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Religions, Volume 16, Issue 6 (June 2025) – 146 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Two Los Angeles-based, Latine case studies highlight the Bible’s role as a homing device, through and around which individuals seek and interpret ideas of “home.” Their specific interpretations and relationships to the Bible, however, diverge significantly. View this paper
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21 pages, 1559 KiB  
Article
Human Will in Digital Discourses About Shamanism
by Mei Yang and Xianhui Li
Religions 2025, 16(6), 804; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060804 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 411
Abstract
This study investigates how human will is articulated, negotiated, and reimagined within the discourses about Shamanism of Northeast China, with a particular focus on user-generated content from the Douyin platform (Chinese TikTok). Drawing on the data collected from comments between 2020 and 2024, [...] Read more.
This study investigates how human will is articulated, negotiated, and reimagined within the discourses about Shamanism of Northeast China, with a particular focus on user-generated content from the Douyin platform (Chinese TikTok). Drawing on the data collected from comments between 2020 and 2024, this research employs a triangulated methodology integrating Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topic modeling, the Discourse–Historical Approach (DHA), and virtual ethnography. In traditional Shamanic belief systems, human will is conceptualized not as purely autonomous, but as inherently relational—interwoven with ecological responsibilities, ancestral spirits, and cosmological forces. While previous studies have explored Shamanism’s cultural and performative dimensions, they have largely overlooked the ethical and philosophical constructs of human agency embedded within Shamanic practices, especially in their digital adaptations. This study reveals that contemporary digital discourse simultaneously preserves, transforms, and commodifies Shamanic concepts of human will. Users express reverence, nostalgia, critique, and playful reinterpretations, demonstrating that digital platforms serve both as spaces for cultural continuity and dynamic meaning-making. By analyzing online discursive practices, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of how indigenous spiritual frameworks negotiate modern visibility, identity, and ethical agency in the digital era. Full article
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5 pages, 145 KiB  
Editorial
Medieval Theology and Philosophy: A Cross-Cultural Tapestry
by Ishraq Ali and Chen Yuehua
Religions 2025, 16(6), 803; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060803 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 182
Abstract
Over the last few decades, medieval theology and philosophy has undergone a profound transformation [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medieval Theology and Philosophy from a Cross-Cultural Perspective)
10 pages, 451 KiB  
Article
Emperor Julian, Paul of Tarsus, and the Octopus
by Alessandro Capone
Religions 2025, 16(6), 802; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060802 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 410
Abstract
The so-called “octopus norm” was originally described by Pindar and Theognis. It represented the way in which a poet could adapt to contingent circumstances without abdicating his own sensibility, grasping what might be appropriate to say or not to say in relation to [...] Read more.
The so-called “octopus norm” was originally described by Pindar and Theognis. It represented the way in which a poet could adapt to contingent circumstances without abdicating his own sensibility, grasping what might be appropriate to say or not to say in relation to a specific audience or context. This contribution considers two occurrences of this so-called norm in the works of the Emperor Julian, revealing a polemical use of the image of the octopus. This study primarily attempts to contextualize the two Julian passages, highlighting their sources, and to clarify the polemical value of his use of the “octopus norm”, which is very different from the virtuous manner suggested by the archaic poets. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Interaction of Early Christianity with Classical Literature)
19 pages, 463 KiB  
Article
The Nameless Dao in Concealment: Historical Transformations of the Quanzhen Seven Masters’ Image from Antiquity to Modernity
by Xiaoting Wang and Yixuan Li
Religions 2025, 16(6), 801; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060801 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 286
Abstract
The Seven Masters of the Quanzhen 全真七子 sect served as central figures during the founding phase of Quanzhen Daoism and played key roles in the sect’s early development. Originally positioned as the “Northern Seven Perfected Ones” (Bei Qi Zhen 北七真), they were [...] Read more.
The Seven Masters of the Quanzhen 全真七子 sect served as central figures during the founding phase of Quanzhen Daoism and played key roles in the sect’s early development. Originally positioned as the “Northern Seven Perfected Ones” (Bei Qi Zhen 北七真), they were instrumental in propelling the prosperity and expansion of Quanzhen Daoism. Over time, their images subsequently proliferated across various media—including portrayals in stone inscription, painting, biography, and novel, undergoing transformations through inscriptions, paintings, biographies, and novels—transforming transmission channels from Daoist temples to stage performances and from street corners to modern screens. In the Jin and Yuan 金元 periods, Daoist biographies and inscriptions portrayed the Seven Masters as exemplary figures of Daoist practice. In folk novels and precious scrolls (Baojuan 宝卷) in the Ming 明 and Qing 清 dynasties, they were presented as legendary, divine immortals and distant ancestors available for narrative appropriation. In modern times—particularly due to the popularity of Jin Yong 金庸’s martial art novels—they completed their universalization as Daoist cultural resources blending chivalric ethos and entertainment value. Examining the evolution of the Seven Masters’ imagery, two fundamental implications emerge: First, this transformation was jointly shaped by the power structures, functional needs, and media forms of each era. Second, beneath the fluid representations from sacred patriarchs of the Jin–Yuan period to modern entertainment symbols, there is an enduring thread of Daoist transcendental consciousness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity and Harmony of Taoism: Ideas, Behaviors and Influences)
17 pages, 1109 KiB  
Article
A Traditional Journey in Contemporary Times: The Pilgrimage of Mehmet Barut
by İbrahim Özen
Religions 2025, 16(6), 800; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060800 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 463
Abstract
In Turkish literature, hajj travelogues have been written since the 13th century, conveying Muslims’ experiences during the pilgrimage and explaining how to perform hajj. With the development and widespread use of the modern means of transportation in Türkiye from the 1940s onward, the [...] Read more.
In Turkish literature, hajj travelogues have been written since the 13th century, conveying Muslims’ experiences during the pilgrimage and explaining how to perform hajj. With the development and widespread use of the modern means of transportation in Türkiye from the 1940s onward, the pilgrims increasingly started to travel by air to avoid the hardships and duration of long journeys. However, this shift led to a decrease in visits to historical places along the traditional pilgrimage route from Türkiye to Mecca and Medina, consequently changing the content and nature of Hajj narratives. In spite of these changes, Mehmet Barut, a mufti (cleric), offered a unique response through his travelogue Hicaz Yolları [Hijaz Roads], which can be seen as a reaction to the rise in modern means of transportation. In 1965, Barut began his hajj journey from Tokat, within the border of the Republic of Türkiye, and travelled to Mecca and Medina by bus. Along the way, he visited Ankara, Konya, Tarsus, Iskenderun, Reyhanlı, Aleppo, Damascus, Jerusalem, Halilurrahman, Amman, Tabuk, Khaybar, and Medina before finally reaching Mecca. Barut’s travelogue is a contemporary non-fiction work, yet it was written in classical Turkish. In choosing to follow the historical pilgrimage route—established during the Ottoman period and beginning in Anatolia—Barut sought to revive and preserve the spiritual and cultural destinations and hajj journeys. His travelogue not only demonstrates his own travel experiences, but also reflects examples from the travelogue menazil-i hajj, offering insights into the historical significance of the cities and stopovers along the route. This study examines Hicaz Yolları from two key perspectives. First, it compares Barut’s chosen route with the historical Ottoman hajj route, highlighting key service areas and stopovers. Second, it explores the literary value of Barut’s work and its significance in contemporary Turkish literature. Ultimately, this study reveals that Barut’s travelogue not only kept the memory of traditional hajj pilgrimages alive, but also revived a fading tradition in an era dominated by modern means of transportation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pilgrimage: Diversity, Past and Present of Sacred Routes)
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14 pages, 220 KiB  
Article
Ignatian Obedience and Evangelization: Jesuit General Congregations and Hans Urs von Balthasar
by Endika Martínez
Religions 2025, 16(6), 799; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060799 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 193
Abstract
This article explores the relationship between Ignatian obedience and evangelization through the complementary perspectives of Hans Urs von Balthasar and recent Jesuit General Congregations. It argues that obedience, traditionally viewed as submission to authority, must be reinterpreted as a joyful and loving response [...] Read more.
This article explores the relationship between Ignatian obedience and evangelization through the complementary perspectives of Hans Urs von Balthasar and recent Jesuit General Congregations. It argues that obedience, traditionally viewed as submission to authority, must be reinterpreted as a joyful and loving response to God’s mission, deeply rooted in the trinitarian life. Drawing from Ignatius of Loyola’s foundational texts and the evolving understanding of mission post-Vatican II, this essay highlights a shift from private, intellectual obedience to a more communal and justice-oriented service. The theological depth provided by von Balthasar’s trinitarian model is presented alongside the practical emphasis on social justice and dialogue found in contemporary Jesuit praxis and Pope Francis’ integral ecology. This paper ultimately proposes a synthesis of contemplative fidelity and active engagement, positioning obedience as a vital force in credible, mission-driven evangelization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spirituality in Action: Perspectives on New Evangelization)
19 pages, 428 KiB  
Article
Non-Elite Chinese Catholic Converts’ Formation of Pragmatic Identity in the Course of Religious Interactions: A New Analysis of a 17th Century Manuscript Bingyin huike 丙寅會課 (Teaching Sessions in 1686)
by Zhenxu Fan
Religions 2025, 16(6), 798; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060798 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 264
Abstract
Through a critical analysis of one section of a 17th century Chinese manuscript, this article examines the formation of pragmatic identity of non-elite Roman Catholic Chinese converts, who simultaneously identified themselves as Confucians and Catholics within the culture of “Three Teachings synthesized into [...] Read more.
Through a critical analysis of one section of a 17th century Chinese manuscript, this article examines the formation of pragmatic identity of non-elite Roman Catholic Chinese converts, who simultaneously identified themselves as Confucians and Catholics within the culture of “Three Teachings synthesized into one system” (sanjiao heyi 三教合一) in traditional Chinese society. This investigation explores how these converts formed their pragmatic identity during their adaptation of Catholic beliefs and practices into a complex and dynamic context of interreligious interactions. The texts under examination are two essays in the Bian chizhai (辨持齋, Debating on Fasting) section in the Bingyin huike (丙寅會課, Teaching Sessions in 1686), composed in a Chinese Catholic seminarian community established and administered by Jesuit missionaries in Nanjing (南京). This interdisciplinary study not only provides a critical examination of the manuscript, which has not yet been extensively researched, but also offers a novel understanding of non-elite converts’ identity formation through the lens of pragmatic identity theory, drawing inspiration from American Pragmatism. It contributes to our contemporary understanding of non-elite Chinese Christian converts’ quest for identity amidst intercultural interactions between mainstream and marginal religions in 17th century Qing China. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Christianity: From Society to Culture)
38 pages, 332 KiB  
Article
Refugium peccatorum: The Virgin Mary’s Saving Protection in Medieval Liturgical Hymns
by José María Salvador-González
Religions 2025, 16(6), 797; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060797 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 328
Abstract
The current article does not directly study the liturgical ritual as a set of gestures and forms of ceremonial behavior. Instead, it focuses on shedding light on the doctrinal content of many Mariological liturgical hymns, precisely the conceptual basis that gives meaning to [...] Read more.
The current article does not directly study the liturgical ritual as a set of gestures and forms of ceremonial behavior. Instead, it focuses on shedding light on the doctrinal content of many Mariological liturgical hymns, precisely the conceptual basis that gives meaning to the corresponding Marian liturgical rituals. Based strictly on the study of primary sources of Christian doctrine, this article aims to highlight the belief in the help, protection, and mediation of the Virgin Mary on behalf of human beings as reflected in countless medieval Latin liturgical hymns. The article is divided into two central parts: in the first, the author presents, in the original Latin and its English translation, an extensive series of fragments of liturgical hymns that develop the Mariological belief; in the second, he summarizes the primary doctrinal meanings and emotional attitudes that hymnographers reflect when poetically reconfiguring this belief in their hymns. Following the conclusion, the article catalogs the abundant sequence of Christian primary sources used in this research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Studies on Medieval Liturgy and Ritual)
15 pages, 215 KiB  
Article
Artificial Intelligence and the Islamic Theology of Technology: From “Means” to “Meanings” and from “Minds” to “Hearts”
by Mohammed Gamal Abdelnour
Religions 2025, 16(6), 796; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060796 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 1081
Abstract
Muslim responses to Artificial Intellgence (AI) have so far focused mainly on how it challenges the human “mind”. This paper moves from the “mind” to the “heart”, which, in Islam, is not only a vessel of emotion but a cognitive, moral and spiritual [...] Read more.
Muslim responses to Artificial Intellgence (AI) have so far focused mainly on how it challenges the human “mind”. This paper moves from the “mind” to the “heart”, which, in Islam, is not only a vessel of emotion but a cognitive, moral and spiritual centre. Charting a path between cynicism and optimism, the article proposes a third track: critical, hopeful, and ethically grounded. Utilizing indigenous Islamic concepts (e.g., ijtihād “independent reasoning”, maṣlaḥah mursalah “unrestricted public interest”, and sadd al-dharā’iʿ “blocking the means to harm”), it advocates a bottom-up approach that focuses not just on managing AI, but on shaping “who” we are in the AI age, calling for a moral vision rooted in intentionality (niyyah), moral clarity, and individual-cum-collective responsibility. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and/of the Future)
12 pages, 196 KiB  
Article
Religious Longing and Modern Life: Wittgenstein’s Uneasy Ambivalence
by Richard Eldridge
Religions 2025, 16(6), 795; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060795 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 155
Abstract
Wittgenstein had significant religious impulses, from his early Notebooks to his late entries in Culture and Value. Christian religious texts seemed to him to articulate significant human experiences that were worthy of respect. Yet he found himself consistently unable to commit himself [...] Read more.
Wittgenstein had significant religious impulses, from his early Notebooks to his late entries in Culture and Value. Christian religious texts seemed to him to articulate significant human experiences that were worthy of respect. Yet he found himself consistently unable to commit himself to any organized institutional religious life. This essay investigates the reasons (as opposed to psychological peculiarities with causal force) that might lie behind Wittgenstein’s stance. Friedrich Schiller describes modern, socially induced unsatisfiable longings for meaningful life. Northrop Frye describes the rhetorical form of the Christian Bible as having an indispensable role in orienting us toward reconciled life, but in the end more imaginatively than in effective worldly practice. Against this background, Wittgenstein’s combination of passionate attraction to Christianity with an inability to accept it emerges as an exemplary expression of a widely shared modern human condition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Work on Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Religion)
21 pages, 288 KiB  
Article
Future Congregational Leaders: How Do They Perceive Their Opportunities in This Field?
by Emőke Török and Emese Biró
Religions 2025, 16(6), 794; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060794 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 248
Abstract
The expectations, plans and goals of future pastors are developed and consolidated during theological studies. These plans and expectations, and the career strategies based on them can have a decisive influence on how gender-based differences with respect to opportunities in the churches develop. [...] Read more.
The expectations, plans and goals of future pastors are developed and consolidated during theological studies. These plans and expectations, and the career strategies based on them can have a decisive influence on how gender-based differences with respect to opportunities in the churches develop. Since one of the particularities of the pastoral vocation is that work and private life are closely intertwined and difficult to separate, the personal choices of prospective pastors are crucial in shaping their professional careers. The results of our research based on focus group interviews conducted with female and male Protestant seminarians in Hungary suggest that female theology students are more reserved and cautious in their articulation of plans than their male counterparts. On the one hand, they assume that factors outside and above them may override them and that the conservative church environment may constrain their options. On the other hand, it was repeatedly expressed that, as women, they find it difficult to reconcile pastoral work and family life, and take it for granted that they will compromise more in the professional field. Only a few of the female participants plan to work as independent congregational leaders (senior pastors), whereas this ambition is very typical of male students. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Trends in Congregational Engagement and Leadership)
21 pages, 280 KiB  
Article
‘Unhappy Lovers’? Difficulties of Spiritual Transition and the Case of Environmentalist ‘New Animism’
by Ondřej Beran and Olli Lagerspetz
Religions 2025, 16(6), 793; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060793 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 283
Abstract
In this paper, we reflect on difficulties connected with transitioning from one spiritual tradition to another. We consider Western New Animism, sometimes proposed as a remedy to the exploitative and anthropocentric values typical of Western Modernity. New Animism hopes to provide a framework [...] Read more.
In this paper, we reflect on difficulties connected with transitioning from one spiritual tradition to another. We consider Western New Animism, sometimes proposed as a remedy to the exploitative and anthropocentric values typical of Western Modernity. New Animism hopes to provide a framework for resilient, pro-environmental attitudes and practices. Referring to Wittgenstein’s reflections on religion, magic and culture, as well as the work of Peter Winch, we argue that the possibility of embracing another form of spirituality depends on one’s ability to see a ‘depth’ in it. However, a conversion always has an element of the unpredictable, as we never know in advance what awaits us on the other side. This creates problems for purely pragmatically oriented suggestions to adopt an animist worldview. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Work on Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Religion)
20 pages, 1888 KiB  
Article
Seeing, Believing, and (Mis)Understanding: A Case Study on Sino-Portuguese Ivory Sculpture of the Virgin and Child in Late Ming
by Mo Guo
Religions 2025, 16(6), 792; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060792 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 383
Abstract
In the name of God and profit, Jorge Álvares, the first Portuguese to set foot in China, arrived in 1513 and opened a new chapter for missionary work. One of the most significant forms of “Sino-Portuguese” decorative art, ivory sculpture, is closely linked [...] Read more.
In the name of God and profit, Jorge Álvares, the first Portuguese to set foot in China, arrived in 1513 and opened a new chapter for missionary work. One of the most significant forms of “Sino-Portuguese” decorative art, ivory sculpture, is closely linked to the Portuguese mission in the Orient and serves as a witness to encounters between different cultures and religions. This study focuses on representative Sino-Portuguese ivory sculptures of the Virgin and Child from the Late Ming period through a detailed analysis of iconography and a comparative visual critique with European prototypes and Guanyin representations to discuss the significance of missionary visual imagery in cultural interactions. The ivory sculpture of the Virgin and Child is not merely an image; it is a physical object with both material and visual characteristics, acquiring its religious significance during the missionary process. The present study aims to present its artistic hybridity and demonstrate how the Chinese carvers make the Sino-Portuguese “speak” different visual languages, leading to different interpretations. It also reflects the cultural translation that occurs in the complex process of religious contact. In this space of ‘culture in between’, Christianity has been able to transcend cultural and religious boundaries. Full article
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22 pages, 4099 KiB  
Article
The Abrahamic Stand at Nabī Yaqin: The Conversion Process of Holy Place
by Amichay Schwartz
Religions 2025, 16(6), 791; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060791 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 393
Abstract
The site of Nabi Yaqin preserves an ancient tradition of Abraham’s prayer over Sodom. The landscape that stretches from the ridge of Nabi Yaqin facing east to the Dead Sea and the Jordan River serves as the backdrop for the formation of this [...] Read more.
The site of Nabi Yaqin preserves an ancient tradition of Abraham’s prayer over Sodom. The landscape that stretches from the ridge of Nabi Yaqin facing east to the Dead Sea and the Jordan River serves as the backdrop for the formation of this tradition. In this paper, we will show that the tradition regarding Abraham’s prayer apparently began during the Byzantine period as indicated by the writings of Egeria and St. Jerome. Although the exact location they identify cannot be determined from the sources, it seems that the region of Bani Na’im and Nabi Yaqin should be regarded as one space connected to the story of the destruction of Sodom. During the Middle Ages under Muslim rule Nabi Yaqin area became associated with Abraham’s prayer and a hollow in the ground at that location was marked as the place of his prayer. At a later stage, towards the end of the 17th century, two footprints were added to that socket. During the 18th and 19th centuries, an additional pair of footprints was added, which marked Lot’s prayer outside the compound. In Bani Na’im the neighboring village the burial place of the prophet Lot was identified. In fact, both sites are extensions of the story of the destruction of Sodom, with the former associated with its beginning and the latter with its end. We proposed that the process leading to these identifications was influenced by a site overlooking Lot’s Sea and Lot’s Cave, and the site itself became the burial place of Lot and the prayer site of Abraham. Full article
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20 pages, 476 KiB  
Article
The Recovery of Lu Xiujing’s Daughter: Family Ethics in Daoxue Zhuan 道學傳
by Mianheng Liu
Religions 2025, 16(6), 790; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060790 - 17 Jun 2025
Viewed by 265
Abstract
This paper re-examines the story of Lu Xiujing’s 陆修静 (406–477) abandonment of his ailing daughter, as recorded in Daoxue zhuan 道學傳 (Biographies of the Adepts of the Dao, hereafter DXZ), to challenge prevailing scholarly interpretations of this story that emphasize Daoist familial [...] Read more.
This paper re-examines the story of Lu Xiujing’s 陆修静 (406–477) abandonment of his ailing daughter, as recorded in Daoxue zhuan 道學傳 (Biographies of the Adepts of the Dao, hereafter DXZ), to challenge prevailing scholarly interpretations of this story that emphasize Daoist familial renunciation as a Buddhist-influenced complete rejection of Confucian ethics. Through close analysis of biographies in DXZ, Lu’s own writings, and the compiler Ma Shu’s 馬樞 (522–581) life, the study criticizes the habitual thinking of scholars that overemphasizes the tendency of early medieval Chinese Daoism to leave home, and argues that DXZ takes the protagonists in the biographies as models to convey the ethical concept of striving to reconcile the Daoist concept of leaving home to pursue religion aim with the family harmony advocated by traditional Confucianism, and it offers some feasible ideas for resolving the Confucian–Daoist ethical tensions. Ma Shu’s biographical strategy, reflecting his own Confucian-educated background engaged with Daoist belief, positions Lu as an exemplar of this balance. By contextualizing these accounts within social realities and compiler intentionality, the study advances a revised understanding of early medieval Daoist ethics, that is, an effort to pursue the harmonious coexistence of religious pursuits and family care. Full article
26 pages, 478 KiB  
Article
Physical Disabilities and Impediments to the Priesthood According to Orthodox Canon Law, with a Case Study of the Romanian Orthodox Church
by Răzvan Perșa
Religions 2025, 16(6), 789; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060789 - 17 Jun 2025
Viewed by 568
Abstract
This study examines, within the broader context of historical and cultural influences from Byzantine and Western canonical traditions, the canonical and theological treatment of physical disabilities as impediments to the priesthood within modern Orthodox Canon Law. It shows how traditional Orthodox Canon Law, [...] Read more.
This study examines, within the broader context of historical and cultural influences from Byzantine and Western canonical traditions, the canonical and theological treatment of physical disabilities as impediments to the priesthood within modern Orthodox Canon Law. It shows how traditional Orthodox Canon Law, particularly influenced by medieval Roman Catholic canonical understanding, has historically emphasised physical integrity as a requirement for ordination. The study critically examines historical and contemporary canonical attitudes towards candidates with hearing, speech, or visual impairments or with locomotor disability through the analysis of Apostolic canons, Canons of Ecumenical Councils, and later canonical sources. The methods include a critical canonical and historical analysis of primary sources such as the Canons, patristic writings, and synodal legislation, with particular reference to the initiatives of the Romanian Orthodox Church in the modern cultural and pastoral context. The study observes that, although such impairments continue to be recognised as canonical impediments according to traditional Orthodox law, contemporary ecclesial practice increasingly reflects a pastoral sensitivity that allows, in certain contexts, for the inclusion of persons with disabilities in ordained ministry. This is typically achieved through adaptations that preserve the integrity of liturgical function, such as assistance from co-ministers or specialised training. These developments, while not amounting to a formal canonical revision, signal a broader pastoral and ecclesiological openness toward the integration of persons with disabilities within the life of the Church. Full article
13 pages, 220 KiB  
Article
The Emergence of Black Jews in France
by Aurélien Mokoko Gampiot
Religions 2025, 16(6), 788; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060788 - 17 Jun 2025
Viewed by 200
Abstract
For the past three decades, Black Jews in France have made their presence manifest. These believers identify as African, West Indian, or biracial, and are either converts or native Jews. They may either assert their faith from within the institutions of French Jewry, [...] Read more.
For the past three decades, Black Jews in France have made their presence manifest. These believers identify as African, West Indian, or biracial, and are either converts or native Jews. They may either assert their faith from within the institutions of French Jewry, or claim their Jewishness without practicing Judaism. They have widely different backgrounds, but share a common need for identity reconstruction. This paper aims to discuss this Africana minority within the broader French Jewish community, taking into account its relation to the majority. What is the positioning of Black Jews as French citizens or residents? How do they perceive themselves when reading the Torah and through the gaze of their fellow White Jews? What is their place within the global Jewish world? Such are the questions this paper will try to address, building on fifteen years of fieldwork in France and assessing their involvement in French Jewry and its impact with regard to participation, integration, legitimacy, and conflicts. Full article
18 pages, 4146 KiB  
Article
From Cinema to Sufism: The Artistic and Mystical Life of Turkish Screenwriter Ayşe Şasa (1941–2014)
by Büşra Çakmaktaş
Religions 2025, 16(6), 787; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060787 - 17 Jun 2025
Viewed by 228
Abstract
This article examines the contributions of Turkish screenwriter Ayşe Şasa (1941–2014) to Turkish cinema and visual culture through her engagement with Sufism and metaphysical themes. It explores how Şasa draws on esoteric Sufi concepts such as the oneness of being (waḥdat al-wujūd [...] Read more.
This article examines the contributions of Turkish screenwriter Ayşe Şasa (1941–2014) to Turkish cinema and visual culture through her engagement with Sufism and metaphysical themes. It explores how Şasa draws on esoteric Sufi concepts such as the oneness of being (waḥdat al-wujūd), asceticism (zuhd), and inspiration (ilhām), using cinema as a vehicle for spiritual inquiry and the quest for truth (ḥaqīqa). Her films—including Hear the Reed (Dinle Neyden), The Night That Never Was (Hiçbir Gece), and My Friend the Devil (Arkadaşım Şeytan)—are explored through thematic and interpretive approaches that uncover their Sufi dimensions. The methodological approach combines Gillian Rose’s visual methodology, Klaus Krippendorff’s content analysis, and Arthur Asa Berger’s interpretive model. Rose’s framework facilitates an exploration of symbolic narrative in Şasa’s films and writings, while Krippendorff’s methods identify recurring metaphysical motifs. Berger’s approach uncovers layered meanings in visual and narrative elements. Through narrative structure, symbolic imagery, color, setting, costume, light, and sound, Şasa constructs a spiritually resonant cinematic esthetic that challenges the secular paradigms of modern cinema. Ultimately, this article argues that Şasa develops a distinct cinematic language grounded in Sufi metaphysics, enriching Turkish visual culture with a profound spiritual and moral sensibility. Full article
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28 pages, 3192 KiB  
Article
Religious Literacy in Contemporary South Korea: Challenges and Educational Approaches
by Jahyun Gu and Juhwan Kim
Religions 2025, 16(6), 786; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060786 - 17 Jun 2025
Viewed by 315
Abstract
This study examines critical challenges associated with religious literacy in contemporary South Korea and educational approaches to address them. By analyzing data from the Religious Literacy Survey 2023 (n = 2022), we reveal that these paradoxical attitudes stem from a declining religious literacy, [...] Read more.
This study examines critical challenges associated with religious literacy in contemporary South Korea and educational approaches to address them. By analyzing data from the Religious Literacy Survey 2023 (n = 2022), we reveal that these paradoxical attitudes stem from a declining religious literacy, manifested as limited knowledge of religious traditions and their teachings. Amid the rise in the number of the religiously unaffiliated, our analysis indicates that this trend reflects not a rejection of religion but rather an urgent need for education to enhance religious literacy. Based on this analysis, we examine religious education curricula at Dongguk and Yonsei Universities as exemplars that not only deepen students’ understanding of specific religious traditions but also help them recognize religion’s enduring relevance in addressing contemporary societal challenges. Building on these cases, while recognizing their limitations as religiously affiliated institutions, we emphasize the need for an integrated educational approach to religious literacy—one that extends beyond specific traditions and incorporates religious studies examining various dimensions of religion itself. We further suggest the broader implementation of religious literacy education across higher education institutions. Such educational approaches provide insights into fostering social cohesion and meaningful interreligious engagement in South Korea and beyond. Full article
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27 pages, 570 KiB  
Article
The Sacred Impermanence: Religious Anxiety and “Capital Relocation” (遷都) in Early China
by Di Wang
Religions 2025, 16(6), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060785 - 17 Jun 2025
Viewed by 664
Abstract
Religion played a pivotal role in shaping the political and cultural landscape of early China, particularly through the practice of relocating capitals (遷都). The relocation of capitals is an outstanding theme in early Chinese historiography, setting it apart from many other world traditions. [...] Read more.
Religion played a pivotal role in shaping the political and cultural landscape of early China, particularly through the practice of relocating capitals (遷都). The relocation of capitals is an outstanding theme in early Chinese historiography, setting it apart from many other world traditions. In particular, this practice contrasts sharply with the early Mediterranean context, where the city of Rome transitioned from a modest city-state to a world empire and was celebrated as the “eternal city.” By contrast, early Chinese capitals were deliberately transient, their impermanence rooted in strong religious sentiments and pragmatic considerations. Religious and ideological justifications were central to these relocations. The relocation was not merely a logistical or political exercise; it was imbued with symbolic meaning that reinforced the ruler’s legitimacy and divine mandate. Equally important was the way rulers communicated these decisions to the populace. The ability to garner mass support for such monumental undertakings reveals the intricate relationship between political authority and religious practice in early China. These critical moments of migration offer profound insights into the evolving religious landscape of early China, shedding light on how religion shaped early governance and public persuasion. “Capital relocation” served as a means to rearticulate belief, reaffirm the centrality of worship, and restore faith in the ruling order. Drawing on recent archeological discoveries and updated textual and inscriptional scholarship related to the events of Pan Geng and the Zhou relocation to Luoyi, this article re-examines the motif of “capital relocation” as both a historical and historiographical phenomenon unique to early China. Full article
16 pages, 1726 KiB  
Article
Renaissance Vienna Under the Ottoman Threat: Rethinking the Biblical Imagery of the City (1532–1559)
by Clarisse Roche
Religions 2025, 16(6), 784; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060784 - 17 Jun 2025
Viewed by 291
Abstract
The topos of Vienna as the “stronghold of Christendom” emerged soon after the 1529 unsuccessful siege by the Ottomans. The city’s new strategic status not only spurred the building of new urban fortifications, it also stimulated the production of a large variety of [...] Read more.
The topos of Vienna as the “stronghold of Christendom” emerged soon after the 1529 unsuccessful siege by the Ottomans. The city’s new strategic status not only spurred the building of new urban fortifications, it also stimulated the production of a large variety of printed texts and pictures that emphasized the necessity of Christian unity among divided Christians. In this context, this article aims to shed new light on the use of one Old Testament episode whose significance and polysemy has been largely overlooked for sixteenth-century Vienna: the attack of Jerusalem by the Assyrian King Sennacherib and his subsequent defeat through divine intervention under the city wall. Instrumental in defining a common spiritual approach to the fight, this Old Testament story can be considered a seminal basis for the paradigm of Vienna as a Jerusalem of unity and unanimity. To analyze the significance of this theme in Vienna, this article will first focus on its representation in Hanns Lautensack’s 1558/1559 famous cityscape before demonstrating that it originated from a far less known source: the 1532 sermons by the Bishop Johann Fabri. Full article
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22 pages, 262 KiB  
Article
Religion and Politics Among the Jewish Leadership of Early Medieval Palestine
by Tal Laufer
Religions 2025, 16(6), 783; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060783 - 16 Jun 2025
Viewed by 308
Abstract
This article investigates how the Jewish leadership in early medieval Palestine employed religious elements to consolidate its power among Jewish communities across the Muslim world. It suggests that the Palestinian Academy in Jerusalem leveraged its location to enhance its authority. The first section [...] Read more.
This article investigates how the Jewish leadership in early medieval Palestine employed religious elements to consolidate its power among Jewish communities across the Muslim world. It suggests that the Palestinian Academy in Jerusalem leveraged its location to enhance its authority. The first section analyzes the 921/922 calendar dispute between the Palestinian and Babylonian Jewish centers. I argue that this ostensibly religious conflict was fundamentally a political struggle for leadership, demonstrating how religious authority was utilized for political gain. The second section examines the Hoshana Rabbah ceremony on the Mount of Olives, a key event presided over by the Palestinian Academy and its head, the Gaon. Taking place on the final day of Sukkot, this ceremony attracted Jewish pilgrims from across the Muslim world to Jerusalem. This part analyzes how the Palestinian Academy strategically employed this significant religious gathering—acknowledged even by rival Jewish centers—as a political demonstration to assert its leadership over the Jewish world. Furthermore, the analysis delves into the ceremony’s historical origins, the motivations behind its establishment, and its deep connection to Jerusalem. Full article
29 pages, 278 KiB  
Communication
Post-Pandemic Realities: How Will Churches Staff for Ministry in the Future?
by Deborah L. Coe and Hale Inanoglu
Religions 2025, 16(6), 782; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060782 - 16 Jun 2025
Viewed by 227
Abstract
The Religious Workforce Project is a Lilly Endowment-funded effort to map the nation’s changing Christian religious landscape. A quantitative component identifies broad US trends, while our qualitative work focuses on Christian congregations in the Washington, DC metro area and surrounding counties, to understand [...] Read more.
The Religious Workforce Project is a Lilly Endowment-funded effort to map the nation’s changing Christian religious landscape. A quantitative component identifies broad US trends, while our qualitative work focuses on Christian congregations in the Washington, DC metro area and surrounding counties, to understand how congregations staff to fulfill their missions, and to learn how congregational leaders understand the nature of their ministry today. In 2019–2022, we conducted case studies in 40 congregations in a variety of Christian traditions and contexts. For our analysis, we used a framework based on three societal trends that have impacted congregations: long-term member loss in churches, a skewed distribution in church attendance in which most people attend large churches while most churches are small, and a pandemic-induced movement from brick-and-mortar spaces to online spaces. This analysis revealed the consequential impacts of these three trends on congregations and their leaders, and some of the essential skills needed for effective church operation during this “wilderness moment,” a liminal time in the life of the church. We see these impacts not only as responses to external pressures but also as signs of internal reimagining. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing effective strategies for church staffing and for preparing future congregational leaders that can adapt to the future needs of ministry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Trends in Congregational Engagement and Leadership)
22 pages, 993 KiB  
Article
Local Perspectives on Monastic Practices in the Jianghuai Region During the Mid-to-Late Tang Period: Ordination Altars, Social Networks, and the Cult of Sengqie 僧伽
by Yimin Liu
Religions 2025, 16(6), 781; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060781 - 16 Jun 2025
Viewed by 227
Abstract
The so-called “counterfeit monks and nuns” 僧尼偽濫 is regarded as an important reason for the “Huichang Persecution of Buddhism” 會昌滅佛, but it reflects the central views of the Tang Dynasty. When we delve into the local society of the Mid-to-Late Tang period, we [...] Read more.
The so-called “counterfeit monks and nuns” 僧尼偽濫 is regarded as an important reason for the “Huichang Persecution of Buddhism” 會昌滅佛, but it reflects the central views of the Tang Dynasty. When we delve into the local society of the Mid-to-Late Tang period, we find that they developed their own narrative logic. From the perspective of the imperial court, Li Deyu 李德裕 criticized Wang Zhixing 王智興 for establishing an ordination altar in Sizhou 泗州 for personal gain. However, in the biographical inscription of monk Mingyuan 明遠 in Sizhou, Wang Zhixing is portrayed as a key figure who collaborated with Mingyuan to ensure the survival of the Kaiyuan Monastery 開元寺, with the inauguration of the ordination altar 戒壇 serving as a necessary means to obtain financial resources. In fact, Mingyuan had previously undertaken a similar operation at the Lingju Monastery 靈居寺 in Liuhe County 六合縣, Yangzhou 揚州. The inscription of the Lingju Monastery Stele 大唐揚州六合縣靈居寺碑 reflects the cooperation between local monks and secular people at that time. During the process of rebuilding the monasteries, Mingyuan cleverly exploited the cult of the divine monk Sengqie 僧伽 within the Society of Jianghuai 江淮. The cult of Sengqie had become a national belief during the Mid-to-Late Tang period, and the existence of the Sengqie pagoda 僧伽塔 made the Kaiyuan Monastery in Sizhou uniquely significant. Later on, Youxuan 幽玄 also carried out similar initiatives by establishing an ordination altar for the restoration at the Baoli Monastery 寶曆寺 in Hongzhou 洪州. If we set aside the shadow of the overarching theme of the Huichang Persecution of Buddhism on the history of Buddhism during the Mid-to-Late Tang period, we may uncover a more vibrant picture of local Buddhism. Full article
17 pages, 16370 KiB  
Article
Sacred Space and Faith Expression: Centering on the Daoist Stelae of the Northern Dynasties
by Yuan Zhang
Religions 2025, 16(6), 780; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060780 - 16 Jun 2025
Viewed by 321
Abstract
This paper examines the Daoist stelae of the Northern Dynasties through the lens of Eliade’s religious theory, with particular focus on the transformation of profane objects into sacred ones and the transition of local believers from the profane to the sacred. Utilizing Eliade’s [...] Read more.
This paper examines the Daoist stelae of the Northern Dynasties through the lens of Eliade’s religious theory, with particular focus on the transformation of profane objects into sacred ones and the transition of local believers from the profane to the sacred. Utilizing Eliade’s notions of “symbol”, “myth”, and “sacred space”, this study investigates two critical dimensions of the Daoist stelae. First, it analyzes their visuality by closely examining the imagery and symbolic systems presented on the stelae—namely, the “mythical pattern” identified by Eliade—with particular attention to representations of the main deity, the Heavenly Palace, and the Xiwangmu Xianjing (Queen Mother of the West’s transcendent realm). Second, it addresses their materiality by reconstructing the invisible processes associated with the stelae, focusing on the formation of sacred space and the Daoist rituals enacted therein. Applying phenomenology of religion to Daoist stelae analysis helps compensate for the limitations of extant Daoist scriptures and official historical records. Full article
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22 pages, 6785 KiB  
Article
Space, Patronage, and Ritual Art: Steles in the Guyang Cave (Late 5th–Early 6th Century)
by Dongshan Zhang
Religions 2025, 16(6), 779; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060779 - 16 Jun 2025
Viewed by 305
Abstract
The Guyang Cave contains an extensive collection of late Northern Wei (late fifth to early sixth century) statue and stele combinations. While existing scholarship has recognized the exceptional nature of these statue–stele pairings, their systematic stylistic classification and contextual interpretation have yet to [...] Read more.
The Guyang Cave contains an extensive collection of late Northern Wei (late fifth to early sixth century) statue and stele combinations. While existing scholarship has recognized the exceptional nature of these statue–stele pairings, their systematic stylistic classification and contextual interpretation have yet to receive sustained scholarly attention. This investigation analyzes ten paradigmatic cases, organized into three distinct stylistic groups. The discussion subsequently focuses on four particularly representative examples that epitomize divergent approaches to stele implementation. These stylistic differentiations emerge as direct responses to specific spatial contingencies within the cave’s architecture. Instead of being merely decorative, these innovative configurations served as ritual instruments, amplifying patrons’ devotional objectives within the cave’s competitive environment. Ultimately, this study contributes to the theoretical discourse on “ritual art” by revealing how spatial negotiations between patrons manifested as a dynamic ritual process—one that both informed and was sustained by artistic creation in the Guyang Cave. More broadly, in the late Northern Wei period, artistic expression and ritual practice emerged as mutually constitutive elements in the dynamic formation of religious and cultural traditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)
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25 pages, 2655 KiB  
Article
Recasting Antiquarianism as Confucian Orthodoxy: Wang Zuo’s Expanded Essential Criteria of Antiquities and the Moral Reinscription of Material Culture in the Ming Dynasty
by Ziming Chen and Hanwei Wang
Religions 2025, 16(6), 778; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060778 - 15 Jun 2025
Viewed by 351
Abstract
This article examines Xinzeng Gegu yaolun 新增格古要論 (Expanded Essential Criteria of Antiquities), a connoisseurship manual compiled in 1460 by the mid-Ming official Wang Zuo 王佐. Drawing upon Cao Zhao’s 曹昭 early Ming Gegu yaolun 格古要論 (Essential Criteria of Antiquities), [...] Read more.
This article examines Xinzeng Gegu yaolun 新增格古要論 (Expanded Essential Criteria of Antiquities), a connoisseurship manual compiled in 1460 by the mid-Ming official Wang Zuo 王佐. Drawing upon Cao Zhao’s 曹昭 early Ming Gegu yaolun 格古要論 (Essential Criteria of Antiquities), Wang reconfigured a manual focused on authentication and appreciation into a text structured by Confucian values and political ethics. He added ritual-oriented entries in chapters four and ten through thirteen, such as “An Examination of Song Dynasty Attire and Rank Titles” 宋制服裝入銜考 and “An Inquiry into Gold and Silver Insignia” 佩金銀牌考, reinforcing Confucian ideology through commentary on ritual institutions and the inclusion of imperial edicts and commemorative inscriptions. He also reorganized the placement of guqin 古琴, calligraphy and painting, while redefining evaluative standards to integrate material objects into moral instruction and bureaucratic discipline. In doing so, Wang reinforced a shared community of scholar–officials, using ritual hierarchy, loyalist writings, and gift exchange to respond to the uncertainty of a fractured political order. This article argues that through a non-canonical text like Xinzeng Gegu yaolun, mid-Ming scholar–officials extended Confucian discourse into antiquities, transforming antiquarian writing into a visible enactment of ethical values and collective identity. Full article
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12 pages, 183 KiB  
Article
Second Sunday of Lent: One Example of Use of Bible in Celebration of Liturgy
by Paul Turner
Religions 2025, 16(6), 777; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060777 - 15 Jun 2025
Viewed by 234
Abstract
The liturgy of the Catholic Church adopts and reframes passages from Scripture in manifold ways. At times a passage is proclaimed or sung in the liturgy exactly as it appears in the Bible; at other times, a prayer or antiphon draws from one [...] Read more.
The liturgy of the Catholic Church adopts and reframes passages from Scripture in manifold ways. At times a passage is proclaimed or sung in the liturgy exactly as it appears in the Bible; at other times, a prayer or antiphon draws from one or more verses of the Scripture for inspiration. In order to demonstrate this twofold practice, this article presents a single example of a random day on the liturgical calendar, the Second Sunday of Lent. It will explore the uses of Scripture in the revised entrance and communion antiphons, the restoration of long-neglected ancient presidential prayers, the composition of a new collect and preface, the three-year cycle of readings, and the intersection of biblical references between the Roman Missal and the Liturgy of the Hours. By examining a single example, the reader will come to a deeper appreciation of the depth of the interplay between the Bible and liturgy on every day of the calendar. This article will cite the present and previous Roman Missals, the Roman Gradual, the context for the structure of the Lectionary for Mass on this day as the revisers conceived it, and unique features from the Liturgy of the Hours. It will also show how particular biblical references on one day reappear in other liturgical celebrations, expanding the reader’s appreciation of the specific application of biblical texts to a variety of liturgical events. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bible and Liturgy in Dialogue)
19 pages, 1927 KiB  
Article
The Thirteen Yamen and the Printing of the Yongle Nanzang in the Shunzhi Reign
by Xiaodan Chen and Liang Li
Religions 2025, 16(6), 776; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060776 - 14 Jun 2025
Viewed by 301
Abstract
In the 15th year of the Shunzhi reign (1658), Hengming Xingmei, the abbot of Guangji Monastery in Beijing, brought a letter issued by Zhang Jiamo, the Seal-holding official of the Personnel Department 司吏院掌印, to the Jiangning Weaving Bureau, requesting the printing of the [...] Read more.
In the 15th year of the Shunzhi reign (1658), Hengming Xingmei, the abbot of Guangji Monastery in Beijing, brought a letter issued by Zhang Jiamo, the Seal-holding official of the Personnel Department 司吏院掌印, to the Jiangning Weaving Bureau, requesting the printing of the Yongle Nanzang. Before Hengming’s departure, Guangji Monastery and the former Ming eunuchs in the Qing Palace, such as Ma Hualong and Cao Huachun, maintained close contact. Cao was recommended as a keeper of imperial brushes 秉筆, by the Personnel Department, a Yamen of the Thirteen Yamen 十三衙門. Hengming probably obtained the letter through the eunuchs’ connections. The chief of the Jiangning Weaving Bureau was dispatched from the Thirteen Yamen, and the content of the letter stated that the Thirteen Yamen handled its internal affairs. The Personnel Department managed the Yongle Nanzang, while the chief of the Jiangning Weaving Bureau hosted the actual printing. The Thirteen Yamen was deeply involved in the printing of the Yongle Nanzang. Combined with the fact that Wudenghuiyuan Zuanxu 五燈會元纘續 and Miyun Yuanwu Chanshi Yulu 密雲圓悟禪師語錄 were canonized into the Yongle Nanzang by imperial decree, the Yongle Nanzang was identified as one of the Imperial Buddhist Canons in the Shunzhi Reign. Therefore, the involvement of the Thirteen Yamen in the printing of the Yongle Nanzang implicitly embodied the imperial order. Full article
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24 pages, 448 KiB  
Article
Representation of Buddhist Monks in the Underworld from Early Medieval to Song Times
by Junqing Wu
Religions 2025, 16(6), 775; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060775 - 14 Jun 2025
Viewed by 341
Abstract
This essay explores themes in monk–underworld stories from the early medieval to Song periods, shedding light on evolving monastic–lay relations. These tales typically follow an individual who visits the afterlife and returns to share their experience. Monks frequently appear in these narratives, revealing [...] Read more.
This essay explores themes in monk–underworld stories from the early medieval to Song periods, shedding light on evolving monastic–lay relations. These tales typically follow an individual who visits the afterlife and returns to share their experience. Monks frequently appear in these narratives, revealing shifting perceptions of the clergy. In earlier stories, monks often serve as underworld guardians or bodhisattvas, but by the Song period they are more commonly depicted as recipients of punishment, often for neglecting their obligations to lay patrons. This shift suggests that Song society increasingly viewed monks through a commercial lens, expecting them to provide specific services. However, these underworld tales do not indicate a decline in respect for the clergy. A broader look at Song literature confirms that monks remained highly regarded, despite changing expectations of their role within society. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)
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