NeuroSci, Volume 7, Issue 4 (August 2026) – 19 articles

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by the loss of dopaminergic neurons. Its symptoms affect both motor functions—such as bradykinesia, rigidity, resting tremor, and postural instability—and non-motor functions, including neuropsychiatric issues, sleep disorders, and constipation. Drawing on the literature, the following topics were developed and presented: Pathophysiology; Treatment; Neuropsychiatric and Cognitive Function; Sleep Challenges; Exercise and Movement; Striving for Wellness; and Obstacles/Paths Forward. These seven categories form the foundation of this review, which centers on four main areas related to PD: dopamine biology and pathophysiology; management of key motor and non-motor symptoms; strategies for achieving wellness; and unresolved issues in PD. The complexity of PD’s clinical features is highlighted by describing patient–healthcare provider interactions, elucidating disease mechanisms, managing motor and non-motor symptoms, highlighting the benefits of exercise, emphasizing the importance of sleep, addressing mental health challenges and cognitive changes, fostering a hopeful and resilient mindset, potentially slowing disease progression, treating comorbidities, and promoting overall wellness. Although there have been tremendous advances in the basic science and clinical management of PD in recent years, PD remains incurable. Thus, we describe several roadblocks that have hindered progress in understanding PD. Only by integrating historical insights with the latest PD advances can we acquire the knowledge needed to change the disease’s trajectory. Finally, this review aims to provide a meaningful summary for healthcare professionals (and students) caring for patients with PD. Full article

Responsive neurostimulation (RNS) is a neuromodulation option for treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy (DRE). There is limited data reviewing bilateral thalamic and corticothalamic RNS therapy response. We performed a retrospective analysis of 21 patients undergoing RNS implantation with either bilateral thalamic (n = 17) or corticothalamic (n = 4) leads and ≥6 months of follow-up. Patients were classified as responders (≥50% seizure frequency reduction) vs. non-responders (<50% seizure frequency reduction). Among the bilateral thalamic cohort, 12/17 (70.6%) patients were responders, and 15/17 (88.2%) patients reported reduction in seizure severity. Pre-RNS seizure frequency was higher in bilateral thalamic nonresponders, although not found to be significant (median 13 vs. 30 seizures per month, p = 0.20). Among the corticothalamic cohort, 3/4 (75.0%) patients were responders, and all patients demonstrated improvement in seizure severity. These findings suggest that although bilateral thalamic targets were selected at our center more often, both bilateral thalamic and corticothalamic RNS approaches provided seizure frequency reduction. The majority of patients, including non-responders, reported seizure severity alleviation. Full article

Background: Neurocognitive testing in neuro-oncological patients often relies on time-intensive batteries with limited feasibility in this patient cohort. We evaluated the feasibility of the Bonn Leistungs Tracking Test (BLTT), a time-efficient screening tool assessing episodic memory, semantic memory, and executive functions in patients with high-grade temporal lobe gliomas. Methods: Twenty patients undergoing resection of temporal high-grade glioma between 2019 and 2022 underwent preoperative cognitive assessment using either the BLTT or a comprehensive neuropsychological battery routinely applied in temporal lobe epilepsy surgery. Results: Twelve patients (60%) underwent the BLTT, and eight (40%) underwent the standard neuropsychological test battery. The BLTT was feasible in all 12 individuals (0% drop-out), whereas only four of eight patients (50% drop-out) were able to complete the standard battery. The mean BLTT total score was 69.3 (SD 4.5), indicating impaired neurocognitive performance relative to normative data. The BLTT provided evaluable domain-specific measures across episodic memory, semantic memory, and executive functioning despite the high discontinuation rate observed with standard testing. Conclusions: The BLTT showed high feasibility for preoperative neurocognitive testing in patients with temporal high-grade gliomas. Its brief administration time and consistent applicability across relevant cognitive domains support its utility for routine neurocognitive assessment. Full article

Menopause represents a major neuroendocrine transition characterized by substantial hormonal, metabolic, vascular, and inflammatory changes that may increase vulnerability to cognitive decline and neurodegenerative disease. Declining estrogen levels during the menopausal transition influence multiple neural processes, including synaptic plasticity, cerebral glucose metabolism, mitochondrial function, neuroinflammatory signaling, and cerebrovascular regulation. Women account for nearly two-thirds of individuals diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease, and mounting evidence suggests that menopause may represent a period of heightened neurological vulnerability. Physical exercise has emerged as one of the most promising non-pharmacological strategies for preserving cognitive health and reducing neurodegeneration risk in aging women. Current evidence demonstrates that exercise interventions after menopause are associated with improvements in executive function, memory performance, attention, and global cognition. These benefits appear to result from converging biological mechanisms that include enhanced neurotrophic signaling, increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression, improved cerebrovascular function, reduced systemic inflammation, improved insulin sensitivity, enhanced metabolic regulation, and preservation of structural brain integrity. Neuroimaging studies further demonstrate exercise-associated increases in hippocampal volume, cortical thickness, functional connectivity, and cerebral blood flow. Different exercise modalities appear to produce distinct but complementary neurological benefits. Aerobic exercise is strongly associated with improved cerebrovascular function and hippocampal integrity, resistance training demonstrates favorable effects on executive function and white matter preservation, and multimodal interventions combining aerobic, resistance, balance, and cognitively engaging activities appear to produce the broadest cognitive benefits. Emerging evidence further suggests that the timing of exercise initiation relative to menopause may influence outcomes, with earlier interventions potentially conferring greater neuroprotection. This review synthesizes current evidence regarding the effects of exercise on cognitive function in postmenopausal women, with emphasis on biological mechanisms, neuroimaging findings, exercise modality, timing considerations, and implications for neurodegeneration prevention. Understanding these relationships provides a scientific rationale for positioning exercise as a foundational strategy for preserving cognitive health and reducing neurodegenerative disease burden in postmenopausal women. Full article

Perfusion impairment is one of the major barriers to using machine perfusion to prepare brain tissue for research and clinical applications. As ischemia progresses, multiple mechanisms, including intravascular obstructions, perivascular cellular edema, mural cell contraction, and vessel wall breakdown, progressively limit the uniform delivery of preservative solutions. This problem is particularly important for connectomics, wherein successful preservation requires both widespread distribution of preservative chemicals and the maintenance of the cellular ultrastructure needed for circuit reconstruction. We conducted a narrative review of interventions used to ameliorate perfusion impairment across multiple fields, including organ transplantation, resuscitation medicine, forensic pathology, embalming, and neuroscience. We evaluated the evidence for these approaches in their original contexts and considered their potential application for brain banking aimed at preserving tissue for connectome reconstruction. We classify interventions into several categories, including anticoagulants, fibrinolytics, vasodilators, washout solutions, surfactants, osmotic agents, colloids, hypothermia, and perfusion pressure optimization. Many of these interventions have the potential to improve perfusion, but each also carries tradeoffs that may adversely affect tissue preservation. As connectomics advances toward profiling larger volumes of human brain tissue, overcoming perfusion impairment is likely to become an increasingly important challenge. This review provides a mechanistic framework for evaluating existing interventions and guiding the development of future perfusion protocols. Full article

Malpighia mexicana has been traditionally used in Mexican ethnomedicine for the treatment of central nervous systems disorders. Previous studies have demonstrated neuropharmacological activity of crude extracts, but the contribution of enriched phytochemical fractions remains unclear. A phenolic-enriched fraction (G4) obtained from the aerial parts of M. mexicana was evaluated for antidepressant-like and anticonvulsant activities in mice. Antidepressant-like effects were assessed using the forced swimming test (FST) and tail suspension test (TST), while locomotor activity was evaluated in the open field test. Anticonvulsant activity was determined using the pentylentetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizure model. The phytochemical profile of G4 was characterized by HPLC-DAD analysis. G4 (50 and 200 mg/kg, p.o.) significantly reduced immobility time in both FST and TST compared to the vehicle group (p < 0.05) without affecting locomotor activity in the OFT, suggesting a specific antidepressant-like effect. In the PTZ model, G4 significantly increased latency to clonic and tonic seizures and reduced seizure severity. HPLC-DAD analysis revealed the presence of phenolic compounds, with kaempferol and p-coumaric acid as major constituents. The phenolic-enriched G4 fraction from M. mexicana exhibits antidepressant-like and anticonvulsant effects in murine models, supporting its traditional use. These findings suggest that phenolic constituents, particularly kaempferol and p-coumaric acid, may contribute to the observed neuropharmacological activity. However, since only the G4 fraction was pharmacologically evaluated and not the isolated compounds, the specific role of each constituent remains to be established. Further studies are required to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of action and the contribution of individual compounds and potential synergistic interactions. Full article

Background: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory, autoimmune, and neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system. Our study aimed to examine the relationship between serum iron levels and the following clinical parameters: depression, anxiety, fatigue, neuropathic pain, and disease activity on magnetic resonance imaging in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). Material and methods: This study was designed as a clinical observational, cross-sectional study. This study was conducted at the Clinic of Neurology of the University Clinical Center Kragujevac, from 2022 to 2024, according to the ethical code of the Declaration of Helsinki. Demographic and clinical data on patients were obtained from the medical history. All MS patients were diagnosed according to the McDonald criteria (2017). This study included 65 patients in the experimental group and 11 healthy individuals in the control group, with an average age of 39.68 years. Serum iron levels were biochemically analyzed from venous blood. The following standardized tests were used to collect data on depression, anxiety, fatigue, and neuropathic pain: Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A), Modified Fatigue Impact Scale (MFIS), PainDETECT Questionnaire (PD-Q), and Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Results: Serum iron level significantly correlates with disease activity on magnetic resonance imaging in patients with multiple sclerosis. Serum iron showed a moderate positive correlation with hemoglobin, hematocrit, total and direct bilirubin, and a weak positive correlation with uric acid, while a moderate negative correlation was observed with erythrocyte sedimentation rate. No statistically significant difference was found between serum iron levels and depression, anxiety, fatigue, and severity of neuropathic pain. The ROC curves show the diagnostic potential of the combined parameters in differentiating RRMS from controls, as well as the potential of iron in differentiating active from inactive MS. The presence of disease, hemoglobin and total bilirubin were recorded as significant independent predictors. Conclusion: This study is a descriptive attempt to present the potential role of iron in the radiological activity of the disease. High serum iron level may be associated with radiological disease activity in patients with multiple sclerosis. Full article

Background: Current treatments for myasthenia gravis (MG), while improving outcomes, are often associated with adverse effects, and a proportion of patients remain refractory to standard therapies. Eculizumab, a humanized monoclonal antibody targeting complement protein C5, is approved for refractory anti-acetylcholine receptor antibody-positive generalized MG (AChR-Ab+ gMG). Aim of the present study is to explore the rapidity of onset of eculizumab efficacy in a single-center cohort of MG patients. Methods: This retrospective, observational, single-center study evaluated the real-world effectiveness and rapidity of response to eculizumab in patients with AChR-Ab+ gMG. Patients received eculizumab according to the approved regimen and were assessed at baseline (T0), 5 weeks (T1), and 3 months (T2) using the Myasthenia Gravis Activities of Daily Living (MG-ADL) score, Quantitative Myasthenia Gravis (QMG) score, and Myasthenia Gravis Foundation of America (MGFA) classification. Results: Eight patients were eligible for the study with a mean age of 73.1 years. A rapid clinical improvement was observed after treatment initiation. Mean MG-ADL scores decreased from 8.38 at T0 to 2.13 at T1 (p < 0.001; Cohen’s d = 2.075), while QMG scores declined from 13.75 to 5.63 (p = 0.001; Cohen’s d = 1.824). Improvements were maintained at T2. Mean percentage reductions from T0 to T1 were 73.5% for MG-ADL and 60.6% for QMG. Eculizumab was well tolerated. Conclusions: These real-world findings confirm a rapid and clinically meaningful response to eculizumab in elderly patients with refractory gMG. These findings highlight its potential role in achieving early symptom control and reducing disease burden in this clinically vulnerable population. Full article

Background: Cell and mouse models studies demonstrate NLRP3 inflammasome involvement in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) neuroinflammation. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) are a promising, yet understudied, source of in vivo inflammasome activation biomarkers. Our study reviewed the literature on PBMC-based inflammasome studies of ALS and other neurodegenerative diseases and tested different conditions for PBMC handling to evaluate inflammasome and inflammation-related protein expression in these cells. Methods: Expression of NLRP3 inflammasome components and inflammation-related proteins was analyzed by Real-time qPCR and Western blot in non-cultivated/cultivated PBMCs of 23 ALS patients and 20 Healthy controls. IL-1β and IL-18 levels were measured in plasma and cultivated PBMC supernatants by ELISA. Results: Cultivation of PBMCs decreased expression of inflammasome components and inflammation-related cytokines on the mRNA but not protein level. NLRP3 mRNA expression was significantly higher in ALS-cultivated PBMCs. In both ALS and Healthy controls, IL-18 was detected in plasma, and IL-1β in supernatants of cultivated PBMCs. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that PBMC handling conditions, i.e., cell cultivation, may determine particular parameters associated with NLRP3 inflammasome expression and activation pathway, so they should be carefully selected for PBMC-based studies of inflammasome in neurodegenerative and non-neurological disorders and taken into account when interpreting the study results. Full article

Background: Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a common but frequently undiagnosed cause of ischemic stroke, particularly among patients with cryptogenic stroke and embolic stroke of undetermined source (ESUS). Implantable cardiac monitors (ICMs) enable prolonged continuous rhythm monitoring and may improve AF detection following ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA). This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the diagnostic yield, clinical impact, and safety of prolonged ICM monitoring in patients with ischemic stroke or TIA. Methods: This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines and registered with PROSPERO (CRD42024573913). PubMed, Google Scholar, and the Cochrane Library were systematically searched. Randomized controlled trials and observational studies evaluating the use of ICMs after ischemic stroke or TIA were included. Randomized evidence was synthesized narratively, whereas single-arm random-effects meta-analyses of observational studies were performed to estimate pooled proportions for AF detection, oral anticoagulation initiation, recurrent ischemic stroke or TIA, and device-related adverse events. Results: Twelve completed studies involving 4563 participants met the inclusion criteria, including two randomized controlled trials and ten observational studies. One additional ongoing randomized controlled trial (Find-AF 2) involving a planned enrollment of 5200 participants was identified and is described narratively. Across the observational studies, the pooled AF detection rate during prolonged ICM monitoring was 25.9% (95% CI, 18.9–33.5%), although substantial heterogeneity was observed (I² = 95%). Oral anticoagulation was initiated in 94.2% (95% CI, 79.4–100.0%) of patients diagnosed with AF. Device-related complications were uncommon, with a pooled incidence of 3.7% (95% CI, 2.0–6.0%; I² = 0%), while the pooled rate of recurrent ischemic stroke or TIA during follow-up was 6.2% (95% CI, 3.9–9.2%). Narrative synthesis of the randomized evidence demonstrated that ICMs significantly increased AF detection compared with conventional monitoring but did not demonstrate a significant reduction in recurrent stroke during the available follow-up period. Conclusions: Prolonged implantable cardiac monitoring identifies AF in approximately one-quarter of patients following ischemic stroke or TIA and frequently leads to the initiation of oral anticoagulation, with a favorable safety profile. Although ICMs substantially improve AF detection, current evidence remains insufficient to confirm that increased detection translates into a reduction in recurrent stroke. Large, adequately powered randomized controlled trials are needed to determine the long-term clinical benefits of ICM-guided management and to define the optimal monitoring strategy for patients following ischemic stroke. Full article

Mitofusin-2 (MFN2) variants are a well-established cause of Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease type 2A, although central nervous system involvement has increasingly been recognized in a subset of affected patients. We report a 51-year-old woman carrying a likely pathogenic MFN2 variant (c.2119C>T, p.Arg707Trp) who developed rapidly progressive spastic paraplegia and became wheelchair-dependent within several months. Neurological examination demonstrated severe pyramidal tract signs with preserved sensory function. Nerve conduction studies were suggestive of distal motor axonal involvement, while transcranial magnetic stimulation and somatosensory evoked potentials indicated corticospinal and central sensory pathway dysfunction in the lower extremities. Brain magnetic resonance imaging revealed extensive bilateral confluent periventricular and deep white matter hyperintensities. Comprehensive investigations excluded inflammatory, vascular, metabolic, infectious, neoplastic, and common genetic causes of hereditary spastic paraplegia. Targeted next-generation sequencing identified a heterozygous likely pathogenic MFN2 p.Arg707Trp variant. Although central nervous system manifestations have previously been described in MFN2-related disease, this phenotype is unusual because of the combination of late-onset rapidly progressive spastic paraplegia, and extensive cerebral white matter abnormalities associated with the p.Arg707Trp variant. This case further expands the recognized phenotypic spectrum of MFN2-related disease and highlights that MFN2 variants should be considered in the differential diagnosis of selected patients with late-onset progressive spastic paraplegia accompanied by cerebral white matter abnormalities and distal motor axonal neuropathy. Full article

Rodent models, especially chronic stress paradigms, are essential in depression research, yet existing behavioral assessments often struggle to capture pathophysiological heterogeneity. We developed the Multimodal Behavior Scoring (MBS) algorithm, which integrates results from standard behavioral tests (sucrose preference, open field, and forced swim tests) into a single severity metric. Validated in two distinct chronic stress models (CUMS and CSDS), MBS reliably distinguished stressed from control mice and demonstrated high cross-cohort reproducibility. Furthermore, MBS successfully stratified stress-resilient subpopulations and revealed model-specific phenotypic patterns. By providing an integrative, biologically grounded framework, MBS enhances the resolution of chronic stress-induced behavioral phenotyping and may support future biomarker discovery and pharmacological validation studies. Full article

(1) Background: The effects of posterior parietal cortex (PPC)-targeted transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on postural stability and cortical activity remain unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate and compare changes in cortical activity and postural stability before and following tDCS conditions. (2) Methods: Eight right-handed adults completed a baseline assessment followed by three stimulation sessions: left-anodal/right-cathodal (L-A/R-C), left-cathodal/right-anodal (L-C/R-A), and sham on the PPC. The sessions were administered in a randomized Latin square design with a minimum 4-day washout period between each. At baseline and following each tDCS session, cortical activity was measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy, and postural stability during a tandem stance was assessed utilizing the Balance Error Scoring System (BESS) and a force platform. (3) Results: Compared with the baseline measurements, significant deactivation in the right middle temporal gyrus (MTG) was observed following L-C/R-A stimulation. Furthermore, postural stability measures revealed significantly higher BESS error scores and greater sway length following L-C/R-A stimulation compared to both the baseline and L-A/R-C conditions. (4) Conclusions: Bilateral tDCS over the PPC differentially influences cortical activity and postural control depending on the stimulation polarity. Specifically, L-C/R-A stimulation was associated with impaired visual–vestibular integration and postural stability. These preliminary findings highlight the critical role of interhemispheric parietal balance in posture regulation and suggest that polarity-specific tDCS protocols may be important considerations for the future. Full article

Brain injury after hypoxia–ischemia (HI) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in term and near-term neonates worldwide. The ferret is a promising translational model to study HI due to its gyrified brain and white-to-gray matter ratio that more closely resembles humans compared to rodents. Caffeine, an adenosine A2A receptor (A2AR) antagonist, shows neuroprotective potential after HI, but its effects have not been fully characterized. We sought to evaluate caffeine’s effect on neuronal cell death, cytotoxicity, and inflammatory and oxidative stress markers in a term-equivalent ferret organotypic brain slice model of HI. Slices were cultured for 72 h, exposed to two hours of oxygen–glucose deprivation (OGD), and randomized to OGD alone, OGD with caffeine (20 or 50 mg/L), or OGD with caffeine and an A2AR agonist. Healthy slices served as controls. Outcomes included global cell death, regional cell death, microglial morphology, and expression of inflammatory and oxidative stress genes (46–48 slices/group for cell death assays and 18 slices/group for imaging, balanced by sex). Caffeine 50 mg/L significantly reduced global cell death compared to OGD (p = 0.02), and this effect persisted despite co-administration of an A2AR agonist (p = 0.01), suggesting that protection was not primarily mediated through A2AR signaling. Caffeine also did not change regional pyknotic nuclei counts (p > 0.05). Caffeine altered microglial morphology, increasing the proportion of microglia with features characteristic of control conditions. OGD significantly increased expression of inflammatory and oxidative stress-related genes (p < 0.05) compared with control slices, whereas caffeine did not significantly alter gene expression. In summary, caffeine partially reversed global cell death after OGD and altered microglial morphology. Larger, higher-powered studies are needed to further investigate caffeine’s effects on neonatal HI. Full article

Traumatic intracranial aneurysms (TICAs) are rare lesions accounting for <1% of intracranial aneurysms and are associated with high morbidity and mortality. They frequently arise after blunt trauma and may develop days to months following the initial injury, often evading early vascular imaging. Pseudoaneurysms predominate and carry a high risk of rupture. We report the case of a patient who sustained a severe head injury with a comminuted open depressed temporoparietal skull fracture, epidural hematoma, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and mandibular fracture after a road traffic accident. Initial vascular imaging revealed no aneurysm. At six-month follow-up, CT angiography demonstrated a 7 × 5 mm pseudoaneurysm arising from the rolandic branch of the right M3 middle cerebral artery, within an area of post-traumatic encephalomalacia. The aneurysm was confirmed by MRI/MRA and treated successfully with microsurgical clipping. This case underscores the importance of delayed vascular imaging in trauma patients with skull fractures or parenchymal injury, even when early angiography is normal. TICAs may develop over several months, and timely identification permits definitive management before rupture. Full article

Background: Monoclonal antibodies targeting the calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) pathway represent an effective preventive treatment for chronic migraine, including in patients with multiple prior therapeutic failures. However, a substantial proportion of patients exhibit a suboptimal or delayed response. The role of personality traits in modulating treatment response remains poorly understood. Methods: In this prospective observational study, adults with chronic migraine received anti-CGRP monoclonal antibodies and were followed for 12 months. Monthly headache days (MHDs), monthly acute medication use (MAM), and disability scores (MIDAS and HIT-6) were recorded at baseline and at 3, 6, and 12 months. Responders were defined as patients achieving a ≥50% reduction in monthly headache days (MHDs) compared with baseline. Changes in disability measures were evaluated as secondary clinical outcomes. Personality traits were assessed using the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-III. Results: Thirty-eight patients were included, of whom 71% had medication overuse headaches. Responder rates increased over time (31.6% at 3 months and 39.5% at 12 months). Histrionic traits (37.5% vs. 6.7%, p = 0.048) and dysthymic features (21.4% vs. 0%, p = 0.046) were significantly more prevalent among non-responders. Conclusions: Histrionic and dysthymic personality features were associated with a lower likelihood of response to anti-CGRP therapy in patients with chronic migraine. Given the exploratory design, limited sample size, and absence of correction for multiple comparisons, these findings should be considered preliminary and hypothesis-generating. Further studies in larger cohorts are needed to confirm these observations. Full article

This study investigated whether neuro-exergaming with an interactive physical and cognitive exercise system (iPACES), might alleviate symptoms in college students with symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (sxADHD). It was hypothesized that challenges with attention and executive function, often experienced by those with sxADHD, would improve after an acute bout of pedal-n-play exercise. College students (n = 33; 18 with sxADHD) participated in a 20 min single bout of exercise, pedaling along a virtual pathway (tour), while steering the tablet. Mental exercise included a working memory (focus) task to steer toward assigned locations along the path. An exploratory experimental condition was also embedded in the basic pre/post design, wherein half of the students were randomly assigned collectibles (coins) in the pathway. Cognition was assessed (e.g., paper and digital Stroop, Trails, Digit Span) before and after the acute bout of exercise. Paired t-tests revealed significant improvements in executive function on both paper and electronic Stroop tasks for those with sxADHD, while significant change was also seen on Trails and Digit Span for normative students. Surprisingly, those with sxADHD, assigned to the experimental “multi-tasking” collectible (coin) challenge, performed significantly better on tests of executive functioning than normative peers, who improved more without coins. It is hypothesized that the collectible challenge provided additional mental stimulation or reward needed to increase attentional focus for those with sxADHD, leading to improved performance, post-exercise. While the findings of this study are preliminary, additional research can further explore possible designs for combined, interactive mental and physical exercise challenges, as well as further possible synergistic or differential neural activation, in order to maximize outcomes from the same amount of time exercising. Additionally, future research could examine longer-term use of neuro-exergaming, through a clinical trial, as an alternative to, or in conjunction with, medication for sxADHD treatment and symptom relief. Full article

Noise exposure has become an increasingly prevalent public health concern, with effects extending beyond the auditory system. Accumulating evidence indicates that chronic noise exposure induces both structural and functional alterations in the central nervous system, ultimately affecting cognitive and emotional processes. This review summarizes the impact of noise on key brain regions, including the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and auditory cortex. Structurally, noise exposure is associated with reduced neurogenesis, dendritic remodeling, synaptic loss, alterations in white matter and changes in glial activity. Functionally, it disrupts synaptic plasticity mechanisms—such as long-term potentiation and long-term depression—as well as neuronal connectivity, leading to impairments in higher-order cognitive and behavioral functions. These effects are mediated by interconnected mechanisms, including activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and alterations in neurotrophic signaling. Full article