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New Insights into Movement Generation: Sensorimotor Processes
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New Insights into Movement Generation: Sensorimotor Processes

A special issue of Brain Sciences (ISSN 2076-3425). This special issue belongs to the section "Sensory and Motor Neuroscience".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 September 2025 | Viewed by 10055

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Koichi Hiraoka

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Medicine, Osaka Metropolitan University, 3-7-30 Habikino, Habikino 583-8555, Osaka, Japan
Interests: interlimb coordination; tactile localization; motor plan; postural control, transcranial magnetic stimulation; motor evoked potential; central pattern generator

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Sensorimotor processing refers to a process by which sensory information is integrated into a related motor response in the central nervous system. Humans generate the movement through planning and executing
motor programs; however, it is also true that the central nervous system conducts online somatosensory or visual feedback while generating the movement. Sensorimotor processing is, therefore, an intricate process requiring proper orchestration between multiple sources of sensory information, which relies on the proper integration of visual, auditory, and haptic perceptual inputs and efficient interactions with pre-motor and motor cortical areas and the cerebellum.

This Special Issue aims to gather together basic research and clinical studies highlighting motor execution, sensory feedback, and interactions between these phenomena, contributing to movement generation.

Prof. Dr. Koichi Hiraoka
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Brain Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • motor plan
  • somatosensation
  • sensory–motor integration
  • feedback
  • vision
  • motor execution
  • movement
  • motor control
  • stimulus–response mapping

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

15 pages, 863 KiB  
Article
Enhancing Hand Sensorimotor Function in Individuals with Cervical Spinal Cord Injury: A Novel Tactile Discrimination Feedback Approach Using a Multiple-Baseline Design
by Ken Kitai, Kaichi Nishigaya, Yasuhisa Mizomoto, Hiroki Ito, Ryosuke Yamauchi, Osamu Katayama, Kiichiro Morita, Shin Murata and Takayuki Kodama
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040352 - 28 Mar 2025
Viewed by 431
Abstract
Background/Objectives: This study evaluated the effects of a tactile-discrimination compensatory real-time feedback device on hand sensorimotor function in cervical spinal cord injury patients. The study assessed changes in hand numbness, dexterity, and electroencephalogram (EEG) activity, particularly γ-wave power in the sensorimotor area [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: This study evaluated the effects of a tactile-discrimination compensatory real-time feedback device on hand sensorimotor function in cervical spinal cord injury patients. The study assessed changes in hand numbness, dexterity, and electroencephalogram (EEG) activity, particularly γ-wave power in the sensorimotor area during skilled finger movements. Methods: Three patients with cervical spinal cord injury who presented with hand sensorimotor dysfunction underwent treatment with this device. All cases underwent the intervention using an AB design; A is the exercise task without the system device, and B is the exercise task under the system device. To confirm the reproducibility and minimize the influence of confounding factors, a multiple-baseline design, in which the intervention period was staggered for each subject, was applied. To determine efficacy, the hand numbness numerical rating scale, peg test, and EEG were measured daily, and Tau-U calculations were performed. Results: In two of three cases, moderate or very large changes were observed in numbness in B. In all cases, there was a large or very large change in the peg test results in the B. Regarding EEG activity, the non-skilled participants showed amplification of γ-wave power in the sensorimotor area during the B. Conversely, in the skilled participants, the γ-wave power of the sensorimotor area was attenuated during skillful movements. Conclusions: These findings indicate that the ability of the brain to compare and align predictive control with sensory feedback might be compromised in patients with damage to the afferent pathways of the central nervous system. Moreover, the use of this device appears to have played a role in supporting functional recovery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Movement Generation: Sensorimotor Processes)
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15 pages, 1699 KiB  
Article
Fronto-Central Changes in Multiple Frequency Bands in Active Tactile Width Discrimination Task
by Tiago Ramos, Júlia Ramos, Carla Pais-Vieira and Miguel Pais-Vieira
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(9), 915; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14090915 - 11 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1542
Abstract
The neural basis of tactile processing in humans has been extensively studied; however, the neurophysiological basis of human width discrimination remains relatively unexplored. In particular, the changes that occur in neural networks underlying active tactile width discrimination learning have yet to be described. [...] Read more.
The neural basis of tactile processing in humans has been extensively studied; however, the neurophysiological basis of human width discrimination remains relatively unexplored. In particular, the changes that occur in neural networks underlying active tactile width discrimination learning have yet to be described. Here, it is hypothesized that subjects learning to perform the active version of the width discrimination task would present changes in behavioral data and in the neurophysiological activity, specifically in networks of electrodes relevant for tactile and motor processing. The specific hypotheses tested here were that the performance and response latency of subjects would change between the first and the second blocks; the power of the different frequency bands would change between the first and the second blocks; electrode F4 would encode task performance and response latency through changes in the power of the delta, theta, alpha, beta, and low-gamma frequency bands; the relative power in the alpha and beta frequency bands in electrodes C3 and C4 (Interhemispheric Spectral Difference—ISD) would change because of learning between the first and the second blocks. To test this hypothesis, we recorded and analyzed electroencephalographic (EEG) activity while subjects performed a session where they were tested twice (i.e., two different blocks) in an active tactile width discrimination task using their right index finger. Subjects (n = 18) presented high performances (high discrimination accuracy) already in their first block, and therefore no significant improvements were found in the second block. Meanwhile, a reduction in response latency was observed between the two blocks. EEG recordings revealed an increase in power for the low-gamma frequency band (30–45 Hz) for electrodes F3 and C3 from the first to the second block. This change was correlated with neither performance nor latency. Analysis of the neural activity in electrode F4 revealed that the beta frequency band encoded the subjects’ performance. Meanwhile, the delta frequency band in the same electrode revealed a complex pattern where blocks appeared clustered in two different patterns: an Upper Pattern (UP), where power and latency were highly correlated (Rho = 0.950), and a sparser and more uncorrelated Lower Pattern (LP). Blocks belonging to the UP or LP patterns did not differ in performance and were not specific to the first or the second block. However, blocks belonging to the LP presented an increase in response latency, increased variability in performance, and an increased ISD in alpha and beta frequency bands for the pair of electrodes C3–C4, suggesting that the LP may reflect a state related to increased cognitive load or task difficulty. These results suggest that changes in performance and latency in an active tactile width discrimination task are encoded in the delta, alpha, beta, and low-gamma frequency bands in a fronto-central network. The main contribution of this study is therefore related to the description of neural dynamics in frontal and central networks involved in the learning process of active tactile width discrimination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Movement Generation: Sensorimotor Processes)
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23 pages, 2266 KiB  
Article
Sensorimotor Simulation’s Influence on Stress: EEG and Autonomic Responses in Digital Interviews
by Michela Balconi, Laura Angioletti and Katia Rovelli
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(6), 608; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14060608 - 15 Jun 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1559
Abstract
This study explored the role of sensorimotor simulation in modulating the stress response in individuals exposed to stressful digital simulated interviews. Participants were assigned to two different versions of a Digital Social Stress Test: a simulated version with a dynamic–realistic examining committee (Dyn-DSST) [...] Read more.
This study explored the role of sensorimotor simulation in modulating the stress response in individuals exposed to stressful digital simulated interviews. Participants were assigned to two different versions of a Digital Social Stress Test: a simulated version with a dynamic–realistic examining committee (Dyn-DSST) and a version with a static examining committee (Stat-DSST). During interview preparation, behavioral indices reflecting stress regulation and resistance, response times, and electroencephalographic (EEG) and autonomic indices were collected. Higher regulation scores were found for the Stat-DSST group compared to the Dyn-DSST group, probably induced by the presence of limited external sensory input in time and space, perceived as less stressful. The EEG results revealed a distinct contribution of the low- and high-frequency bands for both groups. Dyn-DSST required greater cognitive regulation effort due to the presence of a continuous flow of information, which can enhance sensory and motor activation in the brain. The SCR increased in the Dyn-DSST group compared to the Stat-DSST group, reflecting greater emotional involvement in the Dyn-DSST group and reduced sensory stimulation in the static version. In conclusion, the results suggest that sensorimotor simulation impacts the stress response differently in dynamic interviews compared to static ones, with distinct profiles based on behavioral, EEG, and autonomic measures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Movement Generation: Sensorimotor Processes)
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14 pages, 2425 KiB  
Article
Short-Term Reproduction of Active Movement with Visual Feedback and Passive Movement with a Therapist’s Hands
by Hitoshi Oda, Shiho Fukuda, Ryo Tsujinaka, Han Gao and Koichi Hiraoka
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(6), 531; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14060531 - 23 May 2024
Viewed by 1079
Abstract
Reproducing instructed movements is crucial for practice in motor learning. In this study, we compared the short-term reproduction of active pelvis movements with visual feedback and passive movement with the therapist’s hands in an upright stance. Sixteen healthy males (M age = 34.1; [...] Read more.
Reproducing instructed movements is crucial for practice in motor learning. In this study, we compared the short-term reproduction of active pelvis movements with visual feedback and passive movement with the therapist’s hands in an upright stance. Sixteen healthy males (M age = 34.1; SD = 10.2 years) participated in this study. In one condition, healthy males maintained an upright stance while a physical therapist moved the participant’s pelvis (passive movement instruction), and in a second condition, the participant actively moved their pelvis with visual feedback of the target and the online trajectory of the center of pressure (active movement instruction). Reproduction errors (displacement of the center of pressure in the medial–lateral axis) 10 s after the passive movement instruction were significantly greater than after the active movement instruction (p < 0.001), but this difference disappeared 30 s after the instruction (p = 0.118). Error of movement reproduction in the anterior–posterior axis after the passive movement instruction was significantly greater than after the active movement instruction, no matter how long the retention interval was between the instruction and reproduction phases (p = 0.025). Taken together, active pelvis movements with visual feedback, rather than passive movement with the therapist’s hand, is better to be used for instructing pelvis movements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Movement Generation: Sensorimotor Processes)
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Review

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41 pages, 4809 KiB  
Review
Neurocomputational Mechanisms of Sense of Agency: Literature Review for Integrating Predictive Coding and Adaptive Control in Human–Machine Interfaces
by Anirban Dutta
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 396; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040396 - 14 Apr 2025
Viewed by 420
Abstract
Background: The sense of agency (SoA)—the subjective experience of controlling one’s own actions and their consequences—is a fundamental aspect of human cognition, volition, and motor control. Understanding how the SoA arises and is disrupted in neuropsychiatric disorders has significant implications for human–machine interface [...] Read more.
Background: The sense of agency (SoA)—the subjective experience of controlling one’s own actions and their consequences—is a fundamental aspect of human cognition, volition, and motor control. Understanding how the SoA arises and is disrupted in neuropsychiatric disorders has significant implications for human–machine interface (HMI) design for neurorehabilitation. Traditional cognitive models of agency often fail to capture its full complexity, especially in dynamic and uncertain environments. Objective: This review synthesizes computational models—particularly predictive coding, Bayesian inference, and optimal control theories—to provide a unified framework for understanding the SoA in both healthy and dysfunctional brains. It aims to demonstrate how these models can inform the design of adaptive HMIs and therapeutic tools by aligning with the brain’s own inference and control mechanisms. Methods: I reviewed the foundational and contemporary literature on predictive coding, Kalman filtering, the Linear–Quadratic–Gaussian (LQG) control framework, and active inference. I explored their integration with neurophysiological mechanisms, focusing on the somato-cognitive action network (SCAN) and its role in sensorimotor integration, intention encoding, and the judgment of agency. Case studies, simulations, and XR-based rehabilitation paradigms using robotic haptics were used to illustrate theoretical concepts. Results: The SoA emerges from hierarchical inference processes that combine top–down motor intentions with bottom–up sensory feedback. Predictive coding frameworks, especially when implemented via Kalman filters and LQG control, provide a mechanistic basis for modeling motor learning, error correction, and adaptive control. Disruptions in these inference processes underlie symptoms in disorders such as functional movement disorder. XR-based interventions using robotic interfaces can restore the SoA by modulating sensory precision and motor predictions through adaptive feedback and suggestion. Computer simulations demonstrate how internal models, and hypnotic suggestions influence state estimation, motor execution, and the recovery of agency. Conclusions: Predictive coding and active inference offer a powerful computational framework for understanding and enhancing the SoA in health and disease. The SCAN system serves as a neural hub for integrating motor plans with cognitive and affective processes. Future work should explore the real-time modulation of agency via biofeedback, simulation, and SCAN-targeted non-invasive brain stimulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Movement Generation: Sensorimotor Processes)
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27 pages, 1161 KiB  
Review
Emergent Aspects of the Integration of Sensory and Motor Functions
by Tiziana M. Florio
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(2), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15020162 - 7 Feb 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1760
Abstract
This article delves into the intricate mechanisms underlying sensory integration in the executive control of movement, encompassing ideomotor activity, predictive capabilities, and motor control systems. It examines the interplay between motor and sensory functions, highlighting the role of the cortical and subcortical regions [...] Read more.
This article delves into the intricate mechanisms underlying sensory integration in the executive control of movement, encompassing ideomotor activity, predictive capabilities, and motor control systems. It examines the interplay between motor and sensory functions, highlighting the role of the cortical and subcortical regions of the central nervous system in enhancing environmental interaction. The acquisition of motor skills, procedural memory, and the representation of actions in the brain are discussed emphasizing the significance of mental imagery and training in motor function. The development of this aspect of sensorimotor integration control can help to advance our understanding of the interactions between executive motor control, cortical mechanisms, and consciousness. Bridging theoretical insights with practical applications, it sets the stage for future innovations in clinical rehabilitation, assistive technology, and education. The ongoing exploration of these domains promises to uncover new pathways for enhancing human capability and well-being. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Movement Generation: Sensorimotor Processes)
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19 pages, 1078 KiB  
Review
Feedback Interventions in Motor Recovery of Lateropulsion after Stroke: A Literature Review and Case Series
by Maria Gomez-Risquet, Anja Hochsprung, Eleonora Magni and Carlos Luque-Moreno
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(7), 682; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14070682 - 5 Jul 2024
Viewed by 2101
Abstract
Lateropulsion is a post-stroke phenomenon marked by an active push of the body across the midline towards the more affected side and/or a resistance of the weight shift towards the less affected side. Within the mechanisms of treatment, feedback systems have been shown [...] Read more.
Lateropulsion is a post-stroke phenomenon marked by an active push of the body across the midline towards the more affected side and/or a resistance of the weight shift towards the less affected side. Within the mechanisms of treatment, feedback systems have been shown to be effective. The aim of the present study was to create a body of knowledge by performing a literature review on the use of feedback mechanisms in the treatment of lateropulsion and to report two cases of lateropulsion patients who had undergone feedback-based treatment. Methods: The review was performed across five different databases (Embase, Medline/PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and PEDro) up to February 2024, and haptic feedback intervention was incorporated into the case series (with lateropulsion and ambulation capacity as the main variables). Results: In total, 211 records were identified and 6 studies were included after the review of the literature. The most used feedback modality was visual feedback. In the case series, positive results were observed from the intervention, particularly in the recovery of lateropulsion and balance, as well as in the improvement of gait for one patient. Patients demonstrated good adherence to the intervention protocol without adverse effects. Conclusions: Visual feedback is the most commonly used feedback modality in lateropulsion patients but other mechanisms such as haptic feedback also are feasible and should be taken into account. Larger sample sizes, extended follow-up periods, and the isolation of feedback mechanisms must be established to clarify evidence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Movement Generation: Sensorimotor Processes)
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