Albert Fekete

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Guest Editor

Institute of Landscape Architecture, Urban Planning and Garden Art, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences (MATE), 1118 Budapest, Hungary
Interests: urban open space design; urban green infrastructure; renewal of historic landscapes and sites; cultural landscape planning and design
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Environmental challenges, climate change, and the living conditions of the inhabitants of larger cities oblige us to take nature beyond the emphasis on aesthetic perspectives. The fragmentation of European natural ecosystems, the relative isolation of protected areas, and the heavy reliance on grey infrastructure are among the causes of environmental degradation. The value of green spaces and ecosystems is more and more obvious, especially for our cities, municipalities, and communities, as they can provide fresh air corridors, regulate temperatures, and regulate the water balance in all populated areas. Green infrastructure refers to a strategically planned network of natural and semi-natural areas designed and managed to deliver ecosystem services. It is well known that this can contribute to the effective implementation of a range of policies, including climate action, water, health, agriculture, growth, and disaster risk management.

The goal of this Special Issue is to collect papers (original research articles and review papers) to provide insights about the green infrastructure and ecosystem services of built areas of cities, towns, and rural communities from the landscape planning, design, and management perspective. The topics might range among various scales (national, regional, local) of analysis and present the best practises in green infrastructure design and management, strategies, and policies concerning how to design GI in order to maximise synergies with complementary policies, research on ecosystem services that should be included in the GI, stakeholder engagement in green spaces resilient design and planning, and the design of green spaces in the context of climate change adaptation. Papers dealing with the innovative renewal of historic urban sites and environments are also welcomed. The call is open to all scholars whose work relates to the above topics.

Suggested themes and article types for submissions：

Green space resilient designs.
Ecosystem-based approaches to landscape planning, design, and management.
Measuring ecosystem services.
Recreation relating to greenways to address public health and quality of life issues.
Green spaces and corridors from aesthetic, experiential, and functional points of view.
Ecosystem services such as habitat provision, ecosystem connectivity, and landscape permeability; carbon sequestration and air quality-related services; water cycle-related services; soil restoration and protection functions; cultural, aesthetic, and human health services; natural disaster prevention services; climate change mitigation services; the provisioning of food and raw materials; and protecting and restoring nature.
Nature-based solutions.
Biodiversity conservation.
Green infrastructure history.
Historic and cultural landscape renewal, planning, and design.

We look forward to receiving your original research articles and reviews.

Dr. Aikaterini Gkoltsiou
Dr. Albert Fekete
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Land is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

landscape architecture (planning, design and management)
ecosystem planning
green roofs/green walls
xeriscaping
green infrastructure strategies
nature based solutions
urban ecosystems
nature and public health
biodiversity conservation
knowledge sharing and participatory decision-making
site preservation

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

23 pages, 10343 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Impact of Urban Parks on Bird Habitats and Diversity Through Remote Sensing: A Case Study of Chengdu City (China)

by Chenyang Liao, Yumeng Jiang, Mingle Yang, Kexin Feng and Jiazhen Zhang

Land 2025, 14(10), 2086; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102086 - 19 Oct 2025

Viewed by 304

Abstract

Accelerated urbanization has induced marked biodiversity loss in metropolitan regions, with urban parks emerging as critical habitat patches for avian species within intensively developed built environments. As a global pioneer in park city conceptualization, Chengdu (China) has achieved notable advancements in urban green space extent and quality through systematic planning efforts. This investigation examines the avian–habitat relationships in Chengdu’s central urban area (2010–2020) using multispectral remote sensing data, employing the ENVI5.6 (Environment for Visualizing Images) software for spatial analysis, and applying the InVEST3.2.0 (Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs) model to identify high-quality habitats, evaluate landscape connectivity, and analyze community composition dynamics. Through a correlation analysis of seven environmental characteristic factors with avian biodiversity in 24 urban parks, the impact mechanism of avian habitat functions was explored. On this basis, measures such as optimizing the plant community structure of riverside greenways and road green spaces, expanding small-scale green spaces near parks, and so on are proposed to promote the enhancement of urban park habitat functions and the protection of avian biodiversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Relation to Landscape Design, Planning and Management)

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26 pages, 10152 KB

Open AccessArticle

Linking Acoustic Indices to Vegetation and Microclimate in a Historical Urban Garden: Setting the Stage for a Restorative Soundscape

by Alessia Portaccio, Francesco Chianucci, Francesco Pirotti, Marco Piragnolo, Marco Sozzi, Andrea Zangrossi, Miriam Celli, Marta Mazzella di Bosco, Monica Bolognesi, Enrico Sella, Maurizio Corbetta, Francesca Pazzaglia and Raffaele Cavalli

Land 2025, 14(10), 1970; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14101970 - 30 Sep 2025

Viewed by 454

Abstract

Urban soundscapes are increasingly recognized as fundamental for both ecological integrity and human well-being, yet the complex interplay between the vegetation structure, seasonal dynamics, and microclimatic factors in shaping these soundscapes remains poorly understood. This study tests the hypothesis that vegetation structure and seasonally driven biological activity mediate the balance and the quality of the urban acoustic environment. We investigated seasonal and spatial variations in five acoustic indices (NDSI, ACI, AEI, ADI, and BI) within a historical urban garden in Castelfranco Veneto, Italy. Using linear mixed-effects models, we analyzed the effects of season, microclimatic variables, and vegetation characteristics on soundscape composition. Non-parametric tests were used to assess spatial differences in vegetation metrics. Results revealed strong seasonal patterns, with spring showing increased NDSI (+0.17), ADI (+0.22), and BI (+1.15) values relative to winter, likely reflecting bird breeding phenology and enhanced biological productivity. Among microclimatic predictors, temperature (p < 0.001), humidity (p = 0.014), and solar radiation (p = 0.002) showed significant relationships with acoustic indices, confirming their influence on both animal behaviour and sound propagation. Spatial analyses showed significant differences in acoustic patterns across points (Kruskal–Wallis p < 0.01), with vegetation metrics such as tree density and evergreen proportion correlating with elevated biophonic activity. Although the canopy height model did not emerge as a significant predictor in the models, the observed spatial heterogeneity supports the role of vegetation in shaping urban sound environments. By integrating ecoacoustic indices, LiDAR-derived vegetation data, and microclimatic parameters, this study offers novel insights into how vegetational components should be considered to manage urban green areas to support biodiversity and foster acoustically restorative environments, advancing the evidence base for sound-informed urban planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Relation to Landscape Design, Planning and Management)

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16 pages, 3539 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics of Planting Structures in Public-Type Private Gardens in Urban Areas of South Korea

by Hyunvin Lee and Junghun Yeum

Land 2025, 14(9), 1848; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14091848 - 10 Sep 2025

Viewed by 528

Abstract

This study analyzed the planting characteristics and spatial patterns of public-type private gardens in urban areas. Five gardens in Daejeon and Ulsan were surveyed using quadrats to record tree locations and sizes and were digitized for layout mapping. Planting and analysis units were defined, and spatial patterns were examined using degree centrality. The gardens were classified into one site under mixed artificial–natural management and four sites under artificial management with commercial linkage. The mixed site featured both canopy and shrub layers, with spontaneous vegetation surrounding Pinus thunbergii, Pinus densiflora, and Prunus yedoensis. The commercial sites included either canopy-only or canopy-shrub structures. Lagerstroemia indica, P. densiflora, and Euonymus japonicus. were predominant in the temperate central region, while P. densiflora and Diospyros kaki. dominated in the southern region. This study identified the potential of public-type private gardens as planting models and their capacity to contribute to urban environmental improvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Relation to Landscape Design, Planning and Management)

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25 pages, 6874 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Landscape Design Approach for Coastal Cycling Infrastructure Design: The Case Study of the Kallithea–Glyfada Seafront of Athens, Greece

by Aikaterini Gkoltsiou and Martha-Angeliki Karampampa

Land 2025, 14(9), 1843; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14091843 - 10 Sep 2025

Viewed by 649

Abstract

This paper investigates the design of a coastal cycling route that integrates principles of sustainable mobility with the perceptual qualities of the urban landscape. In response to contemporary environmental challenges, the promotion of cycling as an alternative mode of transport necessitates the development of urban green infrastructure that is not only functionally adequate but also perceptually engaging. The research draws upon established theoretical frameworks, particularly the concepts of spatial legibility and visual sequencing articulated by Kevin Lynch and Gordon Cullen, to examine how the experience of landscape can influence cycling behavior in urban development. Methodologically, the study combines a comprehensive literature review with a spatial and perceptual analysis of a selected coastal corridor in the Attica region in Greece, extending from Kallithea to Glyfada. The route is segmented into types based on physical, visual, and sensory characteristics, allowing for targeted design interventions. Key variables such as enclosure, vegetation, noise levels, and visual accessibility are evaluated to inform design strategies that enhance user experience and safety. The findings suggest that incorporating perceptual design elements into cycling infrastructure can significantly contribute to increased usage, environmental sustainability, resilience, and the overall improvement of urban coastal environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Relation to Landscape Design, Planning and Management)

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20 pages, 2078 KB

Open AccessArticle

Valuing Urban Green Spaces: A Decade of Access and Residents’ Willingness to Pay in Shanghai

by Huilin Liang, Lin Zhu, Hao Liu, Qi Yan and Yuqi Gu

Land 2025, 14(9), 1835; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14091835 - 8 Sep 2025

Viewed by 501

Abstract

This study aims to investigate residents’ marginal willingness to pay (WTP) for accessible urban green spaces (UGSs) in Shanghai from 2012 to 2021, using a comprehensive UGS accessibility (UGSA) indicator based on an improved nSFCA method. The UGSA indicator is incorporated into a hedonic pricing model, and multiple global regressions with multilevel data structures are employed to identify a suitable and accurate estimation strategy to determine the impact of UGSA on housing prices. The results show that WTP for UGSA varies significantly across categories and years, as well as between homebuyers and renters, with homebuyers having a much higher WTP compared to renters. Furthermore, neighborhood UGSA is generally more preferred than utmost UGSA. By differentiating UGSA into “neighborhood” and “utmost” levels and conducting a decade-long longitudinal analysis of both homebuyers and renters, this study contributes to two key academic debates: the spatial scaling of amenity valuation and the role of property rights in the capitalization of public goods. Employing a robust spatial econometric framework, our research provides novel insights into these complex dynamics within a hyper-dense urban context. The research contributes to the understanding of the economic value of UGSA by providing valuable insights for urban planning, policy-making, and real estate development, highlighting the importance of considering the spatial, temporal, and heterogeneous aspects of UGSA when estimating its economic value. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Relation to Landscape Design, Planning and Management)

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18 pages, 7679 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Cultural Ecosystem Services in a National Park: Participatory Mapping in Latvia

by Aiga Spage and Madara Markova

Land 2025, 14(9), 1822; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14091822 - 6 Sep 2025

Viewed by 1576

Abstract

Cultural ecosystem services (CES) represent the non-material relationships between people and nature, yet their intangible nature poses challenges for spatial planning and policy integration. This study examines CES in Gauja National Park, Latvia, focusing on symbolic, sacred, educational, and cultural heritage values—types often underrepresented in CES assessments. Using a Participatory Geographic Information Systems (PGIS) approach, a map-based public survey was conducted via ArcGIS Survey123, enabling respondents to mark and describe places of personal significance. While widely applied internationally, PGIS remains rarely used in Latvia, especially in planning and municipal decision-making. This study explores the use of the PGIS method for the assessment of CES, serving as a pilot application to test its suitability and potential for integration into spatial planning. Points of value were successfully georeferenced and reflect diverse associations. While well-known heritage sites were commonly mentioned, respondents also identified personally meaningful locations, sometimes situated outside the park’s formal boundaries. The findings highlight both the strengths and limitations of digital participatory methods, including issues related to response rates, accessibility, and digital literacy. The study demonstrates that mapping CES with PGIS can offer valuable insights for inclusive landscape governance and supports the incorporation of local perspectives into spatial planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Relation to Landscape Design, Planning and Management)

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28 pages, 9223 KB

Open AccessArticle

National Inventory and Morphological Analysis of Urban Squares in Hungary

by Anna Andrea Szövényi, Anna Adorján and Szabolcs Bérczi

Land 2025, 14(9), 1780; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14091780 - 1 Sep 2025

Viewed by 538

Abstract

This study examines the entire urban network of Hungary, excluding Budapest, with the primary goal of creating a nationwide cadastre that systematically documents the country’s stock of urban squares found in cities. As traditional elements of the urban fabric, squares typically serve as focal points within a city’s spatial structure, reflecting the maturity of its urban form and embodying its socio-cultural heritage. Yet, in many towns, especially in central areas of cities, squares have not reached their full potential. Their development poses challenges in structural terms (form and spatial relationship with surrounding buildings), compositional terms (continuity of building frontages and design coherence), and functional terms (hierarchical role among public spaces). The absence of literature systematically compiling and analyzing Hungary’s urban squares is notable, given their significance as principal public spaces and indicators of urban life quality. This research addresses that gap by (1) identifying whether the town has a central square, (2) compiling an inventory of their number, (3) grouping 94 representative examples by morphological typology, and (4) selecting a stratified sub-sample of 55 for detailed morphometric and contextual analysis. The resulting typology provides a foundation for further morphological research and offers a reference for spatial planning and development policy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Relation to Landscape Design, Planning and Management)

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22 pages, 9052 KB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring Local Climate Effects of Institutional Gardens in Budapest

by Vera Takácsné Zajacz, Imola Gecséné Tar, Anita Reith, Anas Tuffaha, Katalin Takács, Zsuzsanna Mikházi and Ágnes Sallay

Land 2025, 14(9), 1768; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14091768 - 30 Aug 2025

Viewed by 707

Abstract

Climate change significantly affects the well-being of urban populations. Thus, there is an increasing need for public green spaces in cities, as biologically active surfaces play a critical role in modifying the urban climate—cooling temperatures and providing shelter. Some institutional gardens, like cemeteries and hospital gardens, are hidden treasures: they are open but excluded from citizens’ mental maps, while usually having a rich green mass. This article aims to explore these hidden green surface elements, presenting their advantages and disadvantages by measuring their local climate effects. Three institutional gardens located in different urban environments were selected for analysis in the sample area of Budapest to explore how the surrounding built-up areas of the city modify the urban climate. The climate analyses were prepared with the ENVI-met climate simulation program. In the case of both hospital gardens and cemeteries, our studies show that their green spaces have great potential to increase the sense of comfort for both users of the green spaces and inhabitants of the neighborhood. In densely built-up urban areas, it is particularly important to involve institutional green spaces in public use, because with appropriate development they can contribute to cities’ adaptation to climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Relation to Landscape Design, Planning and Management)

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31 pages, 7027 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Evaluation of High-Diversity Herbaceous Seed Sowings in Different Substrates

by Judit Doma-Tarcsányi, Attila Gergely, Ádám Serdült and Krisztina Szabó

Land 2025, 14(9), 1746; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14091746 - 28 Aug 2025

Viewed by 586

Abstract

Seed-sown wildflower meadows are becoming increasingly important in our cities. One of the best methods is to design low-maintenance green spaces with an ecological approach. They can be used either to create perennial beds or to enrich and replace larger areas of regularly mown grass. Seeded surfaces are closer to a functioning ecosystem. The seed mixtures available in Hungary include seeds of native and non-native species, but due to a lack of time or resources, they have not been tested and have been in the field almost immediately. With our research, launched in autumn 2023, we tried to fill this gap and established seed-sown perennial beds in Budapest (Hungary), in ten plots in different media, using a seed mix of native species (96 taxa). Our experiment is an attempt to answer the question of what makes a seed-sown herbaceous plantation successful in the long term in an urban environment. Which species will emerge first, in which medium and which will persist in the long term? What will be the cover, diversity of the plots, the phenology of each species at different times of the year and to what extent does this depend on the medium and the frequency of irrigation? Which taxa will appear in each growing medium, and will there be taxa that can only develop in certain media? The study reports on the first experiences of the long-term study, according to which there were dynamically developing stands, but we observed a basically negative correlation between rapidly developing media and diversity. The most diverse species set was provided by the andesite aggregate medium, followed by green roof substrate, then demolition rubble with sand and sand. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Relation to Landscape Design, Planning and Management)

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25 pages, 20792 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Spatio-Temporal Differentiation of Environmental Heat Exposure in the Main Urban Area of Zhengzhou Based on LCZ and the Cooling Potential of Green Infrastructure

by Xu Huang, Lizhe Hou, Shixin Guan, Hongpan Li, Jombach Sándor, Fekete Albert, Filepné Kovács Krisztina and Huawei Li

Land 2025, 14(9), 1717; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14091717 - 25 Aug 2025

Viewed by 591

Abstract

Urban heat exposure has become an increasingly critical environmental issue under the dual pressures of global climate warming and rapid urbanization, posing significant threats to public health and urban sustainability. However, conventional linear regression models often fail to capture the complex, nonlinear interactions among multiple environmental factors, and studies confined to single LCZ types lack a comprehensive understanding of urban thermal mechanisms. This study takes the central urban area of Zhengzhou as a case and proposes an integrated “Local Climate Zone (LCZ) framework + random forest-based multi-factor contribution analysis” approach. By incorporating multi-temporal Landsat imagery, this method effectively identifies nonlinear drivers of heat exposure across different urban morphological units. Compared to traditional approaches, the proposed model retains spatial heterogeneity while uncovering intricate regulatory pathways among contributing factors, demonstrating superior adaptability and explanatory power. Results indicate that (1) high-density built-up zones (LCZ1 and E) constitute the core of heat exposure, with land surface temperatures (LSTs) 6–12 °C higher than those of natural surfaces and LCZ3 reaching a peak LST of 49.15 °C during extreme heat events; (2) NDVI plays a dominant cooling role, contributing 50.5% to LST mitigation in LCZ3, with the expansion of low-NDVI areas significantly enhancing cooling potential (up to 185.39 °C·km²); (3) LCZ5 exhibits an anomalous spatial pattern with low-temperature patches embedded within high-temperature surroundings, reflecting the nonlinear impacts of urban form and anthropogenic heat sources. The findings demonstrate that the LCZ framework, combined with random forest modeling, effectively overcomes the limitations of traditional linear models, offering a robust analytical tool for decoding urban heat exposure mechanisms and informing targeted climate adaptation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Relation to Landscape Design, Planning and Management)

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21 pages, 7943 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping Meaning: Perceptions of Green Infrastructure and Cultural Ecosystem Services in the Rapidly Urbanizing Town of Vác, Hungary

by István Valánszki, László Zoltán Nádasy, Tímea Katalin Erdei, Anna Éva Borkó, Vera Iváncsics and Zsófia Földi

Land 2025, 14(8), 1669; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14081669 - 18 Aug 2025

Viewed by 743

Abstract

Urban sprawl and suburbanization are reshaping peri-urban areas, challenging urban planning and community well-being. Our study investigates questions regarding the perception of Cultural Ecosystem Services (CES) and development preferences (DP) related to Green Infrastructure (GI) in Vác, Hungary, including how CES and DP indicators related to GI vary spatially; how they align with municipal DI designations; how they relate to sociodemographic factors; and how they are applicable to urban planning practices. We used PPGIS and structured interviews with 375 residents to collect over 4900 spatial data points in order to analyze how perceived values, development preferences, officially designated GI elements and sociodemographic characteristics, relate to each other. The results show that CES are strongly associated with GI elements, especially along the riverfront and in downtown areas. However, development preferences, especially congestion and safety concerns, were more dispersed, often located in outer residential areas and along transportation routes. Statistical analyses showed significant differences across age, marital status, and co-residence with children, influencing both CES perception and development preferences. Our study highlights the gap between official GI designations and community-valued spaces, emphasizing the importance of participatory planning and the integration of sociodemographic dimensions into planning practices in rapidly transforming suburban environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Relation to Landscape Design, Planning and Management)

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14 pages, 2200 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tree Species as Metabolic Indicators: A Comparative Simulation in Amman, Jordan

by Anas Tuffaha and Ágnes Sallay

Land 2025, 14(8), 1566; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14081566 - 31 Jul 2025

Viewed by 785

Abstract

Urban metabolism frameworks offer insight into flows of energy, materials, and services in cities, yet tree species selection is seldom treated as a metabolic indicator. In Amman, Jordan, we integrate spatial metabolic metrics to critique monocultural greening policies and demonstrate how species choices forecast long-term urban metabolic performance. Using ENVI-met 5.61 simulations, we compare Melia azedarach, Olea europaea, and Ceratonia siliqua, mainly assessing urban flow related elements like air temperature reduction, CO₂ sequestration, and evapotranspiration alongside rooting depth, isoprene emissions, and biodiversity support. Melia delivers rapid cooling but shows other negatives like a low biodiversity value; Olea offers average cooling and sequestration but has allergenic pollen issues in people as a flow; Ceratonia provides scalable cooling, increased carbon uptake, and has a high ecological value. We propose a metabolic reframing of green infrastructure planning to choose urban species, guided by system feedback rather than aesthetics, to ensure long-term resilience in arid urban climates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Relation to Landscape Design, Planning and Management)

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