Phycology

The limited accessibility of fermentable substrates in marine macroalgal biomass constrains efficient biohydrogen production. This study evaluated thermal, disperser and biosurfactant pretreatments individually and in combination to enhance Ulva reticulata biomass solubilization and biohydrogen production. Thermal (50–90 °C), disperser (4000–14,000 rpm) and biosurfactant (0.002–0.09 g/g total solids) pretreatments were investigated. Thermal pretreatment (80 °C, 45 min) achieved 2640 mg/L soluble chemical oxygen demand (sCOD) release at a specific energy requirement of 44,064 kJ/kg total solids (TS), whereas disperser pretreatment (8000 rpm, 30 min) released 2720 mg/L sCOD at 31,347 kJ/kg TS. Integrated thermal–disperser–biosurfactant pretreatment using 0.01 g/g TS biosurfactant achieved the highest sCOD release (3015 mg/L) and solubilization (26%) at 20,898 kJ/kg TS. Dark fermentation using camel dung as inoculum produced a maximum yield of 83 mL H₂/g COD, compared with 50 and 58 mL H₂/g COD for the thermal and thermal–disperser pretreatments, respectively. Firmicutes was the most abundant phylum, with Romboutsia, Clostridium sensu stricto 1, Turicibacter, and Paeniclostridium as the major genera. An artificial neural network accurately reproduced cumulative biohydrogen trends under leakage-free validation and ranked pretreatments according to experimental results. Overall, integrated pretreatment enhanced biomass solubilization and biohydrogen production while reducing the energy requirement. Full article

Macroalgal surfaces harbor epiphytic bacterial communities with potential roles in host metabolism, stress tolerance, chemical defense, and ecological interactions, yet their genome-resolved diversity remains poorly characterized across major macroalgal lineages. Here, we reconstructed epiphytic bacterial metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) from 108 culture-derived macroalgal shotgun datasets originally generated for host genome sequencing, together with three additional macroalgal species with paired high-accuracy long-read and short-read data. Benchmarking of matched MAGs showed comparable assembly sizes and genome quality between sequencing strategies, supporting short-read-based MAG recovery from host-associated macroalgal datasets. Across all datasets, we recovered 3272 preliminary MAGs and retained 1915 non-redundant, quality-controlled MAGs, of which 1543 could not be assigned to species-level taxa by GTDB-Tk based on ANI. These genomes were dominated by Pseudomonadota, Bacteroidota, and Planctomycetota, which together represented 88.3% of the collection, and included many species-level unassigned genomes. Functional analyses identified 12,950 biosynthetic gene clusters grouped into 7985 gene cluster families, 20 biosynthetically rich MAGs, and 222 KEGG modules. This atlas provides a genome-resolved resource for studying macroalgal holobiont function and microbial natural product potential. Full article

The marine microalga Nannochloropsis oceanica is a promising organism for sustainable production of lipids, omega-3 fatty acids, and biomass with a high nutritional value. We demonstrate UV mutagenesis combined with visual screening to generate novel non-GMO strains with improved industrial traits. Four mutants displayed altered pigmentation and/or enhanced growth after UV treatment, of which mutants M34 and M181 were selected for detailed characterization. Mutant M34 displayed enhanced biomass productivity under high light conditions (400 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹) in small-scale photobioreactor cultivations, indicating improved tolerance to elevated irradiance. Pigment analyses revealed reduced levels of several xanthophyll carotenoids, suggesting altered light adaptation and photoprotective responses. However, the improved growth phenotype was not consistently maintained at medium and pilot scale, highlighting the strong influence of cultivation conditions on measured strain performance. Mutant M181 exhibited strongly reduced chlorophyll content, accompanied by impaired growth at elevated light intensities. Pilot-scale cultivation demonstrated significantly increased lipid accumulation, reaching up to 25% of dry matter compared to 17% in the wild type. While M181 showed an unaltered composition of amino acids, total fatty acids, and eicosapentaenoic acid, we found elevated vitamin D3 accumulation after UVB exposure and significantly higher menaquinone-4 (MK-4) bioaccessibility, potentially improving the nutritional functionality. The results demonstrate that UV mutagenesis combined with simple visual screening is an effective strategy to generate N. oceanica strains with altered biomass composition and growth performance. Our study shows the importance of evaluating mutants under industrially relevant conditions, as phenotypes observed at laboratory scale may not translate well to pilot-scale systems. Full article

Macrobenthic seaweeds are key species in temperate and boreal nearshore rocky ecosystems, and their interspecific interactions profoundly affect the species composition, spatial distribution and dynamic succession of the community. This paper systematically reviews the mechanisms of interspecific competition and facilitative effects among macrobenthic seaweeds. We also examine their environmental regulation and impacts on community phase transitions. Competition mainly centers on three major resources: light, space and nutrients. It manifests as an asymmetric hierarchical structure, in which canopy-forming species exert a disproportionate repressive effect on lower algal layers through light competition. Facilitative effects are realized through several mechanisms. These include canopy shading to mitigate heat stress and water loss, physical structure building to create complex habitats, and nutrient retention with chemical microenvironment regulation. Moreover, the relative strengths of facilitation and competition shift systematically across environmental stress gradients. Multi-trophic level regulation further shapes community diversity maintenance mechanisms through the suppression of dominant species by vegetative predators and the cascading effect of top predators on vegetative predators. In the context of global change, physiological asymmetries driven by oceanic heat waves are tilting the competitive balance in favor of opportunistic turf algae. These algae form a lock-in state through the triple positive feedbacks: physical barriers, biogeochemical deterioration, and chemosensory exclusion. This significantly decreases the resilience of algal field recovery. Tropical coral-macroalgae phase transition is highly consistent with the degradation of temperate algal fields in terms of driving logic. They follow the law of coupling resource competition imbalance, downward regulatory relaxation, and positive feedback lock-up. This paper suggests several priorities for future research. Studies should focus on the nonlinear response of multifactor interaction, the quantitative correlation between key functional traits and community resilience, and the establishment of a cross-ecosystem comparison framework. These efforts will provide theoretical support for predicting and adaptively managing offshore ecosystems under global change. Full article

Many red algal species described solely from morphology have historically been assigned to inappropriate genera because of superficial morphological similarity. Laurencia chilensis, originally described for specimens from Chile, has long been recognized as the only representative of Laurencia in Chile, but its systematic position is still understudied. We examined morphology of syntype material and specimens collected in the present study and analyzed rbcL sequences from our collections. One syntype specimen (De Toni herbarium no. 63) is here designated as the lectotype of L. chilensis. Laurencia chilensis specimens possess five pericentral cells per axial segment and plate-like spermatangial branches with sterile marginal cells, typical of the tribe Chondrieae. The rbcL sequences we obtained were identical and recovered the Chilean specimens as a strongly supported, distinct lineage from Chondria and other genera within the Chondrieae. Accordingly, we propose Austrochondria chilensis gen. et comb. nov. This study resolves the long-standing taxonomic position of this Chilean endemic and contributes to a more natural classification of the Chondrieae. Full article

The cultivation of Chondracanthus chamissoi has advanced in Chile and Peru, but seedstock production still depends on thalli collected from natural beds. This dependence may limit commercial scale-up and increase pressure on natural beds. This study evaluated a land-based system for successive seedstock production using secondary attachment discs (SADs) as reusable vegetative units. Donor thalli were attached to polycarbonate plates in outdoor tanks to induce SAD formation. After SAD establishment, two harvesting strategies were compared: partial harvesting, in which only newly formed thalli were removed while SADs were retained on the plates, and total scraping, in which all biomass, including SADs, was completely removed. Experiments were conducted in independent cultivation tanks (n = 3), and temporal responses were analyzed using repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). Across the study, the highest values recorded were 131 ± 22 SADs 100 cm⁻², 15 thalli SAD⁻¹, a growth rate of 9.93 ± 1.21% d⁻¹, and 44 ± 6.2% plate coverage. The partial harvest strategy maintained production between cycles, yielding 58 ± 20 and 51 ± 23 g plate⁻¹ in the first and second harvests, respectively. Under this strategy, thallus production reached 106 ± 12 and 152 ± 17 thalli g⁻¹ in the first and second cycles. The harvested biomass consisted of numerous small vegetative units suitable for use as seedstock. Based on a conservative production scenario, a projected estimate indicates that this technology could yield approximately 1,200,000 thalli per harvest. Overall, these results support the use of SAD as a practical strategy for the successive production of C. chamissoi seedstock. Full article

Abiotic stresses severely limit agricultural productivity and have stimulated growing interest in microalgae as sources of stress-resilient traits and biostimulants. However, comparative genomic assessments integrating multiple stress-associated gene families across chlorophyte genome assemblies are limited. Here, we analyzed 19 chlorophyte genome assemblies to investigate the distribution and copy-number variation of 11 gene families associated with antioxidant defense, osmoprotection, and carotenoid biosynthesis. Candidate genes were identified using standardized InterPro annotations and manually curated to ensure consistent gene copy-number estimation. Hierarchical clustering, principal component analysis (PCA), descriptive statistics, and Pearson’s correlation analysis were performed to characterize gene-family copy-number patterns and multivariate similarities among genome assemblies. Multiple tests in the correlation analysis were controlled using the Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate procedure. The total functional family assignments ranged from 28 to 51 across the analyzed genome assemblies. Thioredoxin (TRX) exhibited the highest mean copy number (17.26 copies per genome) and the lowest coefficient of variation (15.43%), whereas catalase (CAT) showed the greatest variability (CV = 59.28%). The first two principal components explained 50.18% of the total variation, with PC1 accounting for 30.86% and PC2 for 19.32%, and differentiated genome assemblies according to their stress-associated gene copy-number profiles. Several moderate-to-strong pairwise correlations were observed, but none were significant after FDR correction. Overall, this study provides a curated comparative genomic framework for identifying stress-associated gene-family copy-number patterns across chlorophyte genome assemblies and generating testable hypotheses for subsequent functional studies. Full article

Microalgae biomanufacturing is a promising technology that converts carbon dioxide into valuable products. However, it faces limitations in scaling, online monitoring, and controlling biological variables. In photobioreactors, light intensity influences growth and operational efficiency. This study presents Alg-flex, a low-cost, open-source monitoring and control platform based on a Raspberry Pi 4. Alg-flex integrates sensors for light intensity regulation and real-time monitoring of pH, temperature, and dissolved oxygen, enabling data visualization and logging, while providing full portability without hardware modifications. These features offer broader applicability than conventional single-variable loggers. The hardware was obtained for under $1834 USD, approximately 4% of the average cost of similar commercial units. Its performance was evaluated during the cultivation of Haematococcus lacustris in a bubble column photobioreactor. The pH and temperature sensors were validated against certified benchtop probes over the operating range used in this study, yielding median errors below 1.5%. Under the tested conditions, bioreactor cultures showed approximately two-fold higher final optical density that was significantly different than flask cultures (p = 0.0333). These results confirm that growth dynamics in small-volume microalgal cultures may differ substantially from controlled photobioreactor systems. The affordability, reliability, and multi-reactor compatibility of Alg-flex support broader biomanufacturing applications beyond microalgae cultivation. Full article

Anthropogenic pollution of aquatic ecosystems presents a significant global challenge, underscoring the urgent need for resilient, biologically mediated remediation strategies. In this context, microalgae have emerged as a compelling solution, owing to their inherent adaptability to diverse environments and their capacity for efficient contaminant mitigation through bioremediation. These organisms possess the potential to sequester and remove a broad spectrum of pollutants from wastewater streams, including excess nutrients, organic substrates, heavy metals, and various emerging contaminants. Specifically, their metabolic versatility allows these microorganisms to tolerate and degrade complex substances such as recalcitrant micropollutants and hydrocarbons even under fluctuating environmental conditions. This review evaluates extremophilic microalgae as specialized biological agents capable of functioning under harsh anthropogenic stressors that may constrain the performance of microalgal strains commonly investigated for wastewater treatment. Their distinctive stress tolerance may provide advantages for treating wastewater characterized by extreme physicochemical conditions. By examining the unique metabolic pathways of these extremophiles, this analysis addresses critical gaps in the current bioremediation literature regarding the practical scalability and economic viability of integrating such specialized biomass into large-scale treatment infrastructure. Full article

We reexamined the critical importance of water motion in measuring algal growth and photosynthetic rates, addressing a significant limitation in traditional static incubation approaches. It presents a comprehensive framework for dynamic measurement methods that better simulate natural hydrodynamic conditions experienced by both macroalgae and other benthic autotrophs. We considered the barrier effects of the diffusion boundary layer surrounding the algae on the fluxes of gases and nutrients across the cellular membrane, and integrates findings demonstrating that flow-enhanced mass transfer of nutrients, inorganic carbon and O₂ across diffusion boundary layers can increase photosynthetic performance in macroalgae including the tested Sargassum, Porphyra and Macrocystis species. We provide quantitative comparisons demonstrating that increased velocities of water current can enhance photosynthetic and/or nutrient uptake rates compared to stagnant conditions. The comparative analysis highlights the advantages of flowing water systems in reducing diffusion limitations and better simulating natural environments against the technical simplicity of static methods. We detailed practical methodologies including flow-through system setup and sealed chamber with magnetic stirring techniques for macroalgae, and brush substrate for benthic diatoms. These approaches enable diurnal physiological tracking and reveal saturation responses to increasing water velocities. The methodological framework provides researchers with robust protocols for more accurate assessment of algal photosynthesis and primary productivity in both experimental and applied contexts such as aquaculture, carbon sequestration, and ecological monitoring. Full article

The association of microalgae with aquatic animal egg masses plays an important role in the reproductive ecology of several species. The first descriptions of this phenomenon were reported in 1888 for the egg masses of the spotted salamander Ambystoma maculatum. The microalgae most commonly associated with animal egg masses are green algae belonging to the genus Oophila. For many years, Oophila sp. was considered the only known intracellular endosymbiont in vertebrates; however, subsequent research has expanded the list of microorganisms capable of forming such associations. Here, we reviewed 69 English-language scientific publications on the occurrence of microalgae in the egg clutches of aquatic animals. This clearly indicates that current knowledge of these organisms remains incomplete and requires further investigation. This review presents a general characterization of the occurrence of microalgae in aquatic animal egg clutches, summarizes the locations where this phenomenon has been documented, describes both the animal hosts and the microalgae involved, examines the benefits resulting from the presence of photosynthetic microorganisms within egg masses, and highlights future research directions, including potential practical applications of these associations. Full article

Cyanobacteria are prolific producers of secondary metabolites, some of which are potent cyanotoxins that threaten ecosystem integrity and human health. Although blooms have been extensively studied in temperate regions, Southeast Asia’s (SEA’s) tropical marine and estuarine ecosystems remain comparatively underexplored despite their ecological richness and socio-economic importance. This review consolidates current knowledge on marine cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in SEA, drawing on ecological surveys, ecotoxicological studies, and cyanobacterial bloom case reports. Diverse taxa including Trichodesmium, Lyngbya, Oscillatoria, Neolyngbya, and Aliinostoc, have been documented in SEA’s marine waters, many producing cyanotoxins with various toxic effects. Ecotoxicological risks are intensified by monsoonal variability, nutrient enrichment, and climate-driven shifts that collectively amplifies cyanoblooms and toxin production. Detection methods such as PCR-based assays, LC-MS/MS, and biosensor technologies are increasingly applied to identify toxin biosynthesis genes, cryptic species, and novel metabolites. Environmental challenges including eutrophication from wastewater discharge, trophic transfer of toxins, and climate induced shifts in species distribution, further complicates bloom dynamics and management. Mitigating this requires a multi-pronged approach: advancing biosensors for rapid detection, embedding monitoring within predictive climate frameworks, and expanding molecular surveillance to capture cryptic diversity and gene transfer events. Such strategies are essential for environmental management of cyanobacterial blooms in SEA. Full article

The Murmansk Region (the Russian Arctic) faces severe environmental degradation due to heavy metal (HM) pollution from copper–nickel smelting, resulting in vast industrial barrens with elevated concentrations of copper (Cu) and nickel (Ni). Conventional phytostabilization methods are often ineffective or costly, necessitating alternative bioremediation strategies. This study evaluates the potential of microalgae and cyanobacteria for revegetating HM-contaminated substrates. Six strains of Nostoc-like morphotypes and three green microalgae were tested for Cu²⁺ tolerance (0.5–15 mg/L). While most strains exhibited growth inhibition at ≥3 mg/L Cu²⁺, Atlanticothrix sp. KPABG-154445, isolated from Tolbachik Volcano, showed positive growth at 2 mg/L Cu²⁺ under the tested conditions and recovering metabolic activity post-exposure. In sorption experiments, non-viable biomass achieved 68% Cu²⁺ removal at 2 mg/L, outperforming actively growing cultures. A microcosm experiment using copper-spiked nepheline slime (simulating mining waste) revealed Atlanticothrix sp. KPABG-154445’s ability to colonize nutrient-poor substrates, forming biocrusts covering 42% of the surface within one month, even under Cu²⁺ contamination (10 mg/kg). These findings highlight cyanobacteria, particularly strains such as KPABG-154445, as promising agents for the bioremediation of Arctic industrial barrens, leveraging their dual capacity for heavy metal tolerance and biocrust formation. Full article

DNA barcoding is a reliable technique for seaweed identification. However, high concentrations of sulfated polysaccharides and secondary metabolites hinder the extraction of DNA templates of suitable quality. Therefore, this study assessed four DNA extraction protocols (CTAB, commercial kit, HotSHOT, and DNAzol Direct) using two red seaweed species (Laurencia dendroidea and Hypnea sp.) and two barcoding genes (18S rRNA and rbcL). The results showed significant differences (p < 0.05) in DNA yield (μg/mg), DNA purity (A260/A280), and DNA concentration (ng/μL) among protocols. A significant protocol × seaweed interaction was also observed. DNAzol and HotSHOT provided the highest overall DNA yields (2.390 ± 0.080 and 2.234 ± 0.212 μg/mg, respectively), followed by CTAB (0.123 ± 0.011 μg/mg) and the commercial kit (0.007 ± 0.001 μg/mg). The commercial kit had the highest PCR and DNA sequencing success, followed by HotSHOT, DNAzol, and CTAB. Importantly, DNA concentration and purity did not always correlate with PCR and sequencing success. Considering performance, cost, and processing time, HotSHOT appeared to be the most practical method for Laurencia and Hypnea. This study addresses an important gap in the molecular identification of red seaweeds and provides information for selecting appropriate DNA extraction methods for seaweed barcoding. Full article

Microalgal growth-promoting bacteria (MGPBs) represent a promising strategy to enhance biomass productivity, yet the mechanistic basis of these mutualistic interactions remains poorly understood. Here, we isolated a new MGPB, Cupriavidus oxalaticus MEYA8, and characterized its mutualistic interaction with the model microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Co-cultivation at an optimal MEYA8: Chlamydomonas ratio greatly enhanced microalgal cell density and chlorophyll content, which reached 2.1-fold and 1.6-fold those of the control, respectively, with markedly improved photosynthetic efficiency across both photosystems. Transwell assays confirmed that this promotion is mediated by diffusible metabolites rather than direct cell contact. Metabolites and multi-omics analyses revealed that MEYA8 can produce compounds similar to indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and is adapted to the microalgal phycosphere by preferentially utilizing organic acids and amino acid derivatives. In response, Chlamydomonas upregulated proteins involved in photosynthetic electron transport, energy metabolism, and nitrogen assimilation, consistent with the observed enhancement in photosynthetic performance. These findings suggest a metabolically reciprocal interaction model: MEYA8 supplies diffusible growth-promoting factors such as IAA-like compounds to enhance Chlamydomonas photosynthesis and growth, while Chlamydomonas provides organic substrates that sustain bacterial proliferation. Our work provides new insights into algal–bacterial mutualism and may provide a new microbial resource for engineering microalgal and beneficial bacterial consortia. Full article

Interactions between cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae are traditionally viewed as favoring cyanobacteria, which are often the dominant competitors in freshwater ecosystems. However, increasing evidence suggests that eukaryotic algae also possess effective chemical defenses capable of suppressing cyanobacterial proliferation. In this study, the anti-cyanobacterial potential of a methanolic biomass extract of the green microalga Chlorella vulgaris against the bloom-forming cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa was investigated. Optical density measurements revealed the inhibition of cyanobacterial growth, with extract concentrations of 0.4–1.6 mg mL⁻¹ significantly reducing biomass accumulation. The lowest concentration (0.2 mg mL⁻¹) stimulated the accumulation of phycobiliproteins, whereas concentrations of 0.8–1.6 mg mL⁻¹ significantly decreased phycobiliprotein content, indicating progressive physiological impairment. The results suggest that the highest extract concentration applied may also cause alteration in phosphate acquisition. Lipid profiling of the Chlorella biomass showed that 97% of the extractable lipids consisted of methanol-soluble fatty acids, with C18 fatty acids predominating among the 20 identified compounds. These metabolites are reported to possess allelopathic activity and therefore represent plausible contributors to the observed inhibition. These findings support that anti-cyanobacterial activity may represent a widespread ecological trait of Chlorella and potentially other green microalgae, providing a promising foundation for environmentally friendly cyanobacterial bloom management. Full article

The pet food industry is undergoing a significant transformation, driven by the growing trend of companion animal humanization and increasing concerns over the environmental sustainability of conventional protein and lipid sources. Consumers now seek diets that not only meet basic nutritional requirements but also offer preventive health benefits. Microalgae, including Arthrospira (Spirulina, a kind of cyanobacterium), Chlorella, Schizochytrium, and Euglena gracilis, have emerged as versatile biological platforms capable of addressing both functional and sustainability challenges. These microorganisms produce high-quality proteins, omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (particularly docosahexaenoic acid, DHA), natural pigments, and immunomodulatory polysaccharides. This review synthesizes findings from peer-reviewed studies on the application of microalgae in pet nutrition, covering dogs, cats, and aquatic companion animals. We examine how algal ingredients influence gut microbiota, for instance, by enriching beneficial genera such as Turicibacter and Peptococcus, enhance vaccine responses and mucosal immunity, support cognitive function in aging pets, and contribute to weight management. Particular attention is given to Euglena gracilis and its paramylon (β-1,3-glucan), a pathogen-associated molecular pattern that engages the Dectin-1 pathway to train innate immunity and has demonstrated antiviral activity through host defense mechanisms. The review also surveys the patent landscape, highlighting trends in palatability enhancement, hypoallergenic formulations, and novel delivery formats. Key challenges remain, including ingredient standardization, safety validation, palatability optimization, and consumer acceptance. We outline a translational roadmap that prioritizes well-designed clinical trials in target species and processing methods that preserve bioactivity. Collectively, the evidence positions microalgae, and Euglena gracilis in particular, as promising candidates for next-generation functional pet foods that deliver health benefits alongside ecological sustainability. Full article

Using multivariate analysis in three zones of the Great Atlantic Sargassum Belt (GASB), we found close associations between the density of sargassum, dust deposition, and surface iron concentration on the sea surface during 2002–2010, before the appearance of the GASB in 2011. Combined with a statistical analysis of dust depositions during 1980–2023 in these zones, the results imply increases in each, concomitant with the behavior of the GASB in recent times, such as its appearance in 2011 in the northern tropical Atlantic and its reach in the Mexican Caribbean in 2015. Given indications that sargassum growth is limited by iron and the close association between dust deposition and iron concentration in the sea surface, we infer that the increase in dust deposition, which is generated mainly in the African Sahara and Sahel deserts, may have contributed to the sargassum growth in the GASB. Although the results of this study showed statistical significance, they remain hypothetical due to the lack of field data. Further surveys measuring chemical compositions and stable isotope rates of samples of Saharan dust, phytoplankton, and sargassum may explain the relevance of dust deposition to the development of the GASB. Full article

Microalgae represent a promising raw material for the bioeconomy and biotechnology. One of the key factors regulating their metabolism is light. However, the traditional approach to cultivation, aimed at maximising biomass productivity due to high lighting intensity, contradicts the principles of energy efficiency. In addition, the responses of soil microalgae to the spectral composition of light remain poorly understood, which creates a gap in fundamental knowledge. The Pleurastrum insigne CAMU MZ–Ch4 soil strain is a potent producer of valuable compounds. Physico-chemical and instrumental analysis, including spectrophotometric, chromatographic and gravimetric techniques, were used to determine the productive and biochemical parameters of the strain. It was shown that blue and red light with intensities of 90 and 150 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹ are optimal in absolute terms for the growth and CO₂ biofixation, green light for the accumulation of pigments and antioxidants, and low-intensity red light is the most energy efficient for the synthesis of lipids and other metabolites. Based on calculations of product-specific energy intensity, it was demonstrated that the “more light = more product” strategy increases metabolite energy intensity. Maximum bioeconomic efficiency (the minimum cost of electricity to produce a unit of a metabolite) is achieved with low intensity of red and blue light. Full article