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Advances in Forest Cover Change and Its Ecological and Environmental Effects—2nd Edition

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A special issue of Forests (ISSN 1999-4907). This special issue belongs to the section "Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2025) | Viewed by 14585

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Editors

Prof. Dr. Wei Shui

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Guest Editor

College of Environment and Safety Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
Interests: ecogeography; land use/cover change and ecological effects; remote sensing and geographic information technology applications; urban and rural planning
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Junyu Qi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

CMNS—Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
Interests: environmental impact assessment; hydrological modeling; watershed hydrology; water resources management
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Forests are of interest for environmental construction banks, water conservation, climate regulation, biodiversity conservation and other benefits. Due to the warming climate and extensive human activities, forest ecosystems have suffered significant damage. The "Global Forest Cover Status and Change" report highlights that forest cover has decreased since the 21st century. The ecological benefits of forest cover for human health and sustainable social development are immense. Consequently, new theoretical perspectives, interdisciplinary approaches, and multi-source data are urgently required to explore the inherent issues, hypotheses, and themes in the field of forest cover and its ecological environmental effects.

The debate on the intrinsic link between forest cover changes and the environment continues. We invite you to share your innovative research in this field to this Special Issue of Forests entitled "Advances in Forest Cover Change and Its Ecological and Environmental Effects". The main objective of our Special Issue is to collect and disseminate the latest advances in forest cover change and its ecological and environmental effects. We encourage scholars from around the world to submit research papers investigating the relationship between forest cover and ecological environments using field surveys, experiments, remote sensing applications, GIS, geostatistical techniques, intelligent computing, forecasting, and simulations. We hope to highlight the latest advances in the field of conserving the environment and outline possible issues requiring further exploration to provide a more solid scientific basis and technological support for global and regional sustainable development.

Prof. Dr. Wei Shui
Dr. Junyu Qi
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Forests is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

forest land cover
environmental factors
ecological effects
environmental effects
biodiversity
ecological geography

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

26 pages, 8757 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Diagnosis of Climatic and Landscape Controls on Forest Leaf Area Index Across China Using Interpretable Machine Learning

by Yiyang Mu, Guojie Wang, Chenxi Zhu and Pedro Cabral

Forests 2026, 17(2), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17020203 - 3 Feb 2026

Viewed by 635

Abstract

Forest cover condition is a key determinant of ecosystem functioning and ecological resilience, yet its spatial variability across large and environmentally heterogeneous regions remains insufficiently understood. Leaf area index (LAI) provides a continuous and physically meaningful indicator of forest canopy condition, reflecting variations in canopy density associated with climate and landscape structure. Here, we develop a spatially explicit and interpretable analytical framework to diagnose the dominant climatic and landscape controls on forest cover condition across mainland China during 2000–2020. By integrating machine-learning modelling with SHapley Additive exPlanations, GeoDetector interaction analysis, and nonlinear dependence diagnostics, we quantify the relative contributions and interactions of precipitation, temperature, topography, and forest landscape structure to spatial patterns in forest LAI. The results reveal pronounced spatial heterogeneity in forest cover control regimes. Precipitation dominates forest cover condition in humid regions but exhibits nonlinear saturation, whereas forest fragmentation strongly constrains canopy development and moderates climate-LAI relationships in arid and semi-arid forested landscapes. In high-elevation regions, topographic and thermal factors exert primary control. Overall, the findings demonstrate that forest cover condition reflects climate-conditioned and landscape-dependent control regimes, providing a transparent basis for large-scale forest cover assessment and ecological monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Cover Change and Its Ecological and Environmental Effects—2nd Edition)

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23 pages, 12194 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Variations and Climatic Associations of Pocket Park Eco-Environmental Quality in Fuzhou, China (2019–2024)

by Hengping Lin, Changchun Qiu, Xianxi Chen, Shuhan Wu and Wei Shui

Forests 2026, 17(2), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17020166 - 27 Jan 2026

Viewed by 740

Abstract

Accurately quantifying the ecological functions of small and micro green spaces in high density urban environments supports urban ecological planning and management. This study assessed 271 pocket parks in the main urban area of Fuzhou, China, using multi-source remote sensing data from the growing seasons of 2019 to 2024. Six indicators were derived, including NDVI, NPP, WET, NDBSI, ISI, and LST. A composite Eco-environmental Index (EEI) was constructed using the entropy weight method. We combined the coefficient of variation, Theil–Sen slope estimation, the Mann–Kendall test, and the Hurst exponent to quantify spatial heterogeneity, interannual stability, and short-term persistence. We also examined climatic associations using correlation analysis. Pocket parks consistently outperformed their surrounding 500 m buffers across all indicators, and park buffer contrasts increased for most indicators. The mean EEI significantly increased from 0.563 in 2019 to 0.650 in 2024, with a pronounced step increase around 2022. At the site level, 261 of 271 parks (96.3%) exhibited an upward trend in EEI, indicating widespread ecological improvement. Specifically, park vegetation greenness (NDVI) rose from 0.413 to 0.578, widening the gap with surrounding areas. Parks consistently maintained a lower land surface temperature (LST) than their buffers, with a cooling magnitude ranging from 3.5 °C to 4.6 °C. Precipitation was positively associated with NDVI and NPP, while LST was positively associated with air temperature and negatively associated with precipitation. These findings support the planning and adaptive management of pocket parks to strengthen urban ecological resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Cover Change and Its Ecological and Environmental Effects—2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 3172 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Key Stand Structural Factors to Enhance Water-Holding Function, Soil Conservation, and Carbon Sequestration in Schima superba Forests: Insights from Subtropical Dongbai Mountain

by Zhongxu Wang, Yini Han, Caiyan Yuan, Xueqin Li, Penghong Qian and Songheng Jin

Forests 2025, 16(1), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16010048 - 30 Dec 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1866

Abstract

Revealing the interactions between stand structure factors and ecosystem functions is crucial for enhancing forest soil and water conservation, as well as carbon storage. However, the optimal stand structure configuration for achieving superior ecological functions remains unclear, particularly in complex subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests. Using Schima superba Gardn. et Champ. forests in Dongbai Mountain as a case study, this study investigated the effects of seven stand structure factors—stand density, canopy density, uniform angle index, and mixing degree—on three key ecosystem functions, water-holding function, soil improvement function, and carbon sequestration. Redundancy analysis (RDA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were employed to quantify these relationships. The results identified stand density as the most influential factor, directly or indirectly affecting ecosystem functions by regulating other structural attributes. Optimal structural configurations were determined, including stand densities of 1228, 1532, and 1675 plants·hm⁻² for maximizing water-holding function, soil improvement function, and carbon sequestration, respectively. Recommendations emphasize adjusting stand density, canopy density, uniform angle index, and mixing degree according to site-specific conditions. Practical strategies, such as replanting, intercropping, and introducing functionally complementary species, should aim to enrich vertical structure, maintain species randomness, and avoid dominance by a single species or excessive density. These findings offer actionable insights for improving the ecological functions of subtropical forests and have broader implications for sustainable forestry management, advancing regional carbon neutrality, and addressing global ecological challenges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Cover Change and Its Ecological and Environmental Effects—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 5191 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-System Coupling Coordination Assessment to Achieve the Integrated Objectives of Forest Conservation, Marine Governance, and Socioeconomic Development in the Bay Area: A Case Study in the Bay Area of the Fujian River Delta

by Zhixun Huang, Yingjie Li, Xiuzhi Chen, Xiang Yu and Wei Shui

Forests 2024, 15(11), 2030; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15112030 - 18 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1557

Abstract

The bay area contains terrestrial forests and coastal mangroves with vital ecosystem functions, which provide essential ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration and biodiversity maintenance. Meanwhile, the bay area usually hosts intensive socioeconomic activities. High-intensity anthropogenic activities in the bay area have threatened the terrestrial ecosystem and marine environment. Harmonizing the relationship between terrestrial ecosystem conservation, marine environmental governance, and socioeconomic development is crucial for realizing the national “coordinated land and marine development” strategy and promoting sustainability in the bay area. This study constructed a coupling coordination assessment system of the terrestrial ecosystem, marine environmental system, and socioeconomic system. Taking the bay area of the Fujian River Delta as a case study, multiple ecological models were integrated to quantify the coupling coordination degree between these three systems and present its spatial distribution characteristics. Furthermore, the constraint types on the coupling coordination degree were spatially revealed in the bay area. The results suggested that there are significant spatial differences in the coupling coordination degree of the three systems in the bay area of the Fujian River Delta. The areas with a relatively low coupling coordination degree are mainly focused on the central part of the Xiamen Bay area and the southeastern part of the Quanzhou Bay area. Regions with high socioeconomic development tend to present weak terrestrial or marine eco-environmental conditions. The critical constraint factor of the coupling coordination degree in the Zhangzhou Bay area is its backward socioeconomic development level. The backwardness of both the terrestrial ecosystem and marine environmental system exists in most districts of the Xiamen Bay area. In addition, the marine environmental conditions in the Xiamen Bay area are worse than those in the Quanzhou Bay Area and the Zhangzhou Bay area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Cover Change and Its Ecological and Environmental Effects—2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 16118 KB

Open AccessArticle

Resilience and Resistance of Vegetation in Response to Droughts in a Subtropical Humid Region Dominated by Karst

by Qijia Sun, Qiuwen Zhou, Yingzhong Luo, Chunmao Shi and Yundi Hu

Forests 2024, 15(11), 1931; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15111931 - 1 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1873

Abstract

The resilience and resistance of vegetation are important indicators of the vegetation’s response to droughts. Owing to the uniqueness of the environment in humid karst areas, results from studies on other climatic zones may not necessarily present the status of vegetation resilience and resistance in humid karst areas. Herein, We calculated vegetation resilience and resistance by autoregressive modeling using Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), Total Water Storage Anomaly (TWSA), temperature (TA), precipitation (PRE) data, An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was then conducted to compare the differences in resilience and resistance of different vegetation types in the study area, as well as the differences in resilience and resistance of vegetation in different sub-geomorphic zones. Finally, natural factors affecting vegetation resilience and resistance were quantified using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The results demonstrate the following points. First, vegetation resilience, total-water-storage anomaly resistance, and vegetation resistance against precipitation anomalies were lower in karst areas of the study area than in non-karst areas of the study area (except for vegetation resistance against temperature anomalies). Second, vegetation resilience was the lowest in some sub-geomorphic zones within karst areas, and it was still comparable to that in semiarid areas. Third, precipitation and temperature were important factors that affected the resilience and resistance of vegetation in karst areas, and the geochemical indicators (CaO, MgO, and SiO₂) of soil parent material were major factors that affected the resistance and resilience of vegetation in non-karst areas. In summary, this study was undertaken to reveal the natural characteristics of vegetation resilience and resistance in humid karst regions. Our findings complement and expand the existing body of knowledge on vegetation resilience and resistance in other ecologically fragile zones limited by moisture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Cover Change and Its Ecological and Environmental Effects—2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 5097 KB

Open AccessArticle

Disentangling the Response of Vegetation Dynamics to Natural and Anthropogenic Drivers over the Minjiang River Basin Using Dimensionality Reduction and a Structural Equation Model

by Yujie Kang, Ziqin Wang, Binni Xu, Wenjie Shen, Yu Chen, Xiaohui Zhou, Yanguo Liu, Tingbin Zhang, Guoyan Wang, Yuling Jia and Jingji Li

Forests 2024, 15(8), 1438; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15081438 - 15 Aug 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2064

Abstract

Located at an average elevation of approximately 2000 m, the Minjiang River Basin (MJB), a key tributary of the Upper Yangtze River, straddles the Western Sichuan Plateau and the Sichuan Basin. Vegetation here is crucial for human life, providing oxygen and energy. However, the influence of climatic variables, human activities, and rugged terrain on vegetation vitality is still debated. This study mainly leverages data from the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), meteorological stations data, and land use data. Analytical techniques include trend analysis, partial correlation coefficient analysis (PCC), principal component analysis (PCA), and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Results indicate a stable upward trend in vegetation growth with minimal fluctuations, with a growth rate of 0.95 × 10⁻³/a (p < 0.01). PCC analysis shows a positive correlation between NDVI and key climatic elements in over 60% of the area. The areas with significant vegetation growth had the highest average PCC. PCA and PLS-SEM identify temperature and precipitation as primary growth drivers, while elevation and land use intensity hinder growth. The MJB landscape reveals thresholds and tipping points, with specific temperature and precipitation benchmarks varying by elevation, delineating the boundary between flourishing vegetation and growth inhibition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Cover Change and Its Ecological and Environmental Effects—2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 3579 KB

Open AccessArticle

Woody Plant Structural Diversity Changes across an Inverse Elevation-Dependent Warming Gradient in a Subtropical Mountain Forest

by Yuqiao Su, Xianhua Gan, Weiqiang Zhang, Guozhang Wu and Fangfang Huang

Forests 2024, 15(6), 1051; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061051 - 18 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1725

Abstract

Examining the changes in woody plant structural diversity along an inverse elevation-dependent warming gradient will enhance our mechanistic understanding of how warming affects forest communities because such an inverse elevational gradient reflects a warming trend in a mountain landscape. Here, we investigated the effects of warming on the patterns of species composition and structural diversity in a subtropical broadleaved forest. We calculated a warming index based on elevational difference and modeled the aspect-related potential incident radiation (PDIR) using nonparametric multiplicative regression. We tested the changes in structural diversity of three communities for significant differences along the warming gradient. We associated both the warming index and PDIR with the principal components and tested their relationships for significant differences. We found that trees of different sizes varied in their response to the warming gradient. While a significant decreasing trend was exhibited in both species diversity and size diversity for trees of all sizes and for adult trees along the warming gradient, no significant changes in seedlings were found, and the average basal area value was the highest for the warmest community. Our findings demonstrated that a short-range elevational gradient was adequate to separate the communities in species composition and structural diversity. Patterns of structural diversity along the warming gradient varied in size classes. The community at a higher elevation had more indicator species that were unique in separating the community from others. Principal component analysis showed that the first two principal components were negatively correlated with the warming index, indicating that warming destabilized species composition and community structure. Our study suggests that warming is the major driver of changes in structural diversity and species composition of woody plant communities in a subtropical broadleaved forest and that warming may promote tree productivity at the community level but reduce structural diversity at the quadrat level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Cover Change and Its Ecological and Environmental Effects—2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 14488 KB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Tree Cover Estimation for Sparse Trees Mixed with Herbaceous Vegetation in Drylands Using Texture Features of High-Resolution Imagery

by Haolin Huang, Zhihui Wang, Junjie Chen and Yonglei Shi

Forests 2024, 15(5), 847; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050847 - 12 May 2024

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2600

Abstract

Tree cover is a crucial vegetation structural parameter for simulating ecological, hydrological, and soil erosion processes on the Chinese Loess Plateau, especially after the implementation of the Grain for Green project in 1999. However, current tree cover products performed poorly across most of the Loess Plateau, which is characterized by grasslands with sparse trees. In this study, we first acquired high-accuracy samples of 0.5 m tree canopy and 30 m tree cover using a combination of unmanned aerial vehicle imagery and WorldView-2 (WV-2) imagery. The spectral and textural features derived from Landsat 8 and WV-2 were then used to estimate tree cover with a random forest model. Finally, the tree cover estimated using WV-2, Landsat 8, and their combination were compared, and the optimal tree cover estimates were also compared with current products and tree cover derived from canopy classification. The results show that (1) the normalized difference moisture index using Landsat 8 shortwave infrared and the standard deviation of correlation metric calculated by means of gray-level co-occurrence matrix using the WV-2 near-infrared band are the optimal spectral feature and textural feature for estimating tree cover, respectively. (2) The accuracy of tree cover estimated using only WV-2 is highest (RMSE = 7.44%), indicating that high-resolution textural features are more sensitive to tree cover than the Landsat spectral features (RMSE = 11.53%) on grasslands with sparse trees. (3) Textural features with a resolution higher than 8 m perform better than the combination of Landsat 8 and textural features, and the optimal resolution is 2 m (RMSE = 7.21%) for estimating tree cover, whereas the opposite is observed when the resolution of textural features is lower than 8 m. (4) The current global product seriously underestimates tree cover on the Loess Plateau, and the tree cover calculation using the canopy classification of high-resolution imagery performs worse than the method of directly using remote sensing features. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Cover Change and Its Ecological and Environmental Effects—2nd Edition)

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